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FEEDS AND FEEDING 



A HANDBOOK FOR THE 
STUDENT AND STOCKMAN 



W^A; ; HENRY, D. Sc, D. Agr. 

EMERITUS PROFERSOR OF AGRICULTURE, 

AND FORMERLY DEAN OF COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 

AND DIRECTOR OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



F/B* JV 



AND 

3KRISON, B. S. 



ASSISTANT DIRECTOR 

OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 

AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, 

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



"The eye of the master fattens his cattle.'" 

— German Adage. 



FIFTEENTH EDITION 

Revised and Entirely Rewritten 



MADISON, WISCONSIN 
THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY 

1915 






Copyright, 1915 

BY 

THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY 



Translated into Portuguese by F. M. Draenert, Sao Paulo, 
Brazil, 1907. 

Translated into Russian under direction of Paul Dubrov- 
sky, editor of "Agriculture and Forestry," and published 
by the Imperial Department of Agriculture, for the use of 
agricultural schools and other institutions of the Depart- 
ment, St. Petersburg, 1912. 



Wjj? ILafetsttie ^rcsB 

R. R, DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY 
CHICAGO 

OCT 23 1 91 5 

©CI.A416355 



PREFACE 

Feeds and Feeding, first published in March, 1898, was received with 
immediate and widespread favor by practical stockmen, as well as by the 
professors and students of animal husbandry in our agricultural colleges 
and secondary schools. The plan of the book had been laid along original 
lines, and neither time, labor, nor expense was spared in its preparation. 
In 1910, after nine editions had come from the press, the book was entirely 
rewritten and improved in many ways. During the lapse of time since 
that date, the accumulation of new and important matter, both scientific 
and practical, has made another revision desirable. Accordingly, more 
than two years ago, the preparation of this, the second revision, was be- 
gun, Professor F. B. Morrison, who had so ably assisted with every page 
of the first revision, becoming joint author herein with the original author. 

With a corps of trained assistants he has devoted much time during the 
past two years to the preparation of this second revision. Previous to 
and during its writing he has visited numerous stock farms and ranches 
as well as the agricultural colleges and experiment stations of many states, 
so that now the combined observations and studies of the joint authors, 
along the lines of both theoretical and practical animal husbandry, cover 
quite intimately every state of the Union, as well as parts of Canada and 
the Old World! 

It has been the aim of the authors to give in Feeds and Feeding an 
unbiased and condensed presentation of the most important findings of 
the investigators of both the Old and New Worlds in the science of animal 
nutrition, together with the most important results of the vast number of 
feeding trials which have been conducted at the experiment stations in 
the United States and other countries, the whole being rounded out by 
the practical experiences of many of the leading stockmen of America. 
In a large number of instances, as the text shows, the data and results 
of important investigations, completed so recently at the experiment sta- 
tions as not yet to be in print, have been forwarded to the authors by 
those who were conducting them, in order that the findings might be sum- 
marized in this revision. 

In Part I the fundamental principles of animal nutrition are first 
briefly presented, including the most recent discoveries of the biological 
chemists. The various feeding standards for the different classes of farm 
animals are then fully discussed, and there is presented a new series of 
standards — "The Modified Wolff -Lehmann Standards," formulated by 
the authors, — which are based upon the recent findings of the scientists in 
this and other countries. To point out some of the economic principles 
which should be considered in the feeding of live stock, an entirely new 
chapter — "Economy in Feeding Live Stock" — has been added. 



iv PREFACE 

In Part II the many new feeding stuffs are given full consideration 
along with the old. Especial emphasis is placed upon the importance of 
combining the legume roughages with corn and the other cereals for the 
economical feeding of farm animals, and upon the great value of silage 
for the various classes of live stock. Finally the vital relation of animal 
husbandry to the economical maintenance of soil fertility, thru the return 
to the soil of the manurial residue of feeding stuffs, is emphasized. 

In Part III there are presented the most important findings obtained 
by the experiment stations, to date, on the value of the many different 
feeding stuffs for each class of live stock, and on the effect of various 
methods of preparing feed, systems of feeding and caring for stock, etc. 
Rather than simply giving the results of single typical trials on the 
various subjects, in most cases the data for all the similar trials on a 
given subject have been carefully compiled and averaged together. The 
feeder is thus given more trustworthy information in regard to the rela- 
tive value of the different feeding stuffs. The observant reader will discern 
that the results of the investigations, as set forth in this work, do not tend 
to render the great art of stock feeding complex and abstruse, but rather 
to simplify it greatly. In evidence of this, note the smaller allowances 
of expensive concentrates recommended in the rations for dairy cows and 
for fattening cattle when corn silage and the legume forages are rightly 
used to supply the roughage ; also that grinding and cooking feed is, for 
the most part, discouraged, in opposition to the theories and teachings of 
earlier times. Those who may be rather surprised that the ways marked 
out in this book are, after all, so simple and plain should remember that 
knowledge and wisdom are often kind in leading us along easy paths. 

Feeds and Feeding contains about one-third more matter than the 
former revision, due not only to the addition of 85 pages, but also to a 
larger type page, a change of type, and other devices for saving space. 
This expansion has been made chiefly in Parts II and III, so that teachers, 
students, and farmers in any section of the country may find in this 
volume information regarding all the feeds of any importance in that 
district. 

The sincere thanks of the authors are hereby extended to the hundreds 
of friends who by suggestions and reports of experiments and experiences 
have furnished invaluable assistance in innumerable ways — only by such 
help so generously given has the making of this book been possible. 
Acknowledgment is due Professor E. V. McCollum of the University of 
"Wisconsin for valuable suggestions in the revision of the first six chapters 
of the book ; to Messrs. F. R. Jones, G. Bohstedt, A. J. Dexter, and J. G. 
Poynton, and Miss Vivian Elver for help in compiling data ; and especi- 
ally to Mrs. Elsie Bullard-Morrison for invaluable assistance thruout the 
entire work of revision. 

W. A. Henry. 
Madison, Wisconsin, 
October, 1915 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction. Live Stock and Profitable Farming vn 

Part I. — Plant Growth and Animal Nutrition 
Chapter 

I. The Plant; How it Grows and Elaborates Food for Animals 1 

II. Composition of the Animal Body — Digestion — Metabolism 14 

III. Measuring the Usefulness of Feeds 36 

IV. Maintenance of Farm Animals 54 

V. Growth and Fattening 75 

VI. Production of Work, Milk, and Wool 100 

VII. Feeding Standards — Calculating Rations 109 

VIII. Economy in Feeding Live Stock 139 

Part II. — Feeding Stuffs 

IX. Leading Cereals and their By-products 149 

X. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds, and their By- 
products 166 

XI. Miscellaneous Concentrates — Feeding Stuffs Control — Condimental 

Foods 181 

XII. Indian Corn and the Sorghums for Forage 193 

XIII. The Smaller Grasses — Straw — Hay-making 204 

XIV. Leguminous Plants for Forage 223 

XV. Roots, Tubers, and Miscellaneous Forages 240 

XVI. Silage — Soilage — The Preparation of Feed 254 

XVII. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 272 

Part III. — Feeding Farm Animals 

XVIII. Factors Influencing the Work of the Horse 281 

XIX. Feeds for the Horse 299 

XX. Feeding and Caring for the Horse 320 

XXI. General Problems in Dairy Husbandry 338 

XXII. Feeds for the Dairy Cow 358 

XXIII. Records of Production of Dairy Cows — Feed Required by Cow and 

Cost of Producing Milk and Fat 387 

XXIV. Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow 398 

XXV. Raising Dairy Cattle 412 

XXVI. General Problems in Beef Production 430 

XXVII. Feeds for Fattening Cattle 449 

XXVIII. Raising Beef Cattle 484 

XXIX. Counsel in the Feed Lot 493 

XXX. General Problems in Sheep Husbandry 507 

XXXI. Feeds for Sheep 521 

v 



vi CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

XXXII. General Care of Sheep and Lambs — Fattening — Hot-house Lambs — 

Goats 548 

XXXIII. General Problems in Swine Husbandry 568 

XXXIV. Feeds for Swine 587 

XXXV. Feed and Care of Swine 624 

Appendix 

Table I. Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 633 

Table II. Digestibility of Feeding Stuffs 647 

Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs 653 

Table IV. The Wolff -Lehmann Feeding Standards 667 

Table V. The Modified Wolff -Lehmann Feeding Standards 669 

Table VI. The Mineral Constituents of Feeding Stuffs 672 

Table VII. The Weight of Various Concentrates per Quart 673 

Index 674 



INFORMATION TO THE READER 



When seeking information on any subject presented in this book, the 
reader should first consult the copious index, the figures of which refer 
to the page on which the topic is presented. Additional information bear- 
ing on the subject given at other places may be found by following up the 
numerous references set in black-face figures in parentheses, occurring in 
the body of the text. These figures refer to the numbered black-face side- 
heads, and not to the pages. 



INTRODUCTION 

LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING 

The animals of the farm should be regarded as living factories that are 
continuously converting their feed into products useful to man. A fact 
of great economic importance is that a large part of the food they con- 
sume is of such character that humans can not directly utilize it them- 
selves. Among the products yielded by the farm animals are not only 
articles of human diet, such as meat, milk, and eggs, but also such 
materials as wool, mohair, and hides, which are needed for clothing and 
other purposes. Another product of greater aggregate money value than 
any one of these is the work performed by horses and other draft animals. 
Altogether, the farm animals of the United States yield each year 
products worth over $5,000,000,000, a sum nearly as great as the value of 
all the crops annually harvested on our farms. 

As the population of our country becomes more dense, most naturally 
and properly a smaller portion of the crops raised will be fed to animals 
and a larger part consumed directly by humans. This change must come 
with the increased demand for human food, since even high-producing 
animals are able to convert only a part of the feed they eat into food for 
our consumption; Accordingly, with our increasing population, we 
should expect the census statistics to show that the number of animals 
on our farms was failing in some small degree to keep pace with the in- 
crease in people. The actual decrease in farm animals compared with 
population is, however, surprising. While the population of the United 
States increased 21 per ct. during the decade 1900 to 1910, the number of 
cattle and sheep decreased, and the number of swine increased but 
slightly. This indicates that if animal products are to hold their present 
important place in the diet of our people, American farmers must more 
thoroly appreciate the basic advantages of stock farming and better 
understand the principles and methods which are essential to its success. 

1. Live-stock farming and soil fertility. — Lured by the high prices 
which have ruled for grain and other crops in recent years, many farmers 
all over the country have sold their crops for cash, rather than following 
the wiser plan of marketing a portion thru the feeding of live stock, and 
thereby maintaining a balanced agriculture. Seldom have they realized 
that with every ton of grain thus sold they are removing from their farms 
$7 to $8 worth of fertility. The loss thru such mining of the soil is grad- 
ual, but in a comparatively few years there will result none the less surely 
worn-out fields, lacking in plant food and humus, which must ever after- 
wards be fed with fertilizers to secure fair crops. On the other hand, if 



viii FEEDS AND FEEDING 

a part of the crops are fed to live stock and proper care taken of the 
resulting manure, most of the fertility may be retained on the farm, and 
the need of commercial fertilizers long delayed. Under intensive stock 
farming, where more or less milling by-products rich in fertilizing con- 
stituents are usually purchased and fed on the farm, the land will even 
become richer and more productive year by year, with but little need for 
commercial fertilizers. 

When the great South comes into its own, cattle raising will balance 
cotton raising. Neither the cotton lint nor the oil obtained from the seed, 
which is a valuable human food, takes an appreciable amount of fertility 
from the soil. On the other hand, cottonseed meal is the highest in fer- 
tilizing value of all common plant products. Fortunately, it is at the 
same time the highest in feeding value for cattle of all our commonly 
available feeding stuffs. Therefore, by feeding the meal resulting from 
his cotton crop to live stock the southern farmer may bring back to his 
fields most of the fertility drawn out by the cotton plants in their growth. 
Thus he may reap a double profit. 

2. Consumption of feed otherwise wasted. — In exclusive grain farming 
there is no successful way of utilizing the large amount of roughage, such 
as straw and corn stover, which results as a by-product in the growing of 
the cash crops. Such materials are merely in the way and are disposed 
of in the easiest manner, often by burning, without regard for the loss of 
vegetable matter, so much needed by the soil. In a well-planned system 
of stock husbandry all these materials are utilized for feed or bedding. 
Much forage which can not be consumed by humans and would otherwise 
be wasted is thus refined thru the agency of animals and converted into 
a form suitable for the nourishment of man, while a large part of the 
organic matter is returned to the fields in the resulting manure. Im- 
mense amounts of by-products result from the manufacture of the cereals 
and other seeds into flour, breakfast foods, vegetable oils, etc. While 
unsuited for humans, some of these by-products are among our most 
valued feeds for stock. As the density of population increases and the 
prices of foodstuffs advance, the feed supplied our farm animals must to 
an ever increasing extent consist of substances resulting secondarily from 
the making of human food, whether they be coarse roughages or milling 
by-products. 

3. Utilization of land unsuited for tillage. — In some sections of our 
country much of the land is so rough or stony that it can not be cropped 
economically. Here cattle will gather the grass on the smoother stretches 
and sheep will search out the herbage on the more inaccessible, rocky 
slopes. Over great areas of the West there is too little rainfall to warrant 
even dry farming, and irrigation will never be possible, either because of 
lack of water or the roughness of the land. Yet stock will thrive on the 
scanty but highly nutritious grasses and other forage. Thru well- 
planned systems of grazing, with additional feed in time of winter storm 
or parching drought, the western ranges should, at no far distant date 



LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING 



IX 



carry even more stock than they did before large areas were broken up 
into farms. In the cut-over districts of our country large areas of land 
may be profitably grazed by live stock before they are finally brought 
under tillage. 

4. Distribution of labor. — Under exclusive grain farming the chief de- 
mand for labor is confined to the periods of preparing the land, planting 
the crops, harvesting, and later marketing the products. During the rush 
seasons labor is high-priced, and often hard to secure at any cost. On the 
other hand, live-stock farming offers employment thruout the entire year. 
Winter, when little other farm work can be done, is the very season when 
farm animals require the most care and attention, for they are then 
usually housed instead of at pasture. Because the live-stock farmer can 
thus offer steady employment he is usually able to secure men who are 
both more efficient and more reliable than he would otherwise be able 
to obtain. 

5. Intelligent and progressive agriculture. — The whole world over, the 
most enlightened and progressive agricultural districts are found where 
live stock provides one of the chief sources of income. This is due to 
several reasons : The live-stock farmer can not live from hand to mouth, 
but must providently lay in a store of feed for his animals thruout the 
winter months. This same care and foresight is then carried into his 
other activities. Under some systems of agriculture the returns from the 
year's crops all come in at once, which makes for extravagance and idle- 
ness, with resultant poverty until another crop is harvested. On the 
other hand, under most systems of live-stock farming, income is secured 
several times during the year. 

The care and control of domestic animals, which are intelligent yet 
submissive to his will, tends to develop the best instincts in man and make 
him kindly, self-reliant, and trustworthy. The good stockman grows 
proud of his sleek, well-bred animals and derives a satisfaction therefrom 
not measured in money. With pride he may hand down to his sons his 
reputation as a breeder. He is also able to leave them fertile fields which 
he has built up rather than robbed, a heritage bequeathed by but few 
grain farmers. 

6. Profitable live-stock fanning. — In the early days, with land low in 
price, pasturage abundant, and feed and labor cheap, making a profit 
from live-stock farming was comparatively easy, even tho one possessed 
little knowledge of the principles governing the feeding and care of stock. 
Conditions have now changed. The great western prairies no longer 
offer rich fields free for the taking, and hence thruout the country fertile 
land has advanced in price. No less marked has been the increase in the 
cost of labor and of feeding stuffs. But the price of live-stock products 
has also advanced, so that satisfactory profits may still be realized from 
farm animals. However, present conditions call for a more intelligent 
type of stock farming than has ruled in the past. Good profits are 
possible only when all the operations are planned intelligently and with 



x FEEDS AND FEEDING 

good judgment, and there is a thoro appreciation of the requirements of 
the various classes of animals for food and care. 

In the pioneer days of our country the feeds commonly used for live 
stock were restricted to the grains and forages grown on the farm. 
Knowledge of the value of these farm-grown products is not now sufficient 
for intelligent feeding. The problem is complicated by the host of by- 
products resulting from the manufacture of articles of human food which 
are offered on the markets as feeding-stuffs for stock. Many of these are 
valuable and economical supplements to the feeds raised on the farm. 
However, such products vary considerably in price and even more 
markedly in nutritive value. Most economical feeding is therefore 
possible only when the relative value of these different products com- 
pared with each other and with the farm-grown crops is clearly under- 
stood. In seeking a knowledge of feeds and of feeding we must first 
consider the plant substances which provide the nourishment for farm 
animals and study the manner in which these compounds are built up in 
the living plant. Next we should learn how the food consumed by 
animals is digested and utilized within the body for the production of 
meat, milk, work, or wool, and should also study the requirements of each 
class of animals for food, water, shelter, and exercise. Only then are we 
in some measure in a position to understand the value and merits for 
each of the farm animals of the many different feeds, and finally to con- 
sider the principles of care and management, the constant observance of 
which is essential to the highest success in animal husbandry. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Part I 
PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION 



CHAPTER I 

THE PLANT; HOW IT GROWS AND ELABORATES FOOD 

FOR ANIMALS 

I. Plant Growth 

Aside from air, water, and salt, plants either directly or indirectly 
supply all food for animals. It is therefore proper in beginning these 
studies to consider briefly how plants grow and elaborate this food. 

7. The food of plants. — Of the 80 or more elements known to the chem- 
ist, only 14 are commonly present in plants, viz. : carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, 
iron, sodium, silicon, chlorin, and manganese. Iodine also is present in 
some plants. With the limited exceptions noted further on, plants can- 
not make use of the elements, as such, for food, but are nourished and 
supported by water, carbon dioxid (carbonic acid gas), and mineral salts 
which contain the elements in chemical combination. 

Water is the largest single component of plants, that not held in chemi- 
cal combination constituting from 75 to 90 per ct. of their fresh weight. 
The plant obtains practically all its water from the soil thru its roots, 
only a small amount being taken from the air by the leaves. Soil water, 
absorbed by the roots, enters the cells of which the plant is composed and 
passes onward and upward thru the stem, moved by capillarity and sap 
currents, eventually reaching every portion of the structure, being es- 
pecially abundant in the leaves and growing parts. Thruout its existence 
the plant takes great quantities of water from the soil, giving most of it 
off again to the air thru its leaves and other green parts. For every 
pound of dry matter which plants produce they take from the soil thru 
their roots from 200 to 500 lbs. of water in humid climates, and as high 
as 1,800 lbs. in arid regions. 

Next to water, carbon dioxid or carbonic acid gas is the great food 
material of plants. Ten thousand parts of air contain 3 to 4 parts by 
volume of carbon dioxid, and about 28 tons of this gas rests over each 

1 



2 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

acre of the earth's surface. The supply of carbon dioxid is never ex- 
hausted from the air, because thru the decay and dissolution of plant 
and animal matter it is being constantly returned thereto. On the under 
surface of plant leaves are innumerable minute openings, or pores, lead- 
ing inward among the cells of the leaf structure. The air, penetrating 
these pores, supplies carbon dioxid, which is absorbed into the cells and 
thus enters the plant proper. In the production of a 15-ton crop of green 
corn over 5 tons of carbon dioxid are required, to obtain which the plants 
must take in over 12,000 tons of air. 

Nitrogen abounds in the living, growing, parts of plants. Despite the 
fact that about three-fourths of the air is nitrogen gas, with the exception 
noted farther on plants cannot take it up as such, but obtain their supply 
from the soil by means of their roots, either in the form of nitrates or as 
ammonia, chiefly the former. 

Plants obtain oxygen, which is a part of all plant compounds, largely 
from water and carbon dioxid, and not from the free oxygen gas of the 
air. Some free oxygen is necessary, however, for the growth of green 
plants. 

The mineral substances required by plants are taken from the soil thru 
the roots. They may be grouped as follows : 

Sulfates 

Phosphates 

Nitrates 

Chlorids 

Silicates 

Carbonates 

Sulfur, in small amount, is a component of plant proteins. Phos- 
phorus, likewise in small amount, is present in the life-holding proto- 
plasmic protein of the leaf cells and also abounds in the protein of seeds. 
Potassium is necessary in the formation of starch and sugar by plants. 
Magnesium is an essential part of chlorophyll, the green coloring matter 
of plants, which is necessary for their growth. Calcium is vital to plants, 
tho its use is not well understood. Sodium, silicon, chlorin, and man- 
ganese, tho commonly present, are regarded by some authorities as not 
essential to plant life. 

Free oxygen gas is absorbed by seeds during germination, and a small 
amount is being constantly absorbed by the leaves and fruits of plants. 
Bacteria inhabiting nodular growths on the roots of leguminous plants, 
such as clover, alfalfa, and peas, take nitrogen gas from the air and pass 
it on in combined form to the host plant, thus indirectly supplying this 
important element. "With these exceptions, the elements, as such, are 
never used in uncombined form by plants, but serve them only when in 
chemical combination. 

8. Plant building. — Living matter is distinguished from non-living 
matter by its power to grow, to repair its own waste, and to reproduce 



of 



potassium 

calcium 

magnesium 

iron 

sodium 

ammonium 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 3 

itself. In plants the life principle is most in evidence in the transparent, 
viscous protoplasm found within the plant cells. Because of inherent 
differences in the protoplasm, each plant possesses an individuality and 
is able to grow and reproduce itself after its own manner. 

The interior of the plant is everywhere bathed with juice or sap, which 
is the great fluid medium for conveying the chemical compounds, 
gathered by leaf and root, to the place where they are formed into or- 
ganized plant substances or building materials proper, and, later, for 
transporting the materials thus formed to all parts where needed. By 
means of this sap, the green-colored protoplasm in the leaf cells is sup- 
plied with carbon dioxid taken from the air by the leaves, with water, 
and with nitrates and other soluble mineral salts taken by the roots from 
the soil. 

In some mysterious manner chlorophyll, the sensitive green coloring 
matter of plants, is able, under the influence of light, to decompose car- 
bon dioxid and water and rearrange their atoms to form primary plant 
compounds. The excess of oxygen resulting from this union of carbon 
dioxid and water is given back to the air as a free gas. It is not definitely 
known whether the first product formed is starch, sugar, or some simpler 
compound. From the compounds first formed the plant builds up its 
more complex substances, some of which contain mineral matter taken 
from the soil as salts. Sugar and starch contain much energy which may 
be set free as heat when these substances are burned or otherwise broken 
up. Carbon dioxid and water, on the other hand, have little internal 
energy, and so on being decomposed do not liberate heat. Energy must 
therefore be supplied whenever sugar and starch are formed out of the 
elements contained in these two energy-poor substances. This energy, 
used by the active life-holding protoplasm in building carbon dioxid and 
water into energy-holding sugar and starch, comes from the sun, as light. 

9. The carbohydrates. — Sugar and starch are the great common elemen- 
tary structural substances of plants. With the related products, the 
celluloses and pentosans, they constitute the major portion of all dry 
plant substance. They are grouped under the term carbohydrates, mean- 
ing formed of carbon and the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the 
proportion existing in water, the chemical formula for which is H 2 0. 
The molecular composition of the leading carbohydrates is shown in the 
following formulae : 

Glucose ) 

Fruit sugar ) 6 12 6 

Cane sugar ] 

Malt sugar \ ^"^^ 

Starch ] ^ 

Cellulose \ (Wti 10 O 5 )x 

Pentosan (C 5 H 8 OJx 

Pentose C 5 H 10 O 5 



4 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Chemists hold that the molecules in the bracketed groups are in reality 
far more complex than the formulae indicate, the actual molecule being 
many multiples of the group here given. The formulae not bracketed are 
held to express the actual atomic composition of the molecule. 

All sugars — cane sugar, glucose, malt sugar, fruit sugar, etc. — are 
soluble in the juices of the plant and constitute the common, portable 
carbohydrate building material of plants, capable, by diffusion and sap 
currents, of passing to all parts of the structure as needed. Some plants, 
the beet and the sugar cane for example, store their carbon reserve as 
sugar. Starch, however, is the common intermediate carbohydrate re- 
serve of the plant world. It is insoluble in the juices of the plant and so 
cannot be directly transported as can the sugars. Starch abounds in 
most seeds, closely packed about the germs, as in the kernels of wheat, 
Indian corn, etc. Often it is stored in the underground parts of plants, 
as in potato tubers. When the starch thus stored is needed in other parts 
of the plant, it is changed by an enzyme, or ferment, called diastase (37) , 
thru the adding on of water, to malt sugar, which is soluble and can be 
further changed to glucose by the adding on of more water. The sugars 
so formed can then be passed from cell to cell until their destination is 
reached, where they may be again changed to starch, pentosans, or cellu- 
lose, as required. 

Plants are primarily composed of minute cells, variously grouped and 
modified, the walls of these cells being formed of cellulose, a carbohy- 
drate. Cellulose is the great insoluble building substance of the vegetable 
world, constituting as it does almost the whole of the skeleton or frame- 
work of plants. As before shown, cellulose is similar to starch and sugar 
in general composition and originates from them. In the dense wood of 
trees the cell walls are thick, in some cases nearly filling the entire cell. 
In the more tender twigs and leaves they are less dense, while in the still 
softer portions, such as fruits and seeds, they are thin and delicate. More 
or less mineral matter or ash is built into the cell walls of plants, being 
especially abundant in the bark of trees, as is shown by the residue when 
such material is burned. 

The pentoses and pentosans are carbohydrates with 5 atoms of carbon 
in the molecule, in place of 6 as in the sugars and starches. The pentoses 
correspond to sugars, and the pentosans to starches and cellulose. The 
pentosans, which are usually associated with cellulose in the more woody 
portions of the plant, form a considerable part of the nitrogen-free ex- 
tract of roughages and other feeds high in fiber. For example, hay from 
the grasses and the straw of the cereal grains usually contain over 20 
per ct. of pentosans, and wheat bran about 24 per ct., while corn grain 
contains less than 6 per ct. 

10. Vegetable fats and oils. — In some cases the plant stores carbon in 
the form of fat, which is solid at ordinary temperatures, or of oil, which 
is liquid. Such storage is entirely possible since fats and oils are formed 
from the same elements that exist in the carbohydrates. In vegetable 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 5 

fats and oils the molecules are composed of a larger number of atoms 
than are those of the sugars, and the proportion of carbon is greater, as 
the following formulae of 3 common vegetable oils or fats show : 

Stearin C B7 H 110 O e 
Palmitin C r)1 II (|8 ( . 
Olein C B7 H 104 O 6 

Vegetable oils and fats give off more heat on burning than do the car- 
bohydrates, because they contain relatively more carbon. Oils and fats 
most abound in the seeds of plants and represent carbon energy stored 
in condensed form. When seeds containing oil, such as the flax seed, 
begin to grow, the oil is changed over into products which nourish the 
growing plantlet the same as is done in ordinary seeds by the sugar which 
is formed from the stored starch. 

11. Nitrogenous compounds. — We have learned how in the life-holding 
protoplasm of the green parts of plants, especially their leaves, the 
carbohydrates and fats are formed from the elements of carbon dioxid 
and water by the energy of the sun. To these life centers, with their 
green coloring matter, holding sugar and starch, the sap brings nitrates 
and other mineral salts gathered by the roots from the soil. Thru the 
union of the elements of the nitrates and other salts with those of the 
starches and sugars there is formed a new group of complex compounds 
called crude proteins, which, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, found in the carbohydrates, contain nitrogen, sulfur, and some- 
times phosphorus. The nitrogenous compounds are the most complex of 
all plant substances. Osborne of the Connecticut Station gives the fol- 
lowing as the probable molecular composition of legumin, a protein found 
in the seed of the field pea, and hordein, found in the barley grain : 

Legumin C 718 H 1158 238 N 214 S 2 
Hordein C (i75 H 1014 O 104 N 181 S 4 

Because of their great variety and complexity, the nitrogenous com- 
pounds are the most difficult of all plant substances for study and classi- 
fication. For years able organic chemists have been attacking the 
intricate problems of their structure and composition with great energy 
and patience. Although their work has greatly advanced our knowledge, 
yet little more than a beginning has been made in setting forth the 
differences in the composition of the various nitrogenous or protein com- 
pounds, and in pointing out their relative values as nutrients for animals. 
In discussions of feeding stuffs and the nutrition of animals, the terms 
crude protein, protein, and amids are commonly used for designating the 
various classes of nitrogenous compounds. 

Crude protein is the term employed to designate all the nitrogenous 
compounds of the plant. The chemist finds that about 16 per ct. of the 
plant proteins is nitrogen. Accordingly, he multiplies the nitrogen 
found in a given plant substance by 6.25 (100-=-16=6.25) and calls the 



6 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

product crude protein. Crude protein embraces 2 great groups of 
nitrogenous plant compounds, proteins and amids. 

The amids may be termed the building stones of the proteins, for from 
them the plant constructs the more highly organized proteins, and on 
decomposition the proteins are again broken down into these more simple 
bodies. These compounds are the portable building compounds of the 
plant, for they are soluble in its juices and hence may he conveyed 
wherever needed thruout the plant structure. Commonly included under 
the general term amids are compounds which the chemist calls amino 
aci<ls, and others which he terms true amids. In this work, unless other- 
wise staled, amids will be used to denote both classes of substances. 

Proteins are the more highly organized forms of crude protein. They 
are not always soluble .and therefore in many eases not transportable in 
the juices of I he plant. The proteins form the basis of the living pro- 
toplasm of all plants and animals, and so are essential to all life. 

The complexity of the proteins is evident from the fact that 18 differ- 
ent amino acids have already been identified, which may enter into their 
composition. Just as the letters of the alphabet may be combined into 
innumerable words, so the possibility for the combination of the amino 
acids into different proteins is almost limitless. Thus far scores of differ- 
ent plant and animal proteins have been separated and examined by the 
chemists. Some of these, such as oixa: albumen, contain all the known 
amino acids, while others, as zein of corn and gliadin of wheat, lack one 
or more of them. As will be shown later, such incomplete proteins may 
have a lower value for animal feeding than those which are complete in 
their composition. 

During the period of the plant's life when active growth is taking 
place, amids are constantly being formed in the living protoplasm out of 
the nitrates and other mineral salts and the elements composing sugar or 
starch. These amids are continually being transported to needed points 
and there changed into the proteins, and as a consequence do not usually 
accumulate in the plant, dust as starch and sugar may be changed one 
into the other in the plant, so the proteins and amids may be changed one 
into the other as plant necessity may require. When germination starts 
in a seed, an enzyme, or ferment, contained therein acts upon the insolu- 
ble proteins stored in and about the germ and changes them to soluble 
amids, so that the nitrogen may be transported to the newly forming 
parts of the plantlet. When corn forage is placed in the silo, much of 
the protein it then contains is changed back to amids thru the fermenta- 
tions which occur. 

Very little crude protein is found in the older woody parts of plants, 
the greater portion always being concentrated at the point of growth; 
i.e., in the leaves, seeds, and reproductive parts. The germ of seeds is 
largely protein, and the rich nutritive substances in the grain close about 
it usually hold much protein. It is in the life-holding protoplasm in the 
green parts of plants, principally in their leaves, that all the inorganic 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 7 

compounds taken up by the plant Erora air and soil are elaborated into 
true plant substances by sun power. The life processes of the plant are 
maintained and all changes are wrought thru its nitrogenous or protein 
compounds, .- 1 1 m I a knowledge of such Eact is not only of interest, but lias 
many practical bearings Eorthe farmer and stockman. 

12. Mineral compounds. — The elaboration of food materials in the pro- 
toplasmic masses, as well ;is the development of young plants from the 

seed, requires the presence of mineral matter, or ash, which is round in 
small amount everywhere thruout the plant. The leaves contain more 
ash than do the other parts, due to the life processes within the leal' cells 
and the constant evaporation of water Erora their surfaces by which the 
ash in solution is left behind. The ash content of the hark of trees and 
Stems ol' plaids is also usually high. 

13. The end of plant efFort. 1 1" we study the life history of a plant, we 
observe that iis first effort is toward self-establishment and enlargement. 

At I his time all the elaborated material, as East as Eormed, is transferred 

to the growing parts that they may be built up and established. As the 
plant approaches maturity, its energies are changed from growth to re 
production, or the perpetuation of its kind. The nutrients in the juices, 
which were formerly directed to the growing portions, are now turned 
toward the reproductive parts. First come the blossoms, then the young 
enlarging Emits. Cnto these the sugars, amids, and mineral substances, 

all elaborated and worked over by the plant in its leaves, are poured in a 

steady current. The wheat plant resulting from a single kernel hears a 

hundred I'ruils in the shape of seed grains, while the Indian corn plant 

may produce a thousand-fold. In each of these grains is a miniature 

plant, the germ, composed largely Of protein, about which is stored a 
generous supply of rich niilrimenf proteins, starch, sugar, oil, and 

mineral matter — all in compact, concentrated form, awaiting the time 
when the germ shall begin life on its own account. In the tuber of the 
potato the cells are packed with starch, while in the beet root the stored 
material is largely in the form of cane sugar. Each germ, or reproduc- 
tive part, is surrounded with food nutrients stored after Nature's 

choicest plan lo aid the new life which is to follow. 

14. Plants support animal life. — Nature has decreed that it is the tunc 
tion of plants to build inorganic matter taken from earth and air into 
Organic compounds, by which operation the sun energy employed becomes 
latent. Thru the life processes the various plant compounds used as Eood 
by animals are, after more or less change, built into the animal body, or 
are broken down within it to give heat and energy. In this change and 
dissolution the sun energy which became latent or was hidden in the 
growing plant is again revealed in all the manifestations of animal life. 
In the coal burning in the grate we observe the reappearance of the 
energy of the sun which was stored in the plants of ages ago. In the 
stalks and ears of corn which we feed our cattle we are furnishing energy 
received from the sun and rendered latent by the corn plant during the 



s 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



previous summer. Thus it is that the stockman, when supplying plants 
and seeds to the animals under his care, observes in their growing bodies, 
warmed by internal fires, the energy of the sun transmitted by the plant 
to the animal. To the plants of the farm the stockman turns for the 
nourishment and support of his animals. The final step is the consump- 
tion of the flesh or milk of the animals by man, whereby sun energy 
finally becomes human energy. A general knowledge and full realization 
of how plants live and grow is therefore not only of interest, but also may 
be helpful in a thousand ways. 

II. How the Chemist Groups Plant Substances 

In the following table, taken from Appendix Table I, the composition 
of a few common feeding stuffs is arranged after the manner adopted by 
agricultural chemists. The first column gives the name of the feeding 
stuff, followed by others showing the average per cent of the several 
nutrients which the feed contains. Last is a column giving the number 
of analyses from which the average composition was computed. 



Chemical composition 


of typical feeding st r 


iffs, from Appendix Table I 




Inorganic matter 




Organic 


matter 






Feeding stuff 


Crude 
protein 


Carboh 


ydrates 


Fat 


No. of 


Water 


Ash 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


analyses 


Concentrates 

Dent corn 


Per ct. 

10.5 

9.2 

10.2 

10.1 

9.2 

9.1 

11.6 

12.9 
11.5 

68.4 

73.7 
90.6 


Per ct. 
1.5 

3.5 
1.9 
6.3 
4.3 

5.4 

4.9 
7.1 
5.4 

2.8 

1.7 
1.0 


Per ct. 

10.1 
12.4 
12.4 
16.0 
22.6 

33.9 

6.2 

12.8 

3.6 

4.1 

2.1 
1.4 


Per ct. 

2.0 
10.9 
2.2 
9.5 
7.1 

8.4 

29.9 
25.5 
36.3 

8.7 

6.3 
0.8 


Per ct. 

70.9 
59.6 
71.2 
53.7 
23.2 

35.7 

45.0 

38.7 
40.8 

14.8 

15.4 
6.1 


Per ct. 

5.0 
4.4 
2.1 
4.4 
33.7 

7.5 

2.5 
3.1 

2.4 

1.2 

0.8 
0.1 


440 


Oats 


490 


Wheat 


858 


Wheat bran 


7,742 


Flax seed 


50 


Linseed meal, old 
process 


714 


Roughages 

Timothy hay 


221 


Red clover hay 

Oat straw 


76 
41 


Kentucky bluegrass, 
green 


32 


Corn silage, recent 
analyses 


121 


Mangels 


38 







15. Water. — To determine the amount of water in a fodder the chemist 
places a small quantity of the material, finely divided, in a dish and as- 
certains its weight. It is then dried in an oven at a temperature of 212° 
F. for several hours and again weighed. The difference between the first 
and last weights represents the amount of water in the sample. Volatile 
compounds, such as some of the substances which give various plants 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 9 

their characteristic odors, are also driven off by this heating, but the 
weight of such compounds is generally insignificant. From the second 
column of the table we learn that even such "dry" feeds as corn, oats, 
wheat, and wheat bran contain 9 lbs. or more of water per 100 lbs. of the 
feeding stuff. Timothy and clover hay contain still more water, and 
such succulent feeds as pasture grass, corn silage, and mangels are 
largely water. 

16. Ash, or mineral matter. — The chemist next burns the sample and 
ascertains the weight of ash, or mineral matter, which is left. From the 
third column of the table we learn that 100 lbs. of corn or wheat con- 
tains less than 2 lbs. of ash. Oats, with their strawy hulls, and wheat 
bran, consisting of the outer coats of the wheat grain, carry more ash. 
The hays and straws are higher in ash than such grains as corn or wheat, 
due to the accumulation of mineral matter in the leaves during growth, 
to earthy matter washed upon the growing plants by rain, and to dust 
settling on the roughage before it is housed. Such foreign material is not 
really plant ash, but of necessity is reported as such. Owing to their 
high water content, the ash in 100 lbs. of fresh grass, silage, and mangels 
is low. The ash and water of plants together constitute the so-called 
inorganic matter; the other components — crude protein, carbohydrates, 
and fat — are termed the organic matter. 

17. Crude protein. — The process of determining the nitrogenous con- 
stituents of feeding stuffs is too complicated for presentation here. 
Suffice it to say that the nitrogen content is found, and the result multi- 
plied by 6.25 to give the crude protein, since about 16 per ct. of plant 
protein is nitrogen (100-=-l 6=6.25). From the table we learn that 100 
lbs. of wheat bran contains 16.0 lbs. of crude protein, while the amount 
in wheat is 12.4 lbs. and in dent corn only 10.1 lbs. per 100 lbs. Red 
clover hay contains over twice as much crude protein as timothy hay. 

18. Fiber. — The woody portion of a feeding stuff is determined by 
boiling a sample thereof successively in weak acid and alkali and wash- 
ing out the dissolved matter. That which remains is termed fiber. As 
is shown later (48), fiber, which consists mostly of cellulose, is less diges- 
tible and hence has a lower nutritive value than the other nutrients of 
feeding stuffs. Corn contains but 2.0 and wheat only 2.2 per ct. of fiber, 
while, owing to the woody hulls, oats contains 10.9 per ct. Most rough- 
ages, especially the straws, are much higher in fiber than the concentrates. 
Mangels contain but 0.8 per ct. fiber ; were they dried to the same water 
content as oats they would contain only 7.7 per ct. fiber — less than oats. 

19. Fat. — A sample of the pulverized dried fodder is treated with 
ether, which dissolves the fats, waxes, resins, chlorophyll, or green color- 
ing matter, and similar substances. This, called ether extract in works 
on plant analysis, is for convenience termed fat in this work. The ether 
extract of seeds is nearly all true fat, or oil, while that of the leaves and 
stems of plants contains much chlorophyll, wax, etc. Corn and oats carry 
more fat than the other cereals. Some seeds, such as flax seed, are so 



10 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

rich in oil that it may be extracted from them by crushing and subsequent 
pressure. 

20. Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, expressed in the 
tables in this book as N-free extract, embraces the substances that are ex- 
tracted from the dry matter of plants by treatment with weak acids and 
alkalies under standard conditions, less the crude protein, fat, and ash. 
It is determined by difference and not by direct analysis. The total dry 
matter in a feeding stuff minus the sum of the ash, crude protein, fiber, 
and fat, equals the nitrogen-free extract. It embraces the sugars, 
starches, pentoses, non-nitrogenous organic acids, etc., of the plant. The 
nitrogen-free extract is more soluble and hence more digestible than the 
fiber, and thus has a higher nutritive value. (48) Over 70 per ct. of both 
corn and wheat is nitrogen-free extract, largely starch. The roughages, 
carrying much woody fiber, contain less of these more soluble carbohy- 
drates than the concentrates. 

21. Carbohydrates. — The nitrogen-free extract and fiber together 
constitute the carbohydrates. 

By the present method all plant substances are grouped under the 
terms crude protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat, without regard 
to the differences in composition and feeding value of the different in- 
dividual proteins, carbohydrates, and fats which make up these classes. 
In many particulars this is unsatisfactory. In time chemists will work 
out a more accurate, tho necessarily more complicated, classification, bat 
at present for the great majority of feeds there is nothing better than 
what is here given. 

22. Roughages and concentrates. — In discussing feeding stuffs it is 
desirable to differentiate between those which are of coarse, bulky nature 
and others which are more condensed and more nutritious. Accordingly, 
the terms "concentrate" and "roughage" employed in the first edition 
of this book are retained, since they are now widely recognized and used. 

Concentrates are feeding stuffs of condensed nature, which are low in 
fiber and hence furnish a large amount of digestible matter. Examples 
of this class of feeds are the various grains, as Indian corn, wheat, and 
oats, and milling by-products of high feeding value, as wheat bran, lin- 
seed meal, gluten feed, etc. 

Roughages are the coarser feeding stuffs, which are high in fiber and 
supply a lower percentage of digestible matter. Such feeds as hay, 
corn fodder, straw, and silage belong to this class. Some of the low-grade 
milling by-products, such as oat hulls, ground corncobs, and peanut 
hulls are roughages, rather than concentrates, for they are largely fiber 
and furnish but little nutriment. Roots are watery and bulky, and 
contain relatively little nutriment per pound, yet based on the composi- 
tion of the dry substance they are more like concentrates than roughages, 
as they are low in fiber. They are really watery, or diluted, concentrates, 
tho for convenience they are included under fresh green roughages in 
Appendix Table I. 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 



11 



III. The Study op an Acre of Corn 

The great basic facts in plant life, briefly set forth in the preceding 
pages, are admirably illustrated by a study of Indian corn, the greatest 
of our agricultural plants, such as has been made by Ladd at the New- 
York (Geneva) Station 1 and Jones at the Indiana Station 2 . 

23. Changes in a growing corn crop.— Analyzing the plants at various 
stages from July 24, when they were about 4 feet high, until Oct. 8, when 
the kernels were hard, Jones secured the following data, based on an 
average stand of 10,000 stalks per acre : 

Composition of an acre of Indian corn at different stages 



Stage of growth 


Total wt. 

of green 

crop 


Dry 

matter 
in crop 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


Fat 


Four feet high, July 2J+. . . . 

First tassels, Aug. 6 

Silks drying, Aug. 28 
Corn and cob 


Lbs. 

5,138 

18,827 

4,839 
19,488 


Lbs. 
731 

2,245 

755 

3,812 


Lbs. 

90 
195 

24 
248 


Lbs. 

149 
360 

102 
334 


Lbs. 
170 

670 

147 
1,056 


Lbs. 

282 
977 

473 
2,133 


Lbs. 
40 
42 

9 

40 


Stalk, blade, etc 


Total 


24,327 

7,288 
19,422 


4,567 

2,268 
3,906 


272 

50 

278 


436 

252 

292 


1,203 

263 
1,098 


2,606 

1,648 
2,198 


49 

55 

40 


Milk stage, Sept. 10 

Corn and cob 


Stalk, blade, etc 


Total 


26,710 

8,620 
17,130 


6,174 

3,866 

4,238 


328 

66 
323 


544 

346 
220 


1,361 

312 
1,211 


3,846 

2,985 
2,440 


95 

158 

44 


Glazing stage, Sept. 24 
Corn and cob 


Stalk, blade, etc 


Total 


25,750 

9,292 
15,983 


8,104 

4,625 
4,304 


389 

72 
297 


566 

450 
210 


1,523 

324 

1,278 


5,425 

3,600 

2,484 


202 
179 


Silage stage, Oct. 1 

Corn and cob 


Stalk, blade, etc 


36 


Total 

Ready to shock, Oct. 8 
Corn and cob 


25,275 

9,259 
12,994 


8,929 

5,186 
4,226 


369 

76 
307 


660 

492 
199 


1,602 

368 
1,369 


6,084 

4,027 
2,309 


215 
223 


Stalk, blade, etc 


42 


Total 


22,253 


9,412 


383 


691 


1,737 


6,336 


265 



From July 24, at a stage when sometimes fed as soilage, to Aug. 28, 
when the silks w r ere drying, the crop increased over 19,000 lbs. in total 
weight and nearly 4,000 lbs. in dry matter. The increase in total weight 
was thereafter less rapid, reaching the maximum when the kernels were 
in the milk stage. After this the gross weight decreased by over 4,000 lbs., 
due to drying out as it matured. The dry matter, however, continued to 
increase rapidly until the plants were fully ripe. Indeed in less than a 
month following Aug. 28 the acre of corn stored over 3,000 lbs. of dry 
matter! When four feet high the crop was nearly 86 per ct. water 
1 N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1889. 2 Ind. Bui. 175. 



12 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and only about 14 per ct. dry matter ; while when the kernels were hard 
and the husks dry over 42 per ct. was dry matter. On Aug. 28 less 
than 17 per ct. of the total dry matter was in the ears; by Oct. 8 the 
ears contained over half the dry matter in the total crop. 

24. Ash or mineral matter. — The total ash increased rapidly until the 
plant reached its full height. During the period of greatest starch for- 
mation, Aug. 28 to Oct. 1, the increase in potash was especially rapid. 

25. Crude protein. — The most rapid increase in crude protein, the 
nitrogenous portion, occurred before the plants were tasseled, when cell 
groAvth was more active. After the ears were silked, as is shown in the 
following table from Ladd, the amids — the soluble circulating nitroge- 
nous compounds — did not increase. 

Changes in crude protein in growing corn crop 

Amids Protein 
Stage of growth Lbs. Lbs. 

Tasseled 69 171 

Silked 158 279 

Kernels in milk 102 377 

Kernels glazed 152 491 

Ripe 109 569 

Altho amids — the building-stones of the proteins — were constantly 
being formed during the development of the plants, they were in turn 
quickly built over into the more complex, stable proteins. Thus, there 
was a steady and marked storage of proteins up to maturity. At all 
stages of growth nearly all the amids are in the stalks and leaves, the 
amids in the ears never exceeding 1.5 lbs. per acre, according to Jones. 
At maturity, Oct. 8, over 71 per ct. of all the protein in the crop 
was stored in the ears, principally in and about the germs of the kernels, 
ready to carry on the vital functions whenever the grains might find 
lodgment in the soil and begin growth to form new corn plants. 

26. Fiber. — The stalk of corn must be strong and sturdy to carry the 
abundant foliage and especially the heavy ear — hence the increase in 
fiber, the woody framework of the plant, which was especially rapid till 
the skeleton of the plant was grown. 

27. Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, the most valu- 
able portion of the carbohydrates, made up of sugars, starch, and the 
other more soluble carbohydrates, increased more than 2.5 tons between 
tasseling and ripening. As is shown in the following, Ladd found that 
after the milk stage there was practically no increase of either glucose 
or sucrose, but a large storage of starch. 

Changes in glucose, sucrose, and starch of growing com crop 

Glucose Sucrose Starch 

Stage of growth Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Tasseled 58 9 122 

Silked 300 111 491 

In milk 665 129 707 

Glazed 720 95 1,735 

Ripe 538 149 2,853 



HOW THE PLANT GROWS 13 

The table shows that, altho sugars were being steadily formed in 
the leaves of the plant from tasseling to ripening, they were continuously 
being transferred to other parts, especially the swelling kernels of the 
ear. Here a large portion was changed to insoluble starch and com- 
pactly stored about the germs to serve as food for the future plantlets. 
Another portion of the sugars was changed into cellulose to form the 
woody framework of the plant structure. The elements of a third portion 
were combined with nitrates and other mineral matter from the soil to 
form the nitrogenous amids and proteins. It was because of such con- 
tinuous transference and change that the sugars showed no material 
increase. 

Up to the milk stage starch formed only a small part of the total 
nitrogen-free extract; after this it increased rapidly until by maturity 
nearly a ton and a half of starch had been formed. Ladd found that 
the other soluble carbohydrates, which increased up to the glazing stage, 
consisted chiefly of pentoses and the more soluble pentosans and cellu- 
loses. A study of the several tables shows most plainly the heavy losses 
of valuable nutrients which are sure to occur when a crop of Indian corn 
is harvested before it has fully ripened. 

In producing this acre of corn, probably not over 10 lbs. of seed was 
placed in the ground in the spring time. From this insignificant begin- 
ning, by the following October, about 130 clays later, the resultant plants 
had gathered inorganic matter — carbon dioxid from the air, and water, 
nitrogen, and mineral matter from the soil — and built all these, first 
into primary organic forms, and finally into complex organic parts of 
their structure. The product of such building amounted to over 11 tons 
of green or 4.7 tons of dry matter, all largely available for nourishing 
the animals of the farm and, thru them, man. This is a forceful illustra- 
tion of Nature's wonderful processes of food production occurring all 
about us under the guiding mind of man. 

The reader who will thoroly familiarize himself with this study of the 
growing corn plant can readily extend his acquirement to all the other 
crops of the farm. Thus equipped he is in position to study the compo- 
sition of the bodies of farm animals and consider how they are built up 
and maintained by food derived from plants, as later presented. 



CHAPTER II 

COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION- 
METABOLISM 

I. Composition of the Animal Body 

Division III of the preceding chapter sets forth the yield and compo- 
sition of an acre of Indian corn, thereby showing how the several 
nutrients of feeding stuffs are elaborated by the plants of the farm. 
We will next consider the nature and composition of the bodies of farm 
animals, which are built up and nourished by plants. 

28. The animal body. — The unit of the animal body is the protoplasmic 
life-holding cell, which, associated with myriads of others and modified 
in innumerable ways, makes up the body structure. Both the cell envelop 
and its contents are of nitrogenous material in most complex combination. 

In studying the higher animals we may regard their bodies as consist- 
ing of a bony skeleton of mineral character surrounded by an elaborate 
muscular system. Patty tissue permeates the bones and muscles, filling 
in and rounding out the body form, and around all is the enveloping 
skin. Within the body cavity are the various special organs, such as the 
heart, stomach, etc., designed for dissolving, assorting, distributing, and 
utilizing the nutritive matters of the food and for conveying and dis- 
posing of the waste. All these organs are nitrogenous or protein in 
nature, as are also a part of the organic matter of the bones and a large 
portion of the nerves, which control and direct all body activities. We 
have seen that in plants the great structural material is cellulose, a 
carbohydrate, and that the common stored reserve material is starch, 
also a carbohydrate. In the animal body, however, while the glucose 
in the blood and tissues and the glycogen in the liver and other organs 
perform important functions, these carbohydrates at no time form an 
appreciable part of the animal's weight. (60) 

29. Composition of animal bodies. — To aid in a study of the compo- 
sition of the bodies of farm animals we have the following invaluable 
data gathered by Lawes and Gilbert 1 of the Rothamsted (England) 
Experiment Station, whose classic investigations stand as models in 
agricultural research. The first division of the table shows the compo- 
sition of the entire body (fasted weight) of the several animals, and the 
second part the composition of their carcasses. Store animals are those 
in thrifty condition, but not fat. 

'Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng., 1898; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Bxpt. Sta., Bui. 22. 

14 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 



15 



Due to the fact that the gains during fattening are chiefly fat (122), the 
animals of each kind contain a higher percentage of protein and a much 
lower percentage of fat before being fattened. Thus while 14.8 per ct. 
of the body of the store sheep is protein and 18.7 per ct. fat, the extra- 
fat sheep contains 45.8 per ct. fat and only 10.9 per ct. protein. The 
third column shows that in general the percentage of mineral matter, 
or ash, decreases as the animal fattens, because fatty tissue is low in ash. 
Due to the relatively light skeleton, the body of the pig in store condition 
contains but 2.67 per ct. ash and only 1.65 per ct. when fat, the lowest 
of any of the farm animals. 

Composition of the entire bodies and carcasses of farm animals 



Description of animal 



Protein 



Fat 



Mineral 

matter 

(ash) 



Total 
dry sub- 
stance 



Water 



Contents of 
stomach and 
intestines in 
moist state 



Division I. Per cent in the entire animal (fasted live weight) 



Fat calf . . . 
Half -fat ox . 
Fat ox ... . 



Fat lamb 

Store sheep 

Half -fat old sheep . 

Fat sheep 

Extra-fat sheep . . . 



Store pig . 
Fat pig. . 



15.2 
16.6 
14.5 

12.3 

14.8 
14.0 
12.2 
10.9 

13.7 
10.9 



14.8 
19.1 
30.1 

28.5 
18.7 
23.5 
35.6 
45.8 

23.3 

42.2 



3.80 
4.66 
3.92 

2.94 
3.16 
3.17 

2.81 
2.90 

2.67 
1.65 



33.8 
40.3 
48.5 

43.7 
36.7 
40.7 
50.6 
59.6 

39.7 

54.7 



63.0 
51.5 
45.5 

47.8 
57.3 
50.2 
43.4 
35.2 

55.1 
41.3 



3.17 
8.19 
5.98 

8.54 
6.00 
9.05 
6.02 
5.18 



22 
97 



Average of all . 



13.5 28.2 3.17 44.9 49.0 



6.13 



Division II. Per cent in carcass 



Fat calf . . . 
Half -fat ox . 
Fat ox ... . 



Fat lamb 

Store sheep 

Half -fat old sheep . 

Fat sheep 

Extra-fat sheep . . . 



Store pig . 
Fat pig . . 



16.6 
17.8 
15.0 

10.9 
14.5 
14.9 
11.5 
9.1 

14.0 

10.5 



16.6 
22.6 
34.8 

36.9 
23.8 
31.3 
45.4 
55.1 

28.1 
49.5 



4.48 
5.56 
4.56 

3.63 
4.36 
4.13 
3.45 

2.77 

2.57 
1.40 



37.7 
46.0 
54.4 

51.4 
42.7 
50.3 
60.3 
67.0 

44.7 
61.4 



62.3 
54.0 
45.6 

48.6 
57.3 
49.7 
39.7 
33.0 

55.3 

38.6 



Average of all. 



13.5 



34.4 



3.69 



51.6 



48.4 



The fourth and fifth columns, giving the percentages of total dry 
substance and water, show that in all but the extra-fat sheep and the 
fat pig, water is the largest single constituent of the body. For all the 
animals studied, on the average 49 lbs. in every 100 of the body weight, 
or nearly half, is water. This brings out strikingly the great importance 



16 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



of water in the animal body. The percentage of water both in the entire 
body (Division I of table) and in the carcass (Division II) is higher in 
the fat calf than in the fat ox, and also higher in the fat lamb than in the 
fat sheep. All animals contain a higher percentage of water when lean 
than when fattened. 

30. Nitrogen and ash. — The following table shows the nitrogen and 
the principal ash constituents in the fasted live weight of the animals 
analyzed at Rothamsted, and also in milk and unwashed wool : 



Ash and nitrogen in 1000 lbs. of farm animals, milk, 


and unwashed wool 




Nitrogen 
(N) 


Phosphoric 

acid 

(P 2 6 ) 


Potash 
(K 2 Q) 


Lime 
(CaO) 


Magnesia 
(MgO) 


Fat calf : 


Lbs. 

24.64 
27.45 
23.26 
19.71 
23.77 
19.76 
22.08 
17.65 
5.76 
54.00 


Lbs. 

15.35 

18.39 

15.51 

11.26 

11.88 

10.40 

10.66 

6.54 

2.00 

0.70 


Lbs. 

2.06 
2.05 
1.76 
1.66 
1.74 
1.48 
1.96 
1.38 
1.70 
56.20 


Lbs. 
16.46 

21.11 

17.92 

12.81 

13.21 

11.84 

10.79 

6.36 

1.70 

1.80 


Lbs. 

0.79 


Half -fat ox 

Fat ox 


0.85 
0.61 


Fat lamb 


0.52 


Store sheep 

Fat sheep 


0.56 
0.48 


Store pig 

Fat pig 

Milk 

Unwashed wool 


0.53 
0.32 
0.20 
0.40 



The table shows that the nitrogen in each 1000 lbs. (fasted live weight) 
of the bodies of farm animals varies from about 17 to 27 lbs., being 
least in the fat pig and greatest in the half-fat ox. Lime, the largest 
mineral constituent of the bones, ranges from about 6 lbs. per 1000 lbs. 
of carcass in the fat pig to over 21 lbs. in the ox. Phosphoric acid 
almost equals lime in quantity, while potash runs only from 1 to 2 lbs. 
per 1000 lbs. of animal, and magnesia still less. Soda, silica, iron, etc., 
are found in small quantities. 

31. Plants and animals compared. — One of the fundamental differences 
between plants and animals is that in plants the walls of the cells of 
which they are composed are of carbohydrate material, while in animals 
the walls of the body cells are of protein substances. Thus plants are 
on a carbon and animals on a nitrogen foundation. The higher plants 
are nourished by inorganic matter, while animals live upon both organic 
and inorganic substances, principally the former. Plants absorb thru 
their leaves great quantities of carbonic acid gas, composed of carbon 
and oxygen, retaining the carbon and giving off the oxygen as waste. 
Animals take free oxygen thru their lungs and combine it with carbon 
to form carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off as waste in the breath. 
Thus the two great classes of living objects are interdependent. 

In the animal body the organic material derived from plants may be 
built into still other highly organized compounds, usually protein in 
character. Thus built, matter has reached its last high stage of organized 
existence, and its fall or descent soon occurs. In the daily waste of the 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 17 

body or upon the withdrawal of life, this highly endowed organic matter 
is broken down into inorganic compounds, to begin again the eternal 
round of Nature. 

II. Digestion 

32. Digestion. — The changes which food undergoes within the digestive 
tract of the animal to prepare it for absorption and ultimate use in build- 
ing new tissues, repairing body waste, and as a source of energy are 
collectively known as digestion. Digestion is effected by enzymes, or 
ferments, elaborated by glands of the mouth, stomach, pancreas, and 
small intestines, and by the bile, secreted in the liver. Bacteria inhabit- 
ing certain parts of the digestive tract attack the woody cellulose of the 
food, breaking it down and thereby freeing nutrients. In addition to 
the action of the secretions and bacteria, the food in its course thru the 
digestive tract is subjected to mechanical processes which tend to reduce 
it to a fine state of division, the object of the whole process being to 
separate from the useless matter those constituents which are to nourish 
the body. 

33. Nutrients. — The term nutrient is applied to any food constituent, 
or group of food constituents, of the same general chemical composition, 
that may aid in the support of animal life. Crude protein, the car- 
bohydrates, and fat constitute the generally recognized primary classes 
of nutrients, altho air, water, and mineral matter might likewise be 
so termed. 

The term digestible nutrient covers that portion of each nutrient which 
is digested and taken into the body, as determined by digestion trials 
with various mature animals. (66) 

34. Concerning rations. — On the farm a ration is the feed allowed or 
set apart to maintain a given animal during a day of 24 hours, whether 
all thereof is administered or fed at one time or in portions at different 
times. 

A balanced ration is the feed or combination of feeds furnishing the 
several nutrients — crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat — in such pro- 
portion and amount as will properly and without excess of any nutrient 
nourish a given animal for 24 hours. 

A maintenance ration is one that furnishes enough, but no more, of 
each and all of the several nutrients than is required to maintain a given 
resting animal, so that it will neither gain nor lose in weight. 

35. The alimentary tract. — The digestive tract is a long, tortuous tube 
passing thru the animal from mouth to vent, enlarged in places for the 
storage of food or waste. Within its linings are secretory organs fur- 
nishing various fluids of digestion, and into it, from other specific secre- 
tory organs located near by, pour still other digestive fluids. "Within its 
walls are nerves controlling its action, arteries which nourish it with 
fresh blood, and veins and lymphatics which absorb and carry from its 
interior the products of digestion, as well as water, mineral matter, and 



18 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



gases. It should be borne in mind that the contents of the stomach and 
intestines are really outside the body proper. Only when a substance has 
passed into or thru the walls of the digestive tract has it actually entered 
the body of the animal. 

Euminants (animals which chew the cud), including the ox, sheep, 
and goat, have much more complicated digestive tracts than other 
animals. In the horse and pig the gullet is a simple muscular tube 
passing from the mouth to the stomach. On the other hand, in ruminants 
the gullet is expanded just before the true stomach, or abomasum, is 
reached into 3 compartments of great aggregate capacity, the first of 
which is the paunch, or rumen ; the second, the honeycomb, or reticulum ; 
and the third, the manyplies, or omasum. Of the 4 stomachs the paunch 
is by far the largest. 

The length and capacity of the intestines and the capacity of the 
stomachs of different mature farm animals are shown in the following 
table. Obviously these values will vary widely, depending on the size 
of the animal. 

Capacity of stomach and capacity and length of intestines of farm animals 



Animal 


Capacity of 

stomach and 

intestines 


Average 
length of 
intestines 


Animal 


Capacity of 

stomach and 

intestines 


Average 
length of 
intestines 


Horse 

Stomach* 

Small intestine . 
Large intestine. 


Quarts 

19.0 

67.4 
137.4 


Feet 

73.6 

24.5 


Ox 

All 4 stomachs. . 
Small intestine. 
Large intestine. 

Total 

Hog 

Stomach 

Small intestine. 
Large intestine. 

Total 


Quarts 

266.9 
69.7 
40.1 


Feet 

150.9 
36.3 


Total 


223.8 


98.1 


376.7 


187.2 


Sheep 

Rumen 

Reticulum 

Manyplies 

Abomasum .... 


24.7 
2.1 
1.0 
3.5 




8.5 

9.7 

10.8 


60.0 
17.1 


29.0 


77.1 


All 4 stomachs . 

Small intestine . 
Large intestine . 


31.3 

9.5 

5.9 


85.9 
21.4 






Total 


46.7 


107.3 





* Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, places the capacity at 3 to 3.5 gallons. 

While the stomach of the horse holds only 19.0 qts., the 4 stomachs of 
the ox have a capacity of 266 qts., or 14 times as much. On the other 
hand, the large caecum, or blind gut, of the horse, a part of the large 
intestine, gives the large intestine a capacity of 137.4 qts., compared with 
40.1 qts. for the ox. 

In young ruminants the first 3 stomachs are less developed than in 
mature animals. Colin found that the first stomach, or the paunch, of a 
calf held 2.6 lbs. of water ; the honeycomb 0.22 lb. ; the purse 0.35 lb. ; and 
the true stomach 7.7 lbs. As the diet of the growing calf changes to more 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 19 

solid food, such as grass, hay, and grains, the rumen, or paunch, gradually 
increases in size, until in the grown ox it holds 4 times as much as the 
other 3 stomachs combined. 

The alimentary tract of the sheep is similar in structure to that of 
the ox. The hog has neither the 4 stomachs of the ruminant nor the 
large caecum of the horse, and is hence not fitted to consume large 
amounts of roughage. 

36. Mastication. — In the mouth of the animal food is crushed and 
ground by the teeth and at the same time is moistened by the alkaline, 
somewhat slimy saliva, moist and slippery masses being formed which 
pass readily thru the gullet into the stomach. Mingling saliva with the 
food during mastication, or chewing, aids the sense of taste by dissolving 
small amounts of food which affect the nerve ends of the tongue. Colin 2 
found that a horse fed on hay secreted 11 to 13 lbs. of saliva per hour. 
Oats require a little more than their own weight, green fodders half, 
and dry fodders 4 times their weight of saliva during mastication. If 
the ration for a horse amounts to 11 lbs. of hay and 11 lbs. of other dry 
fodder, this will require 4 times its weight of saliva, or 88 lbs., to which 
must be added 4.4 lbs. secreted during rest, making 92.4 lbs. in all. 

Ruminants while eating chew their food only enough to moisten it, if 
dry, and form it into masses of suitable size to be swallowed. When 
hunger is satisfied they seek a quiet place, if possible, and proceed to 
return the food in "cuds" to the mouth, chewing each thoroly before 
reswallowing. The gullet of ruminants opens into the first 3 stomachs 
thru a slit (called the esophageal groove), which has an exceedingly 
important function in the process of rumination. When the ox swallows 
the masses of solid food, which are so large as to distend the gullet, on 
coming to the slit they are pressed out, just as would be the case if one 
tried to force thru a rubber tube with a slit an object which fitted it tight- 
ly. These masses of food are usually pushed into the paunch until it is 
full, and then into the honeycomb instead. 

When the animal ruminates, or "chews the cud," the food is forced 
back to the mouth in masses, or "cuds," thru the same slit by contrac- 
tions of the muscular paunch, the honeycomb, and of the gullet itself. The 
ox chews each cud of about 4 ounces for a little less than a minute, 
adding saliva until the finely divided material becomes more or less soup- 
like. On being reswallowed, this finely divided material usually flows 
along the gullet past the slit, and directly into the third stomach, from 
which it passes into the fourth or true stomach. Water or liquid food 
may not be forced thru the slit into the paunch but may pass at once 
to the third stomach. 

Animals do not ruminate during sleep, while working, when excited, 
or if in pain. The fact that the ox requires 7 to 8 hours daily for rumina- 
tion handicaps him somewhat as a work animal, for if his hours of work 
are long he must dispense with sleep to masticate his food. 

3 Smith, Physiol. Dom. Anim., p. 286. 



20 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

37. The saliva. — In addition to preparing the food for swallowing, 
with most animals the saliva performs a highly important digestive 
function thru the enzyme, called ptyalin, which it contains. 

Enzymes are mysterious organic compounds which are able to change 
or break down other organic compounds without themselves being broken 
down. 

38. Ptyalin. — The first enzyme of digestion, ptyalin, converts the insol- 
uble starches of food into malt sugar. The proteins and fats of food 
are not changed by the action of the saliva. 

Since most of the changes which food substances undergo during 
digestion are effected thru enzymes, their general nature should be under- 
stood by the student, and ptyalin action serves as an example. If a 
quantity of starch is treated with saliva and the whole kept at body 
temperature, the starch so treated will gradually dissolve, and after a 
time malt sugar will be found in its stead. The complex starch molecule 
has been cleaved or split into simpler ones by the action of the ptyalin. 
The enzyme causing this change is itself not altered in character or 
function, however, or seemingly exhausted in energy thereby, but is 
still capable of changing more starch into sugar. So far as known, there 
is no limit to the amount of sugar which a given quantity of ptyalin 
will produce if the supply of starch is maintained and the resultant 
sugar is continuously removed from the solution. If the saliva is heated 
above 176° F., it will no longer possess this power. At the temperature 
of ice water its action ceases, altho the enzyme is not destroyed, for on 
warming it becomes active again. Acids destroy ptyalin if added much 
beyond the point of neutrality. Each of the several enzymes of digestion 
is capable of acting on only one of the groups of nutritive substances — 
on either proteins, carbohydrates, or fats. Some act only in the presence 
of acids, and others only in neutral or faintly alkaline solutions. Recent 
investigations 3 show that the saliva of some animals contains little or 
no ptyalin. The saliva of man, monkeys, rabbits, rats, and mice has the 
greatest starch digesting power and that of swine contains a fair amount 
of ptyalin, while the saliva of horses contains but a small quantity and 
that of dogs and oxen little or none. 

39. Digestion in the simple stomach. — With such animals as the horse 
and pig, which have simple stomachs, the food passes directly from the 
mouth, where it remains but a comparatively short time, thru the gullet 
to the single stomach. There it is acted on by the gastric juice, which 
consists of water containing the enzymes, pepsin and rennin, and from 
0.2 to 0.5 per ct. of hydrochloric acid. 

Pepsin, which acts only in weak acid solutions, converts the very com- 
plex proteins into soluble and simpler, tho still complex, products known 
as proteoses and peptones. Proteoses and peptones are soluble nitroge- 
nous compounds, simpler than the proteins from which they originate. 
They are the result of the partial cleavage of proteins with the addition 
of water. 

3 Oppenheimer, Handb. der Biochem., 1910, III, Part II, p. 38. 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 21 

Rennin is the enzyme which curdles milk. The membranous lining 
of the stomachs of calves yields the rennet of commerce, which contains 
this enzyme. One part of rennin will coagulate 400,000 parts of milk. 
This enzyme is an interesting provision of nature for changing milk into 
a solid form so the animal may get the full value from it. Altho liquid, 
milk is not in condition to be taken directly into the animal system, but, 
like solid foods, must first undergo digestion. Milk being liquid, the 
stomach would naturally pass it quickly on to the small intestine, but if 
this occurred it would not be sufficiently acted on by the pepsin. Rennin 
quickly converts the milk into a solid curd which is easily retained by 
the stomach until dissolved by the action of the digestive juice. 

Acid destroys the power of ptyalin to convert starch into sugar. The 
construction of the stomach, however, is such that the action of ptyalin 
on the food after it reaches that organ, following mastication, is not too 
promptly checked. The first portion of the stomach, into which the gullet 
directly leads, secretes pepsin but no acid. The action of ptyalin on 
the starches of the foods continues, therefore, in this part of the stomach. 
The intestinal or rear end of the stomach, on the other hand, secretes 
little pepsin but much hydrochloric acid. Here the conversion of the 
starches into malt sugar by the ptyalin ceases, and pepsin digestion 
becomes active. Only the preliminary steps of digestion are accomplished 
in the stomach, and relatively little absorption of the digested nutrients 
takes place from it. Sugars may be absorbed to some extent, but the 
proteoses and peptones produced from the breaking up of protein, and 
also the fats, are mostly carried into the small intestine along with the 
other matter. 

Soon after the food reaches the stomach that organ begins a series of 
orderly movements for the delivery of its contents into the small intes- 
tine. In this delivery the stomach contracts at the middle region, and 
the wave of contraction proceeds slowly and regularly toward the intes- 
tinal end, one wave following another. When digestion has progressed 
to some extent, every time the contraction reaches the rear end of the 
stomach, the ring of muscles which keeps the stomach shut off from the 
small intestine relaxes and allows a small quantity of the semi-liquid 
contents of the stomach to spurt thru into the intestine. After this the 
ring of muscles again contracts, thereby closing the entrance. The 
stomach in turn slowly relaxes, and after a certain length of time, vary- 
ing in different animals, the process is repeated. By this means the 
fluid portions of the contents of the stomach are squeezed out and carried 
into the small intestine, while the more solid portions remain behind 
for further action by the gastric juice. In animals with a simple stomach 
little or no churning or mixing of the food is produced by the movements 
of the stomach. The contents are simply pushed gradually toward the 
intestinal end of the stomach by the waves of muscular contraction. 

40. Digestion of ruminants. — The first 3 stomachs of ruminants are 
important organs of digestion, although they secrete no enzymes, but 
only water. The nutritive substances within the cells of plants are 



22 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

enclosed within the cellulose cell walls. Where the cell walls are formed 
of hard, thickened cellulose, the nutritive substances within are not 
readily reached and attacked by the fluids of digestion. As stated before, 
when solid food is first swallowed it passes chiefly into the paunch. Here 
it is softened by the moisture, slowly but thoroly mixed by muscular 
contractions, and even macerated by being ground against the rough 
lining. 

In the first stomachs, especially in the paunch, the fermentation of 
cellulose by bacteria takes place, the walls of the cells being thereby 
more or less broken down and their contents set free, thus becoming 
available for digestion. In this fermentation gases are given off, which 
are ordinarily absorbed into the blood and carried away. "When fresh, 
easily fermented forage, such as green clover or alfalfa, is eaten, gases 
may be evolved so rapidly that the blood circulation cannot take them 
up as fast as formed, and "hoven," or "bloat," results. No enzymes 
of the digestive tract are able to digest the pentosans, which are present 
in considerable amount in roughages and other feeds high in fiber. (9) 
Like cellulose, however, these compounds are digested by the bacteria in 
the paunch and thus serve as nutrients. Not only are the fiber and 
pentosans broken down, but when the food contains sugars these also 
are sometimes attacked by bacteria in the paunch, which action is detri- 
mental, for in such cleavage, or breaking down, a considerable percentage 
of their energy is lost as heat and gas. (84) The fact that only a 
small amount of ptyalin is present in the saliva of the ox and sheep, or 
that it is entirely absent, as is claimed by some, is thus advantageous. 
If their saliva easily converted starch into sugar, a large amount of sugar 
would be formed in the paunch, which would then in turn be attacked 
by bacteria, with much resultant loss of nutriment. Besides the diges- 
tion in the paunch caused by bacteria, more or less is also undoubtedly 
effected by the enzymes which are contained in some foods, such as the 
cereal grains, for the moisture and warmth of the paunch are favorable 
to enzyme action in general. 

After rumination the reswallowed food passes chiefly into the many- 
plies, or third stomach, where it is further ground between the muscular 
folds before being forced into the fourth, or true stomach. In the 
latter the digestive processes are similar to those in the simple stomach, 
as previously described. 

41. The small intestine. — In the small intestine the work of digestion 
proceeds even more vigorously than in the stomach. All classes of 
nutrients are attacked by the fluids it holds, and in it the digestive 
processes come to a close. The contents of the stomach, when received 
into the small intestine, consist of a semi-liquid mixture of undigested 
proteins, partially digested nutrients — proteoses and peptones, fats, 
Bugars, starches, and celluloses — and waste matter. The small intestine 
receives digestive fluids from 2 outside organs, the liver and the pancreas, 
whose functions in nutrition are of the highest importance, and the food 
is also mixed with a secretion containing several enzymes which are pro- 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 23 

duced by the intestine itself. Immediately on entering the small intestine 
the inpouring material is changed from an acid to an alkaline character 
thru rapid addition of the bile and pancreatic juice, both alkaline. 

42. The pancreas. — The pancreas, or sweetbread, is a slender gland 
lying just beyond the stomach and connected with the small intestine by 
a duct. Its secretion, the pancreatic juice, varies in different animals, 
being thin, clear, and watery in some, and thick, viscous, and slimy in 
others. The pancreatic juice contains 3 enzymes — trypsin, amylase, and 
lipase. 

Trypsin is an enzyme which, like pepsin, converts protein into pro- 
teoses and peptones. It has the power of further cleaving these 2 
partially digested substances into amino acids, which constitute the ulti- 
mate useful nutrients which come from the cleavage of all the proteins 
of food stuffs thru digestion. The digestion of protein goes on much more 
thoroly in the small intestine under the influence of trypsin than it does 
in the stomach with pepsin. It is most interesting that trypsin is secreted 
by the pancreas in an inactive form, which will not digest protein. As 
soon as the pancreatic juice comes in contact with the intestinal wall, 
intestinal juice is produced, which contains a substance that changes 
the trypsin into the active digesting form. 

Amylase, formerly called amylopsin, is a pancreatic enzyme which 
converts starch into glucose-like sugars. 

Lipase, formerly called steapsin, is a pancreatic enzyme which splits 
fats into fatty acids and glycerin. 

Ordinarily, when digestion is not going on there is no secretion by 
the pancreas. It has been found that if the mucous lining of the first 
part of the small intestine is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, the 
pancreas at once pours out its secretion. It will be remembered that the 
contents of the stomach, at the time of their ejection from that organ 
into the small intestine, are strongly acid because of the hydrochloric acid 
of the gastric juice. This acid when it pours into the small intestine, 
acting on the lining of the latter, produces something which, when 
absorbed into the blood, calls forth the pancreatic secretion just when 
needed — a forceful illustration of how all the organs of the complicated 
digestive tract work in harmony. 

43. The liver. — The liver, the largest organ in the body, has numerous 
duties in the digestion and metabolism of nutrients. While some of its 
functions will be dealt with in a later chapter, attention is here directed 
to its function in the digestion and absorption of the fats of foods. 

Bile, the product of the liver, is a clear, greenish or golden colored 
fluid, alkaline in reaction, and extremely bitter in taste. The bile fur- 
nishes the alkalies which are necessary for the conversion of the fats of 
the food into soaps, that is, for changing them from an unabsorbable into 
a water-soluble and readily absorbable condition. It is of such nature 
that it readily forms an emulsion with fats, and in this form the latter 
present a very large surface for the action of the lipase of the pan- 
creatic juice. The process of the decomposition of the fats into fatty 



24 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

acids and glycerin is greatly hastened by this means. In the presence 
of bile the fatty acids take on alkali and form soaps, which are soluble 
in water and can be absorbed into the walls of the intestine. After 
performing this important function the bile is not wholly excreted with 
the contents of the intestine, but is in part taken up by the circulation 
and again utilized. According to Colin, the liver of the horse secretes 
over 13 lbs., of the ox 5.7 lbs., and of the sheep 0.75 lb. of bile during 
each 24 hours. 

44. The intestinal secretion. — The digestive fluid secreted by the mucous 
membrane of the small intestine contains several enzymes, the most 
important of which are erepsin and the invertases. 

Erepsin is an enzyme of great digesting power which attacks and still 
further splits or cleaves those proteoses and peptones which have escaped 
such action by trypsin, likewise converting them into amino acids, the 
ultimate digestion products of the proteins. 

The invertases, sucrase, maltase, and lactase, are enzymes which con- 
vert cane-, malt-, and milk-sugars into the more simple glucose-like sugars. 

Thus into the small intestine are poured the complex bile ; the 3 diges- 
tive enzymes from the pancreas — trypsin, amylase, and lipase; and 
finally erepsin and the invertases from its own walls. "Water is also 
freely poured into the small intestine from its walls. 

While in the small intestine, the food, which has been masticated in 
the mouth and partially digested in the stomach, is acted on by all the 
various fluids above described. That part of the food which thus far 
has escaped digestion is now vigorously and variously attacked, so that 
under ordinary conditions little that is useful is lost. The larger portion 
of all the digested material is absorbed from the intestine into its walls, 
and thus enters the body proper, as will be shown in the next chapter. 

45. The large intestine. — The large intestine receives the contents of 
the small intestine after the latter organ has ceased further effort at 
digestion. These contents consist of undigested matter, bits of indigest- 
ible substances of all kinds taken in with the food, bile salts which have 
escaped resorption, water, mineral salts, and fragments of the mucous 
lining of the small intestine. Mixed with these are some of the digestive 
juices of the small intestine. The large intestine elaborates little, if any, 
digestive fluid, but its walls contribute water and certain metabolic waste 
products, especially certain inorganic salts common to the tract. It is 
possible that some digestion may occur in the large intestine owing to 
traces of digestive enzymes coming from the small intestine, but such 
digestion is insignificant in amount. There is a constant interchange 
of water between the contents of the large intestine and the blood circu- 
lation, which results in the absorption of any soluble products, nutritive 
or otherwise, which may be formed in the large intestine either by diges- 
tion or bacterial action. 

46. Special provision for the horse. — The horse, tho eating coarse food 
like the ox, has a small stomach and no paunch for specially preparing 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 25 

such food for digestion. In partial compensation it has a large caecum, 
or blind gut, which is a greatly enlarged portion of the alimentary tract, 
linking the small and large intestine. Into the caecum is passed much 
of the undigested matter, together with the enzymes of the small intestine. 
Here the digestive processes of the small intestine are prolonged, thus 
making up for his small stomach and lack of a paunch. The caecum of 
other farm animals is small and unimportant in digestion. 

47. Digestion of fat. — Since the steps by which the food is prepared 
thru digestion for final use by the body are so numerous and complicated, 
it is well to now review the subject, dealing with the nutrients and what 
occurs with them, rather than considering the organs and solvents 
employed. 

As has been stated, the fats of foods, no matter how finely divided, 
cannot directly enter the circulation, but must be changed in the follow- 
ing manner: One of the enzymes produced by the pancreas is the fat- 
splitting lipase, which breaks some of the fats in the food into glycerin 
and fatty acids. The bile is largely made up of alkaline salts, and with 
these the fatty acids react and form soaps. These soaps in turn form an 
emulsion with the unchanged fats, the emulsified fats presenting a large 
surface on which the lipase may act. Thus, it is believed that the fat 
which is finally absorbed is split into glycerin and fatty acids, the latter 
and the alkali of the bile forming soaps. These soaps and the glycerin 
are absorbed by the intestinal wall, in the cells of which they are reunited 
into fats and are contributed as such to the circulation. Some authorities 
hold, however, that a part of the fatty acids and glycerin formed by the 
splitting of neutral fats by lipase may be absorbed as such, without 
being first changed to soaps. 

48. Carbohydrate digestion. — The digestion of either starch or sugars 
(other than those of glucose-like form) consists in converting them into 
glucose or glucose-like sugars, which are the only forms of carbohydrates 
that can be used in the body. Since the carbohydrates constitute a large 
portion of the food of animals, nature provides for their digestion in 
several parts of the alimentary tract. Carbohydrate digestion begins 
with the action of ptyalin on the starches of foods in the mouth, whereby 
they are converted into maltose. Ptyalin action continues in the first 
portion of the stomach, but ceases in the latter part of that organ. Sugars 
of glucose form may be absorbed from the stomach. Even the compound 
cane-, malt-, and milk-sugars may without change be absorbed from the 
alimentary canal in small amounts. If these compound sugars remain 
in the digestive tract an appreciable time, as usually happens, they are 
changed to glucose and glucose-like sugars. Thus most of the carbohy- 
drates are absorbed from the alimentary tract in the form of glucose. 
Nearly all the carbohydrates are carried on from the stomach into the 
small intestine, which is the principal organ concerned in their final 
digestion. Here the starches which have escaped digestion in the mouth 
and stomach are acted upon by amylase, and the compound cane-, malt-, 



26 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and milk-sugars are converted by the invertases into simpler glucose-like 
sugars. 

When a human eats bread, or an animal consumes hay or corn, the 
starch of such food must all be changed to sugars before it can enter 
the body proper. With trifling exceptions all compound sugars are 
converted into glucose-like sugars. It is even held that milk sugar has 
no food value with birds, because their digestive tract provides no enzyme 
for breaking it up into glucose-like sugars which may be absorbed. 

In the digestive tract no enzyme has been found which acts on cellulose 
or on the pentosans. Bacteria inhabiting the alimentary canal, however, 
attack these substances, especially in the paunch of ruminants and the 
caecum of the horse. Among the products of such bacterial decomposi- 
tion are organic compounds, such as acetic and lactic acid, besides gases — 
marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen. While these gases are of no 
value to the animal, there is little doubt that the other cleavage products 
are absorbed from the digestive tract and serve as nutrients. Smith 4 
suggests that cellulose digestion may be brought about by ferments con- 
tained in the food itself. When artificially digested with strong sulphuric 
acid, cellulose is converted into a gummy product and finally into glucose. 
Because the goat and the ox can subsist for long periods on coarse straw, 
which consists largely of cellulose and pentosans, it is reasonable to hold 
that these substances have considerable nutritive value, tho the manner 
of their digestion is not yet fully understood. 

49. Protein digestion. — In the process of digestion the protein com- 
pounds in the food are attacked first by pepsin in the stomach, and later 
by trypsin and erepsin in the small intestine. The action of these enzymes 
is to cleave the very complex protein molecules into simpler ones, during 
which process the split molecules take up water and become soluble. Pro- 
teoses and peptones are products of the cleavage of proteins, an example 
of which may be seen in the following experiment : If a fragment of the 
white part of a hard-boiled egg, which is a protein substance, is placed 
in a dish with dilute hydrochloric acid, a little pepsin added, and the 
whole kept at body temperature, in a short time the edges of the opaque 
egg mass will become swollen and transparent, the change gradually 
extending thru the whole fragment. After a time the mass will have 
entirely disappeared, and in its stead there will remain a clear solution. 
If this peptone solution is evaporated to dryness there will be left a 
yellowish, transparent mass resembling the dried white of an unboiled 
egg. This dry digested material, now a mixture of proteoses and pep- 
tones, is soluble in water the same as the white of egg ; but if dissolved 
in water it will not solidify on heating, as does ordinary white of egg. 
This shows that the substance has been changed to something other than 
the protein, which coagulates or solidifies on heating. These pro- 
teoses and peptones have resulted from the cleavage or splitting of the 
very complex egg protein into simpler molecules, which upon such cleav- 
age have taken up chemically a large amount of water and become sol- 

•'Manual of Vet. Physiol., 1908. 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 27 

uble. When a piece of lean meat or hard-boiled egg is taken into the 
human stomach, the pepsin, acting in the presence of hydrochloric acid, 
gradually dissolves such meat or egg, changing it to soluble peptones and 
proteoses. If it escapes solution in the stomach, it is usually dissolved 
later in the small intestine. 

The soluble proteoses and peptones are not yet in suitable form for 
use in the body of the animal, and so are not absorbed, but are retained 
in the small intestine until they have undergone further enzyme action. 
This is effected by trypsin, which can not only attack protein directly and 
convert it into proteoses and peptones, as does pepsin in the stomach, 
but can also attack the peptones and proteoses and cleave them further. 
Erepsin, an enzyme of the small intestine, is of powerful action. It 
attacks nitrogenous substances after they have become proteoses and 
peptones. By the action of these last 2 enzymes the proteoses and 
peptones have their molecules further cleaved into simpler but still com- 
plex molecules, water being again taken up as in the first cleavage. The 
simplest products of such cleavage of the proteins of food substances are 
the amino acids. 

The amino acids are the common final nitrogenous nutritive materials 
of the digestive tract, resulting from the cleavage of the complex mole- 
cules of the food proteins. They are soluble in the juices of the small 
intestine and are ready for transference thru the intestinal walls into the 
body proper. These acids are still relatively complex in structure, but 
are much simpler than the proteoses and peptones from which they are 
derived. The amino acids, derived from the nitrogenous portion of foods, 
constitute the great primary nitrogenous building material out of which 
the protein tissues of the animal body are built. So far as known, protein 
compounds taken as food cannot be broken apart further than into amino 
acids and remain useful in body building. 

50. Tissue building. — The process of protein digestion is the breaking 
down of complex nitrogenous bodies into simpler ones. A good picture 
of what takes place can be had by likening the protein molecule to a 
house being taken down by a builder in order that he may construct 
another from the materials. An animal eating protein compounds cannot 
use the protein molecules in the form in which the plant has built them 
up into its own substance, but must first take them apart to a greater or 
less extent, and from the parts reconstruct another kind of protein mole- 
cule suitable for its own use. In other words, its protein molecules must 
have a different architecture from those of the plants which serve as its 
food. The proteoses and peptones may be likened to the roof and walls 
of the house. These walls and the roof can be broken down into bricks 
and tiles, which are represented by the amino acids; and from these 
the animal, beginning anew, can construct new proteins of the specific 
architecture its body may require. 

51. Bacteria. — In the stomach bacteria find unfavorable conditions 
for growth because of the free acid of the gastric juice, and in the 
small intestine the presence of bile rapidly causes the death of bacteria. 



28 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Consequently bacteria play little or no part in digestion in either the 
acid stomach or the alkaline small intestine. They do act, however, on 
the woody fiber or cellulose, and in some cases on soluble carbohydrates, 
in the first three stomachs of ruminants and in the caecum of the horse. 
In the large intestine there develops a profuse bacterial growth of various 
forms which thrive in the absence of air. The presence of more or 
less undigested food, together with moisture, warmth, and the faint 
alkaline reaction, furnishes ideal conditions for bacterial growth. Some 
cellulose is decomposed by the bacteria with the liberation of carbon 
dioxid, marsh gas, and Irydrogen. Sulfureted hydrogen is also produced 
thru putrefaction of protein substances. Some nitrogen is found, but 
this has its source in the air taken in with the food. Much of the gas 
is doubtless absorbed into the circulation and eliminated from the lungs. 
Products other than gas which are mostly toxic or poisonous to the 
animal result in small quantity from bacterial growth in the large intes- 
tine. To these substances the odor of the feces is largely due. If the 
functions of the bowels are impaired, the contents may remain for an 
undue length of time, in which case excessive putrefaction may cause 
the animal to suffer from poisoning due to the absorption of the products 
formed. 

52. Feces. — The solid excrement, or dung, of farm animals is that 
waste which finally escapes from the large intestine, the solids of which, 
for the most part, have never been within the body proper. It is com- 
posed principally of cellulose, or woody fiber, from the undigested por- 
tions of straw, hay, and grasses; and also of seeds, grains, or parts of 
the food that have escaped proper mastication and digestion. Matter 
not properly food, such as hair and dirt of various kinds taken into the 
alimentary tract, escapes thru this exit. Finally there are cast away 
traces of bile salts and some mucus from the lining of the intestines, 
together with much water. 

53. Amid digestion. — The nitrogenous bodies of plants which are known 
collectively as "amids" are, as before stated, simpler nitrogenous com- 
pounds than proteins. They are either on their way to be built into 
proteins, or result from the cleavage of proteins in the plant for the 
purposes of transportation, or are formed in the partial breaking down 
and decay of protein. Very little is actually known of their chemical 
nature, but they are. probably similar in character, in many instances 
at least, to certain intermediary products of digestion in the animal body. 
Since amids may result from enzyme action in the plant, their digestion 
in the animal may be looked upon as similar to that of proteins. 

54. Mineral matter. — So far as known, the mineral matter, or ash, in 
foods is absorbed principally from the small intestine and is usually un- 
changed in chemical composition. Changes which occur in the different 
inorganic salts, or mineral matter, are entirely due to such chemical 
reactions as would have taken place outside the intestine under the same 
conditions. Insoluble mineral matter in food may become soluble because 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 29 

of the hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice of the stomach, hut this is 
hardly to be regarded as digestion. 

55. The work of the digestive glands. — The brilliant studies of the Rus- 
sian physiologist, Pawlow, 5 and his associates, followed by others along 
similar lines, have thrown much light upon the subjects of digestion, 
appetite, and palatability. In order to study the processes of digestion, 
operations such as the following were performed on many dogs: (1) 
The ducts, or tubes, which deliver the saliva into the mouth were cut, 
turned outward, and healed into the cut edges of the skin, so that when 
saliva was secreted it poured out thru the opening and could be caught 
in glass tubes attached to the dog's head. (2) The gullet, which carries 
food from the mouth to the stomach, was cut across, led outward, and 
healed in the skin at the throat, so that when food was swallowed it 
would pass out at the severed end and fall back into the dish out of which 
he was feeding. Food so eaten was called a ' ' false meal. ' ' In many cases 
a dog with a gullet thus severed would chew and swallow the "false 
meal" again and again with apparent satisfaction. (3) An opening was 
made thru the side of a dog and into his stomach. On the healing of the 
stomach wall with the cut in the skin, the investigator was enabled to 
pass food directly into the stomach and study the processes of digestion 
occurring within that organ. (4) A portion of the stomach was con- 
stricted and made into a small separate chamber, which likewise opened 
out thru the side of the dog. Here the flow of juices could be studied 
independent of admixture with food placed in the other portion of the 
stomach. (5) The small intestine was drawn to the side of the dog, and 
an opening made in it the same as in the stomach. (6) The pancreatic 
duct was cut and led outward, so that its secretion could likewise be 
studied. The animals usually yielded readily to the operations and lived 
comfortable lives, so that the results were normal. 

It was found that the sight, smell, or taste of food not only started 
the flow of saliva in the mouth, but the gastric juices also began to pour 
from the walls of the stomach in about 5 minutes even when there was 
no food in that organ. The gastric secretions which are brought forth 
by the sight, taste, or smell of food are designated by Pawlow as "psychic 
secretions." For example, when a dog was given a false meal, and the 
swallowed food fell out of the fistula, or opening, in the throat and back 
into the dish out of which the dog was eating, the stomach would never- 
theless pour forth its fluids (psychic secretions), as tho the food had 
reached it. The more eagerly the dog ate his false meal the greater was 
the amount of gastric secretions, and the richer they were in both acid 
and pepsin. The gastric secretions were strongest and most copious with 
that food which was liked best, and food given in small portions called 
forth stronger juices than when the whole ration was given at one time. 

These psychic secretions do not last long enough to explain the long 
continued secretion of gastric juice when a normal meal is eaten. 

6 The Work of the Digestive Glands. 



30 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In studying other causes which might produce the secretion, it was 
found that no flow could be started by such mechanical stimulation as 
passing a feather or a glass rod over the mucous membrane of the stom- 
ach. "Water caused a moderate flow of gastric juice, but when fat, egg 
albumen, starch, or sugar was introduced with water no greater flow re- 
sulted than with water alone. The juice of meat, however, called forth a 
marked flow. This explains the continuance of the secretion after the 
psychic secretion ceases. The gastric juice secreted as a result of the 
mental stimulus digests some of the protein of the food, thereby forming 
soluble nitrogenous compounds, which in turn stimulate the glands to 
further secretion. 

The saliva secreted was thin and watery when sand or dry, powdered 
biscuit was placed in the dog's mouth, and much more concentrated 
when stones were introduced, which the dog could swallow without the 
aid of a large amount of saliva. The amount of saliva and gastric juice 
also depended on the nature of the food fed. Pawlow's work indicated 
that the enzyme content of the digestive juices depended on the kind of 
food, the glands being guided by a form of instinct, so that, for example, 
the pancreatic juice would contain more trypsin when meat was fed than 
when starch was supplied. However fascinating this idea is, after numer- 
ous more recent investigations the consensus of opinion is now against 
such an adaptation of the digestive juices to the food. 

It is indeed fortunate that the character of the digestive juices of an 
animal are not changed with variations in the food consumed. Between 
meal times the secretory cells are elaborating the enzymes which are to 
be contained in the secretions that will be poured forth to digest the 
next meal. If the cells formed only enzymes suited to digestion of the 
previous meal, and the animal then consumed food of a different kind at 
the following meal, the juices might be unsuited to its digestion. It is 
therefore wise that no matter what food the animal consumes, the diges- 
tive glands pour forth the enzymes needed for the digestion of all the 
various nutrients. 

56. Palatability. — So vague and illusive is the subject of the palatabil- 
ity of food that it would be a waste of space to discuss it at any length 
in this work. ' ' What is one man 's meat is another man 's poison " is an 
old saying, to which might be added, "and what is one man's meat to-day 
may be his poison to-morrow"; for desire, appetite, and digestion are 
not the same with any given individual at all times and under all circum- 
stances. Even with farm animals palatability is greatly influenced and 
controlled by familiarity and habit or custom. When corn silage is first 
placed before cows, not infrequently, after sniffing it, they will let it 
alone for a time. They then usually begin nibbling at it, and later may 
gorge themselves thereon if permitted. In such cases food that at first 
seems unpalatable suddenly becomes palatable. 

In his early experience the senior author was feeding 2 lots of fat- 
tening steers, one on shelled corn and wheat bran, the other on wheat 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 31 

bran and shelled corn ground to a meal. After some weeks of successful 
feeding, the rations for the 2 lots were reversed. The steers changed 
from corn meal to whole corn showed a strong dislike for the new ration, 
eating so little at first that they shrank materially in weight. From this 
the general conclusion might have been drawn that shelled corn is less 
palatable than corn meal for fattening steers. But the steers given corn 
meal in place of shelled corn were equally dissatisfied. This shows that 
custom and habit — something entirely extraneous to the food — are pos- 
sible factors in palatability. 

"While palatability has a bearing on digestibility, the reverse is not 
necessarily true, for humans and animals often show fondness for kinds 
of food that are indigestible or worse. Even poisonous substances may 
be palatable, and, on the other hand, food which the human or animal 
does not relish or even dislikes may have high nutritive value provided 
the repugnance thereto is overcome. 

Despite the complexities of the subject, every practical stockman knows 
that to get the best results he must at all times provide feed for his 
animals which is palatable and altogether acceptable. This may be accom- 
plished in considerable degree by steadily using the same feeds and feed 
combinations, and in always avoiding sudden and violent changes in 
their character and in the manner of feeding. 

III. Metabolism 

In the preceding division we learned how digestion prepares the nu- 
trients of feeding stuffs for the nourishment of the animal body. In what 
follows there is briefly set forth how the digested materials are brought 
into the body proper and what becomes of them. Chemists and phy- 
siologists, working together with skill and great patience, have been able 
quite fully to set forth and explain the processes of digestion. "When 
the nutrients leave the alimentary tract and enter the body, the difficulties 
of following them and learning what becomes of them are much greater. 
Many of the changes that occur in the body have been revealed by per- 
severing scientists, but concerning others, only little of a definite nature 
can yet be told. 

57. Metabolism. — The processes by which the digested nutrients of the 
food are utilized for the production of heat and work, or built up into 
the living matter of the body, in turn being broken down and once more 
becoming non-living matter, are termed metabolism. Constructive meta- 
bolism, or the building-up processes, is termed anabolism, while the 
breaking-down and wasting processes are styled catabolism. 

58. The circulative canals of the body. — The body of the animal is 
made up of innumerable cells, which, grouped and modified in myriads 
of ways, ultimately form all its organs and parts. Everywhere among 
the cells are minute spaces called lymph spaces, which are connected 
with the lymphatics, a set of vessels which permeate most parts of the 



32 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

body. In some respects the lymphatics resemble the veins, but they are 
thinner and more transparent and drain in only one direction — toward 
the heart. Within these vessels is a clear fluid called lymph. These 
vessels unite with one another, forming a network in many places. Here 
and there a trunk subdivides into five or six smaller vessels, and the 
latter enter a nodule-like body called a lymphatic gland. From this gland 
come several small vessels, which, after a short space, again unite to form 
a trunk. Gradually these trunks unite, forming larger trunks until a 
large duct and another smaller one are formed which enter veins in the 
neck. 

The other set of canals is the arteries and veins, which permeate every 
portion of the body, the former carrying the blood away from the heart, 
and the latter carrying it to the heart. At the extremities of the arteries 
are still more minute tubes, called capillaries, which connect them with 
the veins. If one extends his arms in front of him with his finger tips 
touching, his body will represent the heart, while one arm will represent 
an artery carrying blood from the heart, and the other a vein conveying 
blood to the heart. The touching fingers will correspond to the capillaries 
connecting the arteries with the veins, and the space all about the fingers 
will represent the surrounding body tissues. In general, neither the 
veins nor the arteries allow any substance within them to escape thru 
their walls proper. It is thru the capillaries that the nutritive matter 
carried by the blood finds its way into the body tissues for their nourish- 
ment, and thru the capillaries and the lymphatics, in turn, the waste of 
the body drains back into the blood circulation. The cellular tissues of 
which the body is composed are thus everywhere permeated by the ducts 
of the lymphatic system and the capillaries of the blood system. The cells 
of the body are bathed by lymph, which is the fluid that receives and 
temporarily holds all the nutritive substances and the body waste. The 
mucous membrane lining the small intestine has a velvety appearance, 
caused by innumerable minute, cone-like projections, or tongues, called 
villi, which project into the interior of the intestinal tube, thereby 
coming into contact with its fluid contents. Within each villus are 
lacteals, or drainage tubes of the lymphatic system, and capillaries of 
the blood system. 

59. Absorption of fat. — As before told, in the small intestine a part of 
the fat of the food is split into fatty acids and glycerin by the action of 
lipase. These acids and the alkalies in bile combine to form soaps 
which aid in emulsifying the remaining fat, so that it also is rapidly acted 
on by the lipase and changed into fatty acids and glycerin. Modern 
investigation supports the view that the fats are all absorbed as soaps 
and glycerin. In the intestinal wall these are reconverted into neutral 
fats which enter the lacteals, forming with the lymph a milky substance 
called chyle. This is carried in the lymphatics and poured into a vein 
near the shoulder, thus entering the blood circulation. 

60. Absorption of carbohydrates; formation of glycogen. — The glucose 
and glucose-like sugars taken up from the intestinal contents by the 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 33 

capillaries pass into the veins, and thence by way of the portal vein into 
the liver. Here they are for the most part withdrawn from the blood 
and temporarily stored in this organ as glycogen, a carbohydrate which 
is closely related to starch and, having the same percentage composition, 
is sometimes called animal starch. Normally from 1.5 to 4.0 per ct. of 
the weight of the liver consists of glycogen. The glycogen stored in the 
liver is gradually changed back into glucose, and then doled out to the 
system as required, the amount of glucose in the blood being kept at 
about 1 part in 1,000. The property of converting glucose into glycogen 
is not possessed by the liver alone, but by the tissues of the body gen- 
erally, especially the muscles. When work is being done the glycogen 
in the muscles is first drawn upon to furnish glucose, and after this store 
has been exhausted, the glycogen in the liver furnishes the needed 
glucose. 

61. Absorption of proteins. — It was formerly supposed that the amino 
acids, the products of protein digestion, which are absorbed from the 
small intestine thru the villi, were joined together while still within the 
intestinal walls, thereby forming the complex proteins of the blood 
called serum albumin and serum globulin. Thru refinement of experi- 
mental methods Van Slyke, 6 and Folin and Denis 7 have been able 
definitely to prove that the amino acids are not thus built into blood 
proteins within the intestinal wall, but that they pass into the blood 
stream without being united. They are then carried into the general 
circulation, and from the blood stream each of the various tissues of the 
body — muscles, organs, etc. — absorbs a certain amount of the amino acids 
for growth, or the repair of the daily waste of protein matter. 

Mineral matter is taken up from the small intestines, and water is 
absorbed all along the alimentary tract, from the stomach to the large 
intestine. 

62. Distribution of absorbed nutrients. — We have seen that the digested 
fats which are to nourish the body are poured into the blood current by 
way of the lymphatics, while the glucose and the amino acids enter the 
blood directly thru the capillaries and veins. The veins from the small 
intestine unite and become the portal vein, which passes the blood thru 
the liver and on into the heart. The various nutrient materials, having 
been mingled with the blood, are carried thru the circulation to the capil- 
laries. 

These are so constructed that, when the blood finally reaches them, 
the nutritive substances it carries pass thru their walls and are mingled 
with lymph that bathes the myriad body cells. In this manner all the 
nutrients, having been especially prepared and transported, are available 
for the nourishment of every portion of the body. Oxygen is taken into 
the blood thru the lungs, and water and mineral matters are absorbed 
from the digestive tract. All are carried by the arteries and pass thru 
the capillaries into the lymph. 

8 Jour. Biol. Chem., 12, 1912, 399-410; 16, 1913, 187-233. 

7 Jour. Biol. Chem., 11, 1912, 87-95; 12, 1912, 141-162. 



34 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

63. Use of the absorbed nutrients. — The absorbed nutrients, thus 
transferred to all the tissues of the body, may be oxidized, or burned, to 
warm the animal, or to produce energy to carry on the vital processes 
and to perform work, as shown in the following chapters. In case more 
nutrients are supplied than are required for these purposes, the excess 
may be transformed into body tissue proper, as shown in Chapter V. 
The glucoses may be converted into fats and stored as body fat, as may 
also the fats derived directly from the food fats. The amino acids may 
be built up into body protein or, if not needed for this purpose, a portion 
of their carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen may be converted into fat, while 
the nitrogen is excreted, chiefly in the form of urea. The highest use 
of the proteins, however, is the formation of nitrogenous tissues — the 
muscles, brain, nerves, skin, hair, and various organs of the body. 

64. Disposal of body waste. — In breaking up the food nutrients within 
the body proper for the production of heat, and in the changes which 
occur in building them into body tissues, carbon dioxid is evolved. 
Most of this escapes into the capillaries and is carried in the blood by the 
veins to the lungs, where it is eliminated in breathing, a portion, however, 
escaping by way of the skin. Some of the marsh gas produced by fer- 
mentations in the stomach of herbivora is absorbed into the blood and 
thrown out by the lungs. 

Nearly all of the nitrogenous waste, representing the breaking down of 
protein material in the body, is excreted in the urine thru the kidneys, 
tho a trace is given off in the sweat and a more appreciable amount in 
the feces. In mammals this waste takes the form principally of urea. 
In calculating the total amount of protein metabolism it is customary to 
determine the total nitrogen in the urine and multiply this by 6.25. This 
gives the amount of protein broken down, since it is assumed that, on 
the average, nitrogen forms 16 per ct. of the total weight of the protein 
molecule. (17) 

A great variety of other end-products of metabolism are likewise 
eliminated by the kidneys thru the urine. The inorganic salts, such as 
common salt, also escape from the body principally in the urine. Small 
amounts of most of the substances eliminated in the urine are also 
excreted by the skin thru the sweat glands. A considerable portion of 
certain inorganic salts containing calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus 
are eliminated by way of the intestines. 

65. Summary. — In Chapter I we learned how the various inorganic 
compounds taken by plants from earth, air, and water are built into 
organic plant compounds, and how in such building the energy of the 
sun becomes latent or hidden in the substance of the plant. In this 
chapter we have learned how the animal, feeding on plants, separates 
the useful from the waste by mastication and digestion, and how the 
digested nutrients, after undergoing more or less change, are conveyed 
from the alimentary tract to the body tissues and used for building the 
body, for warming it, or in performing work. All the energy manifested 



THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 35 

by living animals and the heat evolved in their bodies represent the 
energy of the sun originally stored in food substances by plants. With 
the breaking down of the nutrient matters in the bodies of animals, and 
in the decay of the animal substance itself, the organic matter loses the 
condition of life and falls back to the inorganic condition, once more be- 
coming a part of the earth, air, and water as inert matter. After this 
degradation it is again gathered up by the plants and once more starts 
on the upward path. Such is the eternal round of Nature, in which 
plants, animals, the energy of the sun, and the mysterious guiding prin- 
ciple of life all play their parts. 



CHAPTER III 

MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 

I. Digestibility op Feeds 

In determining the relative usefulness of different feeding stuffs to the 
animal it is necessary to find a means of measuring the amount of 
nutrients which each actually furnishes. The most simple means for 
such measurement is to determine the digestibility of the several 
nutrients of a feed ; i.e., the percentage of the total crude protein, fiber, 
nitrogen-free extract, and fat which is digested by the animal. The 
digestible matter is obviously the only portion of the feed which is of use, 
since the remainder passes out in the feces without ever having really 
entered the body. In studying the digestibility of a given feed the 
chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of each nutrient it 
contains. Weighed quantities of the feed are then given to the animal, 
and the feces voided during a stated period are saved and weighed, and 
samples are analyzed. The difference between the amount of each 
nutrient fed and that found in the feces resulting therefrom represents 
the digested portion. 

66. A digestion trial with sheep. — To show how the digestibility of a 
feed is determined, the following results are given from an actual diges- 
tion trial conducted by Armsby at the Wisconsin Station. 1 Desiring to 
ascertain the digestibility of clover hay and malt sprouts, 2 wethers 
weighing 87 lbs. each were confined in specially constructed apartments 
and fed from zinc-lined boxes to prevent waste. Each day's allowance 
was weighed and samples analyzed. The feces voided by the wethers 
were collected in rubber-lined bags attached to their hind quarters by a 
light harness. These bags were emptied each 24 hours, and the contents 
weighed and analyzed. Feeding progressed 6 days before the trial prop- 
er began, in order that all residues of previous feed might have passed 
from the alimentary tract. During the first period each sheep, as shown 
in the table, was fed 700 grams (about 1.5 lbs.) of clover hay daily, which 
was consumed without waste. 

Digestion trial with sheep fed clover hay; average for 1 day 





Dry 

matter 


Crude 
protein 


Carbohydrates 






Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


Fat 


Fed 700 grams hay, containing . . 
Excreted 610.6 grams feces, 


Grams 

586.1 

288.6 


Gram3 

77.7 
40.4 


Grams 

191.5 
101.5 


Grams 

276.7 
119.4 


Grams 

10.7 
7.9 




297.5 
50.8 


37.3 

48.0 


90.0 
47.1 


157.3 

56.8 


2.8 




26.2 



1 Wis. Rpt. 1884. 



36 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 



37 



The table shows that the 700 grams of hay fed contained 586.1 grams 
of dry matter, and that the feces for 1 day, which represented the un- 
digested portion of the ration, contained 288.6 grams. The difference, 
297.5 grams, or 50.8 per ct., is held to be the dry matter digested. The 
average dry matter digested in 2 such trials was 51.2 per ct. Of the 77.7 
grams of crude protein supplied, 40.4 grams appeared in the feces. The 
difference, 37.3 grams, or 48 per ct., represents the digested crude pro- 
tein. In like manner the percentage of the other nutrients digested was 
determined. 

The average percentage of each nutrient digested in a feeding stuff is 
termed the coefficient of digestibility, or digestion coefficient, for that 
nutrient in the feed. 

67. Digestibility determined by difference. — Ruminants and horses are 
not normally fed on concentrates alone. Therefore, when it is desired to 
determine the digestibility of a concentrate, the animal is first fed rough- 
age alone and the amount digested determined. The concentrate to be 
studied is then added to the roughage, and the total nutrients digested 
from both feeds are found. By difference, the amount of digestible 
nutrients coming from the concentrate is computed. 

To determine the digestibility of malt sprouts, the sheep used in the 
above trial were next fed a ration of 600 grams of clover hay and 175 
grams of malt sprouts, as shown below : 

Trial with sheep to ascertain the digestibility of malt sprouts 



Dry 

matter 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



N-free 
extract 



Fat 



Fed 600 grams hay 

Fed 175 grams malt sprouts 

Total 

In 681 .1 grams feces 

Digested, total 

Digested from hay 

Digested from malt sprouts. 
Per cent digested 



Grams 

500.9 
154.1 



Grams 

67.4 
36.8 



Grams 

163.3 
21.0 



Grams 

236.3 

87.5 



Grams 

9.4 

2.2 



655.0 
295.2 



104.2 
41.5 



184.3 
100.6 



323.8 
129.0 



11.6 
5.5 



359.8 
256.4 



62.7 
33.2 



83.7 
76.8 



194.8 
135.2 



6.1 

3.8 



103.4 
67.1 



29.5 

80.2 



6.9 
32.9 



59.6 
68.1 



2.3 
104.5 



The digestibility of malt sprouts was determined indirectly in the fol- 
lowing manner: The dry matter of the clover hay and malt sprouts 
together equaled 655 grams. The excreted dry matter from this equaled 
295.2 grams, so that the total quantity digested was the difference, or 
359.8 grams. In the previous trial it was found as the average of 2 
periods that 51.2 per ct. of the dry matter in clover hay was digestible. 
Taking 51.2 per ct. of 500.9 grams gives 256.4 grams, which is the 
probable quantity of dry matter that was digested from the hay. Sub- 



38 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

tracting 256.4 from 359.8 grams, there is left 103.4 grams, or 67.1 per ct., 
which is taken as the per cent of dry matter digested from the malt 
sprouts. In a similar manner the other digestion coefficients for malt 
sprouts are determined. The table reports 104.5 per ct. of the fat of 
malt sprouts digested — an absurdity. The total quantity of fat in the 
feeds used in this trial was so small that an error like this could 
easily occur. 

In digestion trials it is commonly assumed that all matter appearing 
in the feces has escaped the action of the digestive ferments and so rep- 
resents the indigestible part of the food. Tho substantially correct, there 
are exceptions to this assumption. The feces contain some waste from 
the body itself, such as bile residues, matter which sloughs off from the 
Avails of the alimentary tract, and unabsorbed digestive juices. In a 
metabolism trial with a goat at the Wisconsin Station fed a ration of 
straw, which is low in protein, Steenbock, Nelson, and Hart 2 found more 
nitrogen in the feces than in the original feed, due to the absorption of 
digestive juices by the bulky straw. Yet a considerable portion of the 
protein contained in the straw must have been digested. 

By treating the feces with an acid solution of pepsin, all the nitroge- 
nous compounds except the true undigested food protein may be dissolved 
therefrom, and the actual digestion coefficient thus found for the protein. 
In a few digestion trials in recent years this method has been employed. 

Armsby has shown 3 that ruminants feeding on coarse forage convert 
much of the fiber into marsh gas, or methane, which has no nutritive 
value. In such cases digestion trials will show too high a value for 
the fiber. 

In digestion studies the ether extract, or so-called fat, is determined 
by the use of ether, which dissolves not only the true fat, but also 
chlorophyll, wax, bile residues, and other substances which are not true 
fat. Due to this, and because the fats in feeding stuffs are usually in 
relatively small amount, errors are liable to occur in their determination. 
Fraps and Rather 4 at the Texas Station, on studying the ether extract 
obtained from 18 different forage plants, found that only 42 per ct. was 
true fat. The digestibility of the true fat averaged 66.4 per ct. ; while 
only 29.1 per ct. of the remainder (not true fat) was digestible. The 
ether extract of seeds, which is nearly all true fat, is highly digestible. 

68. Coefficients of digestibility. — The coefficients of digestibility for the 
various feeding stuffs, as determined by the experiment stations of this 
country, have been compiled by the authors and are presented in Appen- 
dix Table II. In the case of feeds for which American data is not 
available, coefficients from European sources have been included. From 
this extensive table the following examples are taken to show the diges- 
tibility of typical feeds : 

2 Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. 399. 4 Tex. Bui. 150. 

3 Cyclopedia Am. Agr., Ill, p. 65. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 



39 



Coefficients of digestibility of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix 

Table II 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Oats 

Wheat, ground 

Wheat bran 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 
Roughages 

Timothy hay 

Red clover hay 

Oat straw 

Kentucky bluegrass, 
green 

Corn silage 

Mangels 









Carbohydrates 


No of 


Dry 
matter 


Crude 
protein 






trials 












Fiber 


extract 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


12 


90 


74 


57 


94 


17 


70 


78 


35 


81 


4 


87 


74 


59 


93 


20 


65 


78 


31 


72 


7 


77 


91 


60 


55 


3 


79 


89 


57 


78 


58 


55 


48 


50 


62 


25 


59 


59 


54 


66 


18 


54 


28 


60 


51 


7 


56 


57 


66 


61 


27 


66 


51 


65 


71 


22 


87 


70 


37 


95 



Fat 



Per ct. 
93 

87 
72 
68 
86 
89 



50 
57 
39 

52 

82 



The table shows that for dent corn 90 per ct. of the total dry matter, 
74 per ct. of the crude protein, 57 per ct. of the fiber, 94 per ct. of the 
nitrogen-free extract, and 93 per ct. of the fat is digestible. Feeds which 
contain little fiber, such as corn and wheat, show high digestibility, be- 
cause their nutrients are not protected from the action of the digestive 
juices by thick cell walls of cellulose, or fiber. Owing to their larger fiber 
content, oats and wheat bran are less digestible than corn or wheat. As 
a class the roughages are high in fiber, and therefore much less digestible 
than the concentrates. This will be noted on comparing the digestion 
coefficients for timothy hay and oat straw with those for corn and wheat. 
The dry matter of mangels is as well digested as that of wheat, again 
showing that roots are more like concentrates than roughages. 

69. Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs. — To determine the digestible 
nutrients in any feeding stuff the total amount of each nutrient in 100 
lbs. thereof is multiplied by the digestion coefficient for that nutrient. 
For example, 100 lbs. of dent corn contain 10.1 pound of crude protein 
(Appendix Table I), of which 74 per ct. is digestible, as shown by the 
preceding table. Accordingly, there are 7.5 lbs. of digestible protein in 
100 lbs. of this grain. By this method the data contained in the exten- 
sive Table III of the Appendix have been computed. The following 
examples are here taken from this table for illustration and study. 

In Appendix Tables I and II the fiber and nitrogen-free extract are 
given in separate columns, for, tho of the same chemical composition, 
these components often differ widely in digestibility. In preparing the 
tables showing the digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, the digestible 
fiber and digestible nitrogen-free extract are determined separately and 
the results combined under the term carbohydrates, as is done in this 



40 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



table. The digestible carbohydrates in dent corn are computed as fol- 
lows: According to Appendix Table I, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 
2.0 lbs. of fiber, 57 per ct. of which is digestible, as shown in Appendix 
Table II. Likewise there are 70.9 lbs. of nitrogen-free extract, 94 per ct. 
of which is digestible. Multiplying in each case and adding the products, 
we have 67.8 lbs., which is placed in the column marked "digestible 
carbohydrates. ' ' 

Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix 

Table III 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Wheat bran 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 
Roughages 

Timothy hay 

Red clover hay 

Oat straw 

Kentucky bluegrass, 
green 

Corn silage, recent 

analyses 

Mangels 



Total 

dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 
(inc. fat 
x 2.25) 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


89.5 


7.5 


67.8 


4.6 


85.7 


90.8 


9.7 


52.1 


3.8 


70.4 


89.8 


9.2 


67.5 


1.5 


80.1 


89.9 


12.5 


41.6 


3.0 


60.9 


90.8 


20.6 


17.0 


29.0 


102.8* 


90.9 


30.2 


32.6 


6.7 


77.9 


88.4 


3.0 


42.8 


1.2 


48.5 


87.1 


7.6 


39.3 


1.8 


51.0 


88.5 


1.0 


42.6 


0.9 


45.6 


31.6 


2.3 


14.8 


0.6 


18.5 


26.3 


1.1 


15.0 


0.7 


17.7 


9.4 


1.0 


6.1 


0.1 


7.3 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:10.4 



6 3 
7.7 
3.9 
4.0 
1.6 



1:15.2 
1: 5.7 
1:44.6 

1: 7.0 

1:15.1 
1: 6.3 



*The high value for flaxseed is due to the fact that its 29.0 lbs. of digestible 
fat equals 65 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates (29.0x2.25-65.2). 

It will be noted that the typical feeds presented in this table show 
wide differences in the amount of different digestible nutrients they 
furnish. Corn and wheat are high in digestible carbohydrates and 
rather low in digestible protein, while wheat bran and linseed meal are 
high in digestible protein but low in digestible carbohydrates. Linseed 
meal contains more digestible protein and less than one-fourth as much 
digestible fat as the flax seed from which it comes. The roughages range 
lower in digestible nutrients than the concentrates. Oat straw is es- 
pecially low in digestible protein, while immature and actively growing 
pasture grass will contain nearly as much digestible protein as wheat 
bran, if cut and dried to the same water content. 

70. Nutritive ratio. — As protein serves special uses in the body, in 
discussions of feeding stuffs and rations the term nutritive ratio is used 
to show the proportion of digestible protein contained in comparison 
with the other nutrients. By nutritive ratio is meant the ratio which 
exists in any given feeding stuff between the digestible crude protein and 
the combined digestible carbohydrates and fat. It is determined in the 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 41 

following manner: The digestible fat in 100 lbs. of the given feed is 
multiplied by 2.25, because fat will produce 2.25 times as much heat on 
being burned in the body as do the carbohydrates. The product is then 
added to the digestible carbohydrates and the sum is divided by the 
amount of digestible crude protein, the quotient being the second factor 
of the ratio. The manner of computing the nutritive ratio of dent corn 
is as follows : 

Second factor of 
Diges. fat Heat equiv. Diges. carbohy. nutritive ratio 

(4.6 X 2.25) + 67.8 

= 10.4 

7.5 • 
Diges. crude protein 

Nutritive ratios are expressed with the colon, thus, 1 :10.4. The nutri- 
tive ratio of dent corn is therefore 1 :10.4 (read 1 to 10.4) ; i.e., for each 
pound of digestible crude protein in corn there are 10.4 lbs. of digestible 
carbohydrates or fat equivalent. A feed or ration having much crude 
protein in proportion to carbohydrates and fat combined is said to have 
a narrow nutritive ratio; if the reverse, it has a wide nutritive ratio. 
Oat straw has the extremely wide nutritive ratio of 1 :44.6, because of 
its low content of digestible protein compared with the carbohydrates 
and fat ; oats the medium one of 1 : 6.3 ; and protein-rich linseed meal the 
very narrow ratio of 1 :1.6, the carbohydrates being less than twice the 
crude protein. 

When the total digestible nutrients (including fat X 2.25) in a feed 
or ration are given, as in Appendix Table III and this sample table, the 
nutritive ratio may be computed by simply subtracting the digestible 
crude protein from the total digestible nutrients, and dividing the re- 
mainder by the digestible crude protein. For example, the nutritive 
ratio of dent corn may be found thus: (85.6 — 7.5) -£■ 7.5 = 10.4, second 
term of nutritive ratio. 

The term carbonaceous feed, which has recently come into common 
use, is a convenient designation for a feeding stuff having a wide nutri- 
tive ratio. Similarly, the term nitrogenous feed designates a feeding 
stuff having a narrow nutritive ratio. 

II. Respiration Studies 

Tables of digestible nutrients tell what part of the food may be 
digested and absorbed and thus really enter the body of the animal, but 
they throw no light on the use or disposition made of the nutrients when 
once they are within the body. To obtain such information the respira- 
tion apparatus has been devised. This is an air-tight chamber, arranged 
in such manner and with such devices that all that enters and comes 
from the body of the animal placed within it can be accurately measured 
and studied. In some cases mechanical work is performed, while in others 
the subject is at rest. Everything which passes into the animal — air, 



42 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



food, and water — is carefully measured and analyzed so that the exact 
intake of the body is known. The air is in turn drawn from the chamber 
and analyzed, and the solid and liquid excrements passed by the animal 
are all likewise weighed and analyzed. If the intake is larger than the 
outgo, the animal has increased in body substance; if less, it has lost. 
The respiration apparatus has been used for studying the production of 
work and the formation of the tissues of the body, both the lean flesh and 
the body fat. Thru this means scientists have, in some measure, been 
able to determine what becomes of the food animals consume. 

71. A respiration study. — The use of the respiration apparatus is illus- 
trated by the following example from Henneberg 5 of the Weende Station, 
Germany. A full-grown ox weighing 1,570 lbs. was placed in the respira- 
tion chamber. During one day of the trial it was fed 11.1 lbs. clover hay, 
13.2 lbs. oat straw, 8.2 lbs. bean meal, and 2.13 oz. salt, and drank 123.7 
lbs. water. The intake and outgo of the body for the day are shown in 
the following table : 

One clay's study with a 1570-lb. ox in a respiration apparatus 





Mineral 
matter 


Carbon 


Hydro- 
gen 


Nitro- 
gen 


Oxygen 


A . Intake of body 

156 .25 lbs. feed and water, containing 

27.94 lbs. dry matter 

128.31 lbs. water 

15 .99 lbs. oxygen from air 


Lbs. 
1.96 


Lbs. 

12.84 


Lbs. 

1.65 
14.26 


Lbs. 

0.68 


Lbs. 

10.81 

114.05 

15 .99 


17 9 24 lbs total intake 


1.96 

1.27 
0.67 


12.84 

5.69 
0.49 

5.89 
0.04 


15.91 

9.28 
3.26 

0.02 
3.11 


0.68 

0.23 
0.37 


140.85 


B. Outgo from body 

120.25 lbs. excrements, viz: 

89 61 lbs. feces 


73.14 


30.64 lbs. urine 

49 .71 lbs. respiration products, viz: 

21 .61 lbs. carbon dioxid 

.06 lb. methane gas 

28.04 lbs. water 


25.85 
15.72 
24.93 


169 .96 lbs., total outgo 


1.94 


12.11 


15.67 


0.60 


139.64 


A-B. Production in body 


0.02 


0.25 

0.48 


0.03 
0.08 

0.13 


0.08 


0.12 


62 lb fat 


0.06 






1 16 lbs water in flesh and fat 


1.03 






2 28 lbs., total remaining in body 


0.02 


0.73 


0.24 


0.08 


1.21 



72. Intake of the body.— The first part of the table (A) shows that 
during the 24 hours of the trial the ox confined within the respiration 
apparatus took into his digestive tract 27.94 lbs. of dry matter in his 
food and 128.31 lbs. of water in food and drink, and breathed in air 



r 'Neue Beitrage, Gottingen, I. 1870, p. XIX; Kraft, Lehrb. Landw., Ill, p. 17. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 43 

containing 15.99 lbs. of oxygen, a total intake for the day of 172.24 lbs. 
The amounts of mineral matter, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen 
taken into the body in air, food, and water are shown in the respective 
columns of the table. 

73. Outgo from the body.— The next division of the table (B) shows 
that during the day there passed from the ox 120.25 lbs. of excrements, 
of which 89.61 lbs. was feces and 30.64 lbs. urine. From the lungs and 
skin there was exhaled 49.71 lbs. of gas and vapor, somewhat less than 
half of which was carbon dioxid; a trace, methane gas; and the re- 
mainder, water. 

Of the 12.84 lbs. of carbon contained in the ration, there was voided in 
the undigested matter of the feces 5.69 lbs., or about two-fifths the total 
amount. Similarly, about one-third of the nitrogen in the food never 
entered the body proper from the stomach and intestines, but passed 
away in the voidings. That part of the food which was digested and 
absorbed into the body was used to carry on the life functions and to 
repair the body tissues, or was stored as body substance. 

The 30.64 lbs. of urine excreted contained 0.37 lb. of nitrogen. This 
nitrogenous waste came either from the food which the ox had consumed 
during the day, or resulted from the small, continuous wastage of the 
protein tissues of the body. Since about 16 per ct. of such protein matter 
as was contained in the food or composed the body tissues of the ox was 
nitrogen, by multiplying the 0.37 lb. of nitrogen by 100/16, or 6.25 (17), 
we find that 2.31 lbs. of the protein of the feed or from the body was 
broken down and passed away in the urine during the day. 

74. Production in the body. — By subtracting the total outgo of the body 
from the total intake, we obtain the figures in the last part of the table, 
A-B. These show that out of 172.24 lbs. of food, water, and air taken in 
by the ox during the day, 2.28 lbs. remained as some part of the animal 
body. Of this, 0.02 lb. was mineral matter or ash ; 0.73 lb. carbon ; 0.24 
lb. hydrogen, 0.08 lb. nitrogen, and 1.21 lb. oxygen. By multiplying 
the 0.08 lb. of nitrogen (0.077 lb. to more exact) by 6.25 we find that the 
steer gained 0.48 lb. of protein or dry lean meat. As protein is a little 
over half carbon, about 0.25 lb. of carbon was built into the lean meat, 
leaving 0.48 lb. of carbon to be stored as fat. Pure fat is about three- 
fourths carbon, hence the 0.48 lb. of carbon represents about 0.62 lb. of 
fat, which was stored during the day. As fresh lean meat is nearly 
two-thirds water, the 0.48 lb. of dry lean meat equaled 1.25 lbs. of fresh 
lean meat. The body fat of the ox is about two-thirds fat and one-third 
water; hence the ox stored about 1.0 lb. of fatty tissues during the day. 

From this most instructive study we learn that a 1570-lb. ox confined 
in a respiration chamber for 24 hours consumed during that time 11.1 
lbs. of clover hay, 13.2 lbs. of oat straw, 8.2 lbs. of bean meal, and 2.13 oz. 
of salt ; drank 123.7 lbs. of water; and breathed in 16 lbs. of oxygen gas. 
From all this it gained 2.28 lbs. of body weight, of which about 1.12 lbs. 
was dry lean meat, fat, and mineral matter, and 1.16 lbs., or over one- 
half was water. 



44 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

III. The Energy of Food 

The living mature animal may be compared to a steam engine, in which 
part of the power derived from the fuel is used for the operation of the 
engine itself, i.e., the movement of flywheel, piston, etc., while the sur- 
plus may perform useful work. The steam engine derives its energy 
from coal or wood burned under the boiler; the animal, from the feed 
it consumes. Both require a small amount of repair material — steel, 
brass, etc., for the engine, and protein and mineral matter for the 
animal — but the largest demand with engine and animal alike is for fuel. 
It is therefore both important and interesting to consider the relative 
value of feeds in terms of the fuel they furnish the body. 

75. Fuel value of feeds. — The value of any feeding stuff as fuel for the 
animal depends on the amount of energy which it will furnish when 
burned. As with coal, the fuel value of a feed is determined by burning 
a weighed quantity of it in pure oxygen gas under pressure in an appara- 
tus called a calorimeter. The heat evolved is taken up by water sur- 
rounding the burning chamber and measured with a thermometer, the 
units of measure employed being the Calorie and the therm. 

A Calorie (C.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature 
of 1 kilogram of water 1° C, or 1 lb. of water nearly 4° F. 

A therm (T.) is 1,000 Calories, or the amount of heat required to raise 
1,000 kilograms of water 1° C, or 1,000 lbs. of water nearly 4° F. 

The fuel value of 100 lbs. of various substances, or the heat evolved 
on burning them, is as follows : 

Therms 

Anthracite coal 358 . 3 

Timothy hay, containing 15 per ct. moisture 175 .1 

Oat straw, containing 15 per ct. moisture 171 .0 

Corn meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 170 .9 

Linseed meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 196 .7 

Pure digestible protein 263 . 1 

Pure digestible carbohydrates 186 .0 

Pure digestible fat 422 .0 

The table shows that, on burning, 100 lbs. of anthracite coal yields 
358.3 therms, or enough heat to raise the temperature of 358,300 lbs. of 
water 4° F. ; or about 8,000 lbs. of water from 32° F., or freezing, to 
212° F., or boiling temperature. One hundred pounds of timothy hay 
likewise burned yields 175.1 therms, or about half as much as coal. Lin- 
seed meal has a higher fuel value than corn meal because it contains more 
oil. Digestible protein yields considerably more heat than the carbohy- 
drates, and fat over twice as much as the carbohydrates. 

The energy evolved on burning a substance may be expressed by the 
work it will do in lifting a weight, the unit of such measurement being 
the foot-ton. This is the amount of energy required to raise a weight of 
1 ton 1 foot against the force of gravity. A Calorie will furnish the 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 45 

energy required to raise a weight of 1.53 tons 1 foot. A therm (1,000 
Calories) will thus raise a weight of 1,530 tons 1 foot, or 1 ton 1,530 feet. 

76. Available energy. — The fuel value of any feed does not necessarily 
measure its nutritive value to the animal, because feeds which yield the 
same number of heat units in the calorimeter may vary in the amount 
of available energy which they can furnish to the body. This is because : 

1. A part of the food consumed passes thru the alimentary tract 
undigested. This may be compared to bits of coal dropping thru the 
grate of the boiler unburned. 

2. The carbohydrates, especially woody fiber, undergo fermentations 
in the intestines and paunch, combustible gases being evolved which are 
without fuel value to the animal. (48) Even in well-constructed engines 
a similar loss of energy occurs in the combustible gases which escape 
thru the chimney without being burned. 

3. "When the protein substances in the body are broken down they 
form urea, a nitrogenous compound which is excreted by the kidneys. 
(64) Urea has fuel value which is lost to the body. Again we may 
liken this loss to that which occurs in the boiler thru the creosote which, 
tho having fuel value, is not burned in the fire box but escapes or is 
deposited in the chimney. 

The fuel value of any food which remains after deducting these three 
losses represents the available energy of the food (or as it is now often 
called, the metabolizable energy). This is the portion which the animal 
can use for body purposes. 

77. Net energy. — The available energy of the food measures its value 
for heat production in the animal, but does not represent its true value 
for other purposes. The animal must expend a part of the total available 
energy of any food in extracting the real fuel material from the rela- 
tively large proportion of useless material which it must excrete, and 
in converting the digested material into forms which can be used by the 
body. In other words, the work of masticating and digesting the food 
and of assimilating the digested nutrients requires considerable energy. 
The energy so expended finally takes the form of heat, but is not available 
for other purposes in the body, since the animal has no power to convert 
heat into other forms of energy. That portion of the energy which re- 
mains after masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is termed 
the net energy of the food. This net energy is used by the animal, first of 
all, in the work of the heart, lungs, and other internal organs, and in 
case a surplus of net energy remains after satisfying the requirement of 
the animal for mere body maintenance, such surplus may be used for 
producing growth, fat, milk, or wool, or in the performance of ex- 
ternal work. 

The losses of energy due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation 
may be compared to the losses which would occur if a gasoline engine 
had to distil its own gasoline from crude petroleum and then get rid of 
the impurities which it could not use. 



46 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



78. Net energy of feeding stuffs. — The respiration apparatus, previ- 
ously described, furnishes a means by which the chemist may calculate 
the net energy of feeds from the amount of fat, protein, etc., deposited by 
the animal within its body during an experiment. In recent years the 
respiration apparatus of the earlier times has been improved by adding 
thereto means for accurately measuring the heat given off by the animal 
while under study. The new apparatus is styled the respiration calo- 
rimeter. The first respiration calorimeter in the United States was 
constructed by Atwater with the aid of the United States Department of 
Agriculture, at Middletown, Connecticut. It was for human nutrition 
studies only. The first and only respiration calorimeter for animals in 
this country was erected by Armsby some years since in a special build- 
ing at the Pennsylvania State College, thru the joint efforts of the United 
States Department of Agriculture and the Pennsylvania Station. 6 

For many years Kellner 7 of the Mockern Station, G-ermany, employed 
the respiration chamber in animal studies. His studies and those of 
Armsby 8 with the respiration calorimeter have been for the most part 
with the mature ox. In these investigations not only was a record kept 
of all the feed consumed and water drank, but of everything that passed 
from the animal, including the so-called solid excrement, urine, carbonic 
acid gas, and water, and in the case of Armsby 's experiments, all the 
heat given off by the body. While studies of this kind have really only 
begun, they have already brought out facts of great interest and im- 
portance. The following table sets forth some of their findings with 
reference to what becomes of the digestible nutrients and 3 common 
feeding stuffs when fed to the ox. 

Net energy from 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients and common 
feeding stuffs 



Nutrients or 
feeding stuffs 



Digestible nutrients 

Peanut oil (fat) 

Wheat gluten (protein). . 
Starch (carbohydrate) . . 

Common feeding stuffs 

Corn meal 

Timothy hay 

Wheat straw 



Expressed in per cent 

Corn meal 

Timothy hay 

Wheat straw 



Total 
energy 



Therms 

399.2 
263.1 
186.0 



170.9 
179.3 
171.4 

Per ct. 
100 
100 
100 



Energy lost 



In feces 



Therms 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 



15.7 
87.7 
93.9 

Per ct. 
9.2 

48.9 

54.8 



In 

methane 
gas 



Therms 

0.0 
0.0 

18.8 



15.9 

6.8 

15.5 

Per ct. 
9.3 
3.8 
9.0 



Therms 

0.0 

49.2 

0.0 



6.6 
5.5 
4.3 

Per ct. 
3.9 
3.1 
2.5 



In pro- 
duction 

processes 



Therms 

174.4 
118.3 

68.7 



62.0 
52.9 
47.4 

Per ct. 
36.3 
29.5 

27.7 



Total 

loss 



Therms 

174.4 
167.5 
87.5 



100.2 
152.9 
161.1 

Per ct. 
58.7 
85.3 
94.0 



Net en- 
ergy re- 
maining 



Therms 

224.8 
95.6 
98.5 



70.7 
26.4 
10.3 

Per ct. 

41.3 

14.7 

6.0 



For a popular description of these calorimeters, see Century Magazine, July, 
1887, and the Experiment Station Record, July, 1904. 
'Land. Vers. Stat, 53, 1900, pp. 440-468. 
'U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 101. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 47 

This table sets forth some of the highest and most instructive attain- 
ments of the scientists working on problems in animal nutrition. The 
first column shows the total amount of energy which would be produced 
on burning 100 lbs. of the digestible nutrients or of typical feeding 
stuffs. "With the digestible nutrients no further loss occurs in the feces, 
but all are absorbed out of the small intestine and go into the body 
proper. The oil contained no nitrogen, and so no nitrogenous waste from 
it appeared in the urine, nor did any of it form methane gas in the in- 
testines. To digest and assimilate this 100 lbs. of oil required 174.4 
therms of energy, leaving 224.8 therms which might be stored in the body, 
either temporarily in the lymph bathing the tissue cells, or more per- 
manently as body fat. 

When 100 lbs. or 263.1 therms of wheat gluten, which is principally 
protein, was digested and absorbed into the body, a loss of 49.2 therms 
occurred in the urine, this loss coming from the breaking down of this 
protein nutrient within the bodj^, or from the breaking down of body 
tissue which was replaced by new protein from this source. In all 167.5 
out of 263.1 therms in 100 lbs. of gluten were lost either in the urine or 
in carrying on the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation, leav- 
ing 95.6 therms which might be temporarily or permanently stored in 
the body. This amount of protein was available for building protein 
tissues or lean meat, which would be its highest use, or it could serve for 
the production of body fat, etc. 

79. Losses in undigested matter, methane, and urine. — Studying the 
lower division of the table we observe that if the total energy of corn 
meal is placed at 100, then 9.2 per ct. of its heat value passed from the 
ox in the undigested matter of the solid excrement. This loss we may 
compare to bits of coal passing unburned thru the grate bars of a 
furnace. While undergoing digestion, large quantities of methane gas 
were formed. This combustible gas was taken from the intestines by 
the blood and given off thru the lungs and skin, a loss of 9.3 per ct. re- 
sulting. There was a further loss of 3.9 per ct. in the urea which left 
the body in the urine by way of the kidneys. The sum of these three 
losses is 22.4 per ct., which measures that portion of the total fuel value 
of the corn meal which was of no value to the ox, but really worse than 
useless, because work was required in passing it thru the alimentary 
tract. The remaining 77.6 per ct. represents the available energy of 
the corn. 

80. Losses due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation. — From this 
77.6 per ct. of available energy must be deducted the energy expended 
in the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation, amounting to 
36.3 per ct. of the total fuel value of the corn. Subtracting this last sum 
and the previous losses from 100, there remains 41.3 per ct. as the net 
energy value of the corn, or the amount which the animal may use for 
repairing body tissue, for growth, for the laying on of fat, or for the 
production of external work. In the case of timothy hay only 14.7 per 



48 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

ct., and with wheat straw but 6 per ct., of its original fuel value remains 
as finally available for such purposes. About one-half of the total fuel 
value of these two feeds passed off as undigested matter, this portion 
never having been inside the body proper. 

In noting the heavy losses shown under the column headed "Produc- 
tion processes, ' ' the following points are of interest : Zuntz found that 
the work of the horse in chewing hay and preparing it for swallowing 
required 4.5 per ct. of the total energy in the hay, oats only a little over 
1 per ct., and corn but one-third of 1 per ct. He estimates that with the 
horse the work of digestion calls for about 9 per ct. of all the energy 
in the digestible portion of the food. He further found that each 100 
lbs. of fiber, or the woody part of feeding stuffs, in passing thru the 
animal, whether digested or not, required about 118 therms for the work 
of disposing of it. 

Such roughages as straw, hay, and corn stover, because of their coarse, 
woody character due to the fiber they contain, place much work on the 
animal in digesting them and passing the waste out of the body. This 
means an evolution of heat. Therefore where the animal, such as an idle 
horse in winter, is doing no work and needs little net energy, no harm 
but rather economy in cost of keep may result from living on such rough- 
ages, because the large amount of heat necessarily evolved in the diges- 
tion and assimilation of this food helps keep the animal warm. On the 
other hand, animals at hard work and those producing milk or being 
fattened cannot profitably subsist chiefly on coarse forage, for they need 
large amounts of net energy in their rations. 

The data of the table we have been studying are as a whole correct, 
interesting, and helpful in extending our knowledge of a difficult, tho 
most important, subject in animal nutrition. In details they are more 
or less imperfect, and the student should not regard the figures in each 
division of the table as exact and final, but rather as approximate to the 
facts. Taken in the right spirit, these data are of the highest value in 
setting forth what portions of the food consumed by the animal are lost 
at each step in their progress thru the body, and showing how a con- 
siderable part of the value of the food is required to carry on the work 
of mastication, digestion, and metabolism, leaving a relatively small 
portion ultimately available for building the body or for external work. 
The marvel is that the scientists have been able to go so far in solving 
these most complicated problems, and that their zeal is still unabated. 

IV. Factors Influencing the Nutritive Value of Feeds 

81. Differences in composition of feeding stuffs. — The figures given in 
Appendix Table I for the composition of any feed are in most instances 
averages of all analyses of normal samples of that feed which have been 
reported by the various stations. It is obviously important to learn 
what variations from these averages may be expected in the case of 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 49 

samples of a given feed originating in different sections of the country, 
grown in different years, or when gathered at different stages of matu- 
rity. Lack of space prohibits any detailed consideration of this question. 
However, from the mass of data compiled in Appendix Table I, includ- 
ing over 53,000 analyses in all, from all parts of the country, the 
following notes will give a fair idea of the range in the chemical 
composition of typical feeding stuffs. 

It has been found that the composition of a crop may be influenced to 
a limited extent by the amount of available plant food in the soil on 
which the crop is grown. Climatic environment and stage of maturity 
are, however, the most important factors in determining the composition 
of a given feed. Indeed, with some feeds they influence the content of 
nutrients to such a degree that an average of analyses from all sections 
of the country or at all stages of maturity is of little value for any pur- 
pose. Of the cereals, wheat is the most variable in composition, being 
profoundly influenced by climate, especially in its protein content. The 
analyses for this grain from different sections of the country are there- 
fore given separately in Table I. It is there shown that while the aver- 
age crude protein content of wheat from the northern plains states is 
13.5 per ct., wheat from the Atlantic states contains only 11.7 per ct. and 
that from the Pacific states but 9.9 per ct. crude protein. The 
same extended study shows that climate exerts little or no influence on 
the chemical composition of corn, providing the crop matures, the aver- 
age for the various sections showing no appreciable difference in content 
of the several nutrients. Grindley of the Illinois Station 9 has shown 
that samples of corn and wheat from the same region may vary 10 per 
ct. and sometimes even more in their content of protein or fat. The 
nitrogen-free extract is less variable, while fiber shows still larger 
differences than protein or fat. The same general tendencies as to local 
variations hold with the other cereal grains. 

The roughages are even more variable in composition than the cereals, 
owing to the fact that, besides climate, their composition is influenced by 
the stage of maturity, the manner of curing, and the moisture content. 
Analyses of corn fodder and corn stover show a water content ranging 
from over 50 per ct. in field-cured material in wet seasons down to 10 
per ct. or less in arid regions or where cured under cover in a dry season. 
To show the difference in nutritive value of these extremes it may be 
stated that corn fodder or stover containing 10 per ct. water will carry 
80 per ct. more nutrients per 100 lbs. than a sample of the same forage 
containing 50 per ct. water ! To overcome this error so far as possible, 
separate averages are given for very dry and for ordinary field-cured 
samples of these feeds in Appendix Table I. 

The general rule that immature plants contain a much larger pro- 
portion of crude protein than when mature is well illustrated by analyses 
of samples of alfalfa cut at various stages of maturity by Dinsmore at 

9 111. Bui. 165. 



50 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the Nevada Station 10 and cured until they were somewhat drier than 
normal hay. The dried alfalfa cut when 3 inches high, a stage at which 
it is often grazed, carried 34.6 per ct. crude protein and only 43.4 per ct. 
total carbohydrates. As the crop matured the protein content of the 
hay therefrom decreased and the carbohydrates increased till the sample 
cut when seed was beginning to form contained only 14.1 per ct. crude 
protein, while the carbohydrates had increased to 68.1 per ct. Immature 
plants usually contain much more water than the same plants when more 
mature. On account of such wide differences in composition the authors 
have, wherever possible, given in Appendix Table I the averages for 
roughages at different stages of maturity. (See averages for corn fodder, 
timothy hay, Kentucky bluegrass, red clover, etc.) 

It is shown in later chapters that as the grasses and legumes mature 
their content of fiber materially increases, and as a consequence the feed 
becomes less digestible and usually of lower value. However, the large 
accumulation of starch which occurs in the corn plant as it ripens gives 
the more mature form of that plant a greater total feeding value. (27) 

If green forage is cured without waste and in a manner to prevent 
fermentation, the mere drying does not lower its digestibility. Ordi- 
narily, however, in curing forage much of the finer and more nutritious 
parts is wasted, and dews, rain, and fermentations effect changes which 
lower digestibility. The large amount of work done in masticating dry 
forage and passing it thru the alimentary tract explains why green 
forage may give better results and hence appears more digestible than 
dry forage. The long storage of fodders, even under favorable condi- 
tions, decreases both their digestibility and palatability. Hay browned 
by heating shows increased digestibility of fiber but decreased diges- 
tibility of crude protein and nitrogen-free extract. 

82. Influence on digestibility of amount of feed eaten. — Animals tend 
to digest their food somewhat more completely when given a maintenance 
ration than when on full feed. This may be due to the more rapid move- 
ment of the food thru the digestive tract or to a less complete absorption 
of the digested nutrients when present in large amount. Jordan 11 found 
that sheep digested 4.7 per ct. more of the dry matter when given a half 
ration than when fed a full ration. Mumford, Grindley, Hall, and 
Emmett 12 of the Illinois Station, on feeding steers clover hay and corn 
in varying proportions, found that those fed a maintenance ration 
digested 75.4 per ct. of the dry matter; those fed one-half more, 71.6 
per ct. ; those fed twice the maintenance ration, 69.4 per ct. ; and others 
on full feed, consuming two and one-fourth times as much as the first 
lot, 65.9 per ct. of the dry matter of the ration. The difference in diges- 
tibility was greatest in the case of the carbohydrates. The steers on full 
feed digested the crude protein and fat nearly as well as those getting 
the maintenance ration. Eckles 13 of the Missouri Station found that the 

,0 Nev. Rpt. 1907. "HI. Bui. 172. 

11 N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 141. "Mo. Res. Bui. 7. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 51 

dairy cow digests a maintenance ration somewhat better than a heavy 
ration. Under normal conditions, in feeding farm animals for the 
production of meat, milk, or work, other economic factors, which will be 
treated in later chapters, more than offset the slightly better utilization^ 
of feed when a scant ration is fed. ' 

83. Influence of preparation of feed on digestibility. — Grinding, crack- 
ing, and rolling grain increase digestibility only in the case of hard seeds 
which would otherwise pass thru the digestive tract unbroken, or with 
animals unable to chew their food properly. Jordan 14 states that crush- 
ing or grinding grain for horses may increase its digestibility as much 
as 14 per ct. In extensive trials at the Iowa Station with 60-lb. pigs, 
Evvard 15 found that grinding or shelling corn did not increase the diges- 
tibility over that for ear corn. With 200-lb. pigs grinding alone 
increased the digestibility 0.8 per ct., and both grinding and soaking 1.9 
per ct. Tho this trial shows a slight advantage from soaking feed, other 
tests show no appreciable gain from soaking or wetting feeds, except 
where such preparation aids in the mastication of unground hard seeds. 
Cutting or chaffing hay or straw does not increase digestibility, but may 
be advisable for other reasons, as is pointed out in Chapter XVI. 

Cooking usually lowers the digestibility of the crude protein of feed- 
ing stuffs. At the Oregon Station, 16 Withycombe and Bradley found 
that steaming both vetch and corn silage materially decreased the digesti- 
bility of the crude protein and other nutrients. Cooking, steaming, or 
fermenting food, while often improving its palatability, generally lowers 
its digestibility, tho potatoes and possibly other starchy tubers are im- 
proved thereby. 

A comparison of the digestion coefficients for various kinds of silage 
with those for the green forages from which the silage was made shows 
that ensiling tends to decrease digestibility. The exceedingly favorable 
results from silage feeding are therefore due to the palatability of the 
silage, its beneficial effect on the health of the animals, and the fact that 
less feed is wasted than when dry fodder is used. 

Neither the frequency of feeding, the time of watering, nor the amount 
of water drank appears to influence digestibility. Moderate exercise 
tends to increase digestibility, but excessive work lowers it. 

The flow of saliva and the other digestive juices is checked by fright. 
On the other hand, kind treatment and palatability of food should 
favorably influence digestion. Under skillful care animals show remark- 
able relish for their food, and it is reasonable to conclude that better 
digestion ensues, tho no confirmatory data can be given. 

84. Influence of proportion of the several nutrients. — The addition of 
a large quantity of easily digested carbohydrates, such as sugar and 
starch, to a ration containing much roughage may reduce the diges- 
tibility of its crude protein, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. According 

14 The Feeding of Animals, p. 133. ie Ore. Bui. 102. 

"Information to the authors. 



52 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to Kellner, 17 such depression of digestibility occurs with ruminants when 
less than 1 part of digestible crude protein is present to every 8 parts of 
digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates plus fat X 2.25). 
With swine the nutritive ratio may be wider before the digestibility is 
affected. An explanation offered for such depression of digestibility is 
that when a large proportion of soluble or easily digested carbohydrates 
are fed, the bacteria in the digestive tract which normally decompose 
cellulose to secure food then attack instead the more readily available 
sugars or starch. (40) Not only is the digestibility of the cellulose, or 
fiber, consequently lowered, but also that of the crude protein and 
nitrogen-free extract, for the unattacked cellulose cell walls protect the 
proteins and carbohydrates contained therein from the action of the 
digestive juices. This depression does not occur when nitrogenous feeds, 
such as oil meal, are added along with the starch or sugar, thus preserv- 
ing the balance between protein and non-nitrogenous nutrients. It is 
assumed that this is due to a stimulation of the bacteria by the addition 
of more protein, so that, invigorated, they attack the fiber of the food 
again. 

Adding nitrogenous feeds to roughages, such as hay, straw, etc., does 
not increase the digestibility of the roughage. Neither does the addition 
of fat to a ration increase the digestibility of the other constituents. 
Kellner 18 states that supplying fat in excess of 1 lb. per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight or feeding pure fat or oil in unemulsified form may cause diges- 
tive disturbance. Salt does not affect digestion, tho it may cause animals 
to eat more food and may improve nutrition. 

The addition of dilute acids, such as sulphuric acid or lactic acid (the 
chief acid in sour milk and in silage), does not influence digestibility. 
This is important in view of the fact that silage contains considerable 
free acid. 

85. Class of animal, age, and breed. — Ruminants — the ox, cow, sheep — 
digest the same kind of forage about equally well. Kellner, 19 however, 
shows that the ox is able to digest as much as 11 per ct. more of the less 
digestible roughages, such as straw, than is the sheep. He ascribes this 
difference to the fact that the contents of the last part of the intestine of 
the ox remain more watery and hence are subject to more complete fer- 
mentation. The more easily digested a feeding stuff is, the less difference 
will there be in its digestion by these various animals. For the great 
majority of feeding stuffs the same digestion coefficients may be used for 
the sheep and ox. 

The horse and pig digest less fiber than the ruminant, in whose paunch 
the coarse feeds undergo special preparation and digestion. The richer 
the feed, the more nearly do the digestive powers of the horse approach 
those of other farm animals. Swine digest the concentrates fully as well 
as do the ruminants, but make only small use of the fiber. 

"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 55. "Land. Vers. Stat, 63, 1906, p. 313. 
18 Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 51. 



MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 53 

In general, age does not, in itself, influence digestibility, tho young 
farm animals cannot utilize much roughage until their digestive tracts 
are developed. Evvard found at the Iowa Station 20 that while 200-lb. 
pigs digested ground corn as completely as did 60-lb. pigs, they digested 
1 .58 per ct. less of the dry matter of shelled corn than did the younger 
pigs. This small difference was probably due to less thoro mastication of 
the shelled corn by the older pigs. The digestion of old animals is often 
indirectly impaired by poor teeth, which make the proper mastication of 
their food impossible. Breed has no influence upon digestibility. In- 
dividual animals may, however, show considerable difference in their 
ability to digest the same ration, tho ordinarily the digestibility of a 
given ration by different animals of the same race will not vary by more 
than 3 to 4 per ct. 21 

86. Summary. — The foregoing discussions make it evident that average 
figures for the composition of any feeding stuff are but approximately 
correct when applied to a particular lot of the feed. This likewise ap- 
plies to the expression of its nutritive value, whether stated in terms of 
digestible nutrients or net energy. In other words, different lots of any 
feeding stuff vary in feeding value, the same as different samples of coal 
vary in fuel value. Owing to the expense of obtaining analyses it is out 
of the question for any but the most extensive feeders to have their 
particular feeds analyzed, just as only the large manufacturer can afford 
to have samples of coal analyzed to determine their fuel value before 
purchasing. With the cereals and the roughages the general feeder must, 
therefore, rely on that average given in tables of digestible nutrients or 
net energy which corresponds most closely in his judgment to the feed 
at hand. In purchasing commercial concentrates, now sold in vast 
quantities everywhere, it is now fortunately possible in most sections of 
the country to secure standard brands, whose composition is fully guar- 
anteed by the manufacturer. (Chapter XI) 

20 Information to the authors. 

21 Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 46 



CHAPTER IV 

MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 

I. Requirements for Body Fuel 

Farm animals are supplied with food in order that they may convert 
it into such products as meat, milk, wool, and work, which are useful to 
man. However, as Armsby 1 points out, just as a factory must be sup- 
plied with power sufficient to keep the machinery in motion before any 
product can be turned out, to make continued production possible with 
the animal, enough food must first be provided to maintain all essential 
life processes. This amount of food, which is required merely to support 
the animal when doing no work and yielding no material product, is 
called the maintenance ration. A respiration trial conducted with an 
animal receiving a maintenance ration would show that the body was 
neither gaining nor losing protein, fat, carbohydrates, or ash. (71) 

On the average, fully one-half of all the feed consumed by farm 
animals is used simply for maintenance, only the remaining half being 
turned into useful products. Knowing this, the intelligent feeder will 
realize that it is as important to understand the principles governing the 
maintenance requirements of his animals as those controlling the produc- 
tion of meat, milk, or work. The determination of the minimum amount 
of nutrients required for maintenance is also of great scientific impor- 
tance, for it is impossible to find the true relative value of feeding stuffs 
for production without first subtracting the amounts used in mere 
maintenance. 

To maintain an animal at rest sufficient food must be supplied to 
furnish: (1) Fuel to maintain the body temperature; (2) energy to 
carry on such vital processes as the work of the heart, lungs, etc.; (3) 
protein to repair the small daily waste of nitrogenous tissues; (4) 
mineral matter to replace the small but continuous loss of these materials 
from the body. Since the greater part of the food in a maintenance 
ration serves simply as fuel to maintain the body temperature, we will 
first show how the animal body is warmed and discuss its fuel require- 
ments. 

87. Body temperature. — While cold-blooded animals maintain their 
temperature but little above that of the surrounding air or water, the 
temperature of warm-blooded animals is usually much higher than that 
of the air. As shown in the following table the normal temperature of 
farm animals ranges from 98.4° to 105.4° F., a height which the air 
reaches only during the hottest summer days. It is therefore evident that 

^enn. Bui. 111. 

54 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 55 

heat must be continuously produced within the body to maintain these 
temperatures. 

Normal temperatures of farm animals 

Deg. Cent. Deg. Fahr. 

Horse 36 .9-38 .2 98 .4-100 .8 

Ox 38.0-39.3 100.4-102.8 

Sheep 38 .4-41 .0 101 .3-105 .8 

Pig 38 .2-40 .7 100 .9-105 .4 

The normal temperature of different animals of the same species may 
vary considerably, as is shown by the table. On the other hand, the 
temperature of an individual animal, if healthy, varies only within a 
narrow limit, a departure of even 1 degree from normal with farm 
animals generally indicating some bodily derangement. 

88. Heat production. — Heat is produced by all the decompositions or 
oxidations taking place in the body, whether of food yet within the 
digestive tract or of nutrients in the muscular tissues or the glands. 
We have seen that much heat may be evolved, especially with ruminants, 
in the decomposition of cellulose and other plant compounds in the 
digestive tract. (80) The remainder is produced in the tissues of the 
body by the following processes : Thru breathing, the oxygen of the air 
is brought to the blood. Floating in the blood stream are myriads of 
microscopic bodies, called red blood corpuscles, which owe their color 
to hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein. This hemoglobin absorbs 
the oxygen and holds it loosely. As the oxygen-laden blood permeates 
the capillary system it gives up the oxygen to the living body cells, where 
it is used for the combustion of a portion of the body nutrients with 
the result that heat is formed. 

Unlike the burning of fuel in a stove, the oxidations in the body take 
place at a low temperature. As a result of the combustion in the body, 
where before there were glucoses, fats, and proteins in the tissues, there 
now remain carbonic acid gas, water, and urea, the latter substance rep- 
resenting the principal nitrogenous waste of the protein nutrients. In 
still another respect body oxidations differ radically from ordinary 
burning of fuel. In a furnace the wider the draft is opened, increasing 
the supply of oxygen, the more rapid will be the combustion. In the 
body, however, so long as there is a normal supply of oxygen the rate of 
burning of the food nutrients is independent of the supply of air. Hence 
the greater intake of oxygen in unusually deep breathing will not in 
itself cause an increase in heat production, tho the increased muscular 
work in such breathing may lead to an increased production of heat. 

As we have seen before (80), all the energy expended in the various 
forms of internal work of the body is finally transformed into heat. 
Even with such an easily masticated and digested feed as corn, over 
one-third of the total energy which the digestible nutrients furnish 
is converted into heat in the internal w T ork of masticating, digesting, and 
assimilating the feed. This proportion is much higher with the rough- 
ages, such as hay and straw, which demand more energy for mastication 



56 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and digestion. Tho this energy is lost so far as useful production is 
concerned, the heat evolved helps maintain the body temperature. With 
animals exercising normally, the larger part of the body heat is gen- 
erated in the muscular tissues, since all muscular contraction is brought 
about by the oxidation or burning of body nutrients. Even when the 
muscles are not actively contracting, heat is being generated in them. 
The heat produced in the various parts of the body is more or less 
equalized, chiefly by the circulation of the blood. Generally, however, 
the temperature in the different parts varies somewhat according to 
their activities. 

89. Production of heat in starvation. — When food is withheld from an 
animal, the heat needed to warm the body, the energy required to carry 
on the vital processes, and the protein and mineral matter necessary 
for the repair of the active tissues must all come from nutrients pre- 
viously stored within the body. The small supply of glycogen in the 
liver and muscles is probably first used as fuel, but this is soon' gone. (60) 
Fat is the animal's chief reserve fuel, stored when food is abundant, 
against times of scarcity, and is therefore the main source of both heat 
and energy during starvation. When the supply of fat begins to fail, 
the muscles and other protein tissues are broken down more rapidly to 
furnish heat and energy, and the animal finally perishes thru the 
impairment of its organs and the lack of body fuel to carry on the 
functions of life. Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, withstand hunger 
longer than herbivora. While dogs and cats have lived until their 
weights were decreased 33 to 40 per ct., horses and ruminants will die 
when their weight has been reduced 20 to 25 per ct. 2 Men have volun- 
tarily fasted for over a month, and dogs have survived fasts of from 
90 to 117 days without permanent ill effects. 3 The age of the animal 
also influences the time at which death occurs from starvation, young 
animals losing weight more rapidly and dying after a smaller loss of 
weight than old ones. 4 

90. Heat regulation. — If heat were lost from the body by radiation 
only, as from a warm stone, it would be impossible for the animal to 
keep its temperature constant under varying external conditions and 
with daily supplies of food differing in amount and heat producing 
power. The body, however, possesses most effective means for con- 
trolling both the production and the loss of heat, this two-fold regulation 
being under the control of the nervous system. 

The production of heat is regulated by increasing or decreasing the 
oxidations taking place in the body. The amount of heat generated is 
controlled more or less voluntarily by regulating the exercise taken 
and the amount of food consumed. Experience reminds us that on cold 

2 M. Wilckens in v. d. Goltz, Hand. d. ges. Landw., Ill, p. 88. 
3 Armsby, Penn. Bui. Ill; Howe, Mattill, and Hawk, Jour. Biol. Chem., 10, 1911, 
pp. 417-432. 

4 Halliburton, Chem. Physiol., p. 834. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 57 

days Ave eat more heartily and walk more briskly than in warm weather. 
The degree of external heat or cold also causes an involuntary rise 
or fall in heat production. The shivering of a chilled animal is the 
outward manifestation of increased muscular contraction, started solely 
to produce more heat. 

Controlling the amount of heat lost from the body is the second means 
of heat regulation. This is accomplished in part by varying the dis- 
tribution of the blood on the surface of the body, and thus controlling 
the amount of heat lost from the skin by radiation and conduction. 
The loss of heat is further regulated by the production of sweat 
and the vaporization of water from the lungs. The clothing of man 
and the thick skin, hair, wool, and feathers of animals also check and 
control the loss of heat. 

According to Howell, 5 the heat lost from the human body escapes 
as follows: 

Avenues of escape of heat from human body 

Per ct. 
heat lost 

By urine and feces 1.8 

By warming expired air 3.5 

By vaporizing water from lungs 7.2 

By evaporation of water from skin 14 .5 

By radiation and conduction from skin 73 .0 

Total 100 .0 

The relative importance of these channels of heat loss depends upon 
various conditions and upon the species of animal. Animals that do 
not sweat give off more heat by the lungs and less by the skin. In pro- 
portion to their weight, small animals lose more heat by radiation than 
do larger ones of the same species. High external temperature tends 
to diminish the loss by radiation and increase that due to evaporation 
from the skin or vaporization from the lungs. Violent exercise calls for 
the rapid burning of food and tissue fuel, with a consequent increase 
of body heat. This heat passes off thru the more rapid breathing and 
the increased losses from the skin. 

Because the loss of heat is largely controlled by the clothing he wears, 
man has, in some measure, lost his power of heat regulation. With many 
of the warm-blooded animals, however, this power is highly developed, 
as is shown by Rubner, G who determined the heat lost by a small dog 
at various air temperatures, before and after removing his coat of long 
hair. Before the dog was clipped lowering the temperature from 86° 
to 68° F. caused no increase in the loss of heat. After clipping, however, 
this change in temperature caused a 58 per ct. greater loss of heat. 

91. Heat and energy required for maintenance. — Experiments have 
shown that with a mature animal being maintained at rest in the stall 
the requirement for fuel to keep up the body temperature ordinarily 

B Text Book of Physiol., 1907, p. 861. 
"Gesetze des Energieverbraucks, 1902, p. 14. 



58 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



greatly exceeds the amount of net energy needed for the internal work 
of the body organs. 7 As will be shown later (448), Zuntz found that to 
maintain the horse at rest only one-third of the total energy of the 
ration need be supplied in the form of net energy, the remainder serving 
simply as body fuel. Hence, excepting for the pig, the maintenance 
ration of farm animals may consist largely of roughages, such as hay 
and straw, which furnish abundant heat, but do not yield much net 
energy. (78-80) Since the ration must furnish at least a minimum 
amount of net energy, animals cannot be maintained on such feeds as 
wheat straw alone, which furnish no net energy to the horse and but 
little to the ruminant. 

Due to differences in temperament there is considerable variation in 
the maintenance requirements of different individuals of the same size 
and species, kept under the same conditions. As restlessness causes 
greater muscular activity and thereby uses up more body fuel, a quiet 
animal requires less food for maintenance than a nervous, active one. 
During experiments with a horse in a respiration chamber, Zuntz and 
Hagemann 8 found that the presence of flies caused the animal to give 
off over 10 per ct. more carbonic acid gas than normally, which means 
that this much more food fuel was burned. Armsby 9 found that the ox 
in the respiration calorimeter produced over 30 per ct. more heat when 
standing than when lying down. Some of this additional heat was 
undoubtedly produced thru the work of maintaining the body upright, 
but the larger part was due to the greater muscular movement of the 
animal when standing. Kellner 10 shows that the ox in good condition, 
especially when fat, requires a larger ration for maintenance than a 
lean one of the same body surface. 

The loss of heat and energy from the body is not proportional to 
the size or weight of the animal, but rather to the body surface. This is 
shown by Eubner, 11 who determined the quantity of heat given off daily 
by fasting dogs of different sizes but in the same bodily condition, as 
reported in the following table : 



Heat given off oy fasting clogs of different 


sizes 




Body surface 


Heat lost daily 


Body weight 










Per kgm. wt. 


Per sq. m. surface 


Kgms. 


Sq. m. 


Cal. 


Cal. 


3.2 


0.24 


88.1 


1212 


6.5 


0.37 


66.1 


1153 


9.6 


0.53 


65.2 


1183 


18.2 


0.77 


46.2 


1097 


24.0 


0.88 


40.9 


1112 


31.2 


1.07 


36.6 


1036 



7 Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 405. 

8 Landw. Jahrb., 23, 1894, p. 161. 

°Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1902; Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914. 

10 Landw. Vers. Stat., 50, 1898, p. 245; 53, 1900, p. 14. 

u Ztschr. Biol., 19, 1883, p. 535. 



MAINTENANCE OP FARM ANIMALS 59 

It is shown that while the heat lost daily per square meter of body 
surface remained nearly constant, the larger the animal the smaller 
was the daily loss per kilo of body weight. This is because large bodies 
have less surface in proportion to their weight than small ones, and the 
loss of heat from the body is largely determined by its relative surface. 
Hence maintenance rations should be proportional to the surface of the 
body rather than its weight. Since it is difficult to actually measure the 
surface of an animal's body, the maintenance ration for animals of dif- 
ferent sizes may be computed by the well-known geometrical law that the 
surfaces of solids are proportional to the squares of the cube roots of 
their weights. 

The rate at which heat is lost from the body by radiation also depends 
on the difference between the air temperature and the body temperature. 
Exposure to cold winds, especially with animals having scant coats, 
greatly increases the radiation of heat. Animals with coats wet by cold 
rain or snow lose additional heat from their bodies, for the cold water 
which falls on them must be warmed and evaporated by heat generated 
thru the burning of food. With the well-fed fattening animal, the 
greater loss of heat thru these causes may not produce any waste of 
food, for much more heat is being generated in the mastication, diges- 
tion, and assimilation of the heavy ration than is normally needed to 
warm the body. In the case of animals on a maintenance ration, whose 
chief demand is for body fuel, such exposure will necessitate an increased 
consumption of feed to serve as fuel. On the other hand, too high a stable 
temperature leads to loss of appetite and induces sweating. 

II. Requirements for Protein 

92. Protein waste from the body. — In view of the high cost and relative 
scarcity of crude protein in feeding stuffs, it is important to know the 
minimum amount of this nutrient required for maintenance. There 
is at all times an excretion of nitrogen from the animal body by way 
of the urine. With a well-nourished animal this excretion is relatively 
large, the amount depending chiefly upon the quantity of nitrogen sup- 
plied in the food. If all food is withheld from such an animal, the nitro- 
gen excretion decreases rapidly at first, until the supply of amino acids 
in the blood and tissues, which have not yet been built into body protein, 
is lowered to a minimum. The nitrogen waste in the urine then slowly 
decreases until it reaches a level which remains quite constant so long 
as heat and energy are furnished by the body fat. When the supply 
of the latter begins to fail, the muscles and other protein tissues must 
thereafter not only furnish protein for the repair of the vital body 
machinery but must also supply the necessary heat and energy ; conse- 
quently they waste more rapidly until death follows. 

When animals are fed exclusively on nitrogen-free nutrients, such as 
the sugars, starches, fats, etc., the waste of fat from the body is materially 



60 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

lessened, and the waste of the nitrogenous tissues of the body, such as 
the muscles, is somewhat reduced, tho not entirely stopped. On account 
of this sparing of the body substances, animals forced to live on such 
diet survive longer than those wholly deprived of food. Yet because of 
the continuous small waste of protein from the tissues of the body, 
animals nourished solely on fats and carbohydrates cannot long survive. 

93. Feeding protein alone. — We might expect that when protein only 
is fed to a fasting animal, in an amount corresponding to the quantity 
lost daily during starvation, it would replace the protein wasted from 
the tissues, and the animal thus be brought to nitrogen equilibrium ; that 
is, it would excrete as much, but no more, nitrogen than was contained 
in the food. However, when protein is fed under such conditions, the 
amount of nitrogen excreted at once rises, and tho the loss of nitrogen 
from the tissues is reduced, nitrogen equilibrium is not reached. When 
practically pure protein is fed, the loss of nitrogen can be checked only 
if the supply is far in excess of the waste from the starving body. It is 
assumed that this increase in nitrogenous waste when protein is fed in 
such large proportion is due to a flooding of the tissues with amino 
acids, the products of protein digestion, and a consequent stimulation 
of the activities of the body cells. (11, 49) However, the food protein so 
decomposed is not entirely lost to the animal. Not only may it be burned 
as body fuel, thus saving the body fat, but, after the splitting of the 
nitrogen from the molecules of protein or of amino acids, the non-nitroge- 
nous residue which remains may be converted into glucose and finally 
into glycogen or fat. Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, have lived for 
long periods on washed lean meat, consisting chiefly of protein, with 
only a small amount of fat and a trace of glycogen. Since plant tissue 
is rich in carbohydrates, such experiments have not been possible with 
the herbivora, or plant-eating animals. 

94. Protein required for maintenance. — The preceding discussions have 
pointed out the functions of protein in the body under various condi- 
tions. Let us now pass to a question of much practical importance — the 
amount of protein required to maintain animals at rest, when fed along 
with sufficient carbohydrates or fats to meet the needs of the body for 
fuel. When enough of these nitrogen-free nutrients is supplied, the 
amount of protein required to bring an animal into nitrogen equilibrium 
is much less than where the ration is nearly pure protein. In trials with 
dogs Voit 12 found that from 2.6 to 3.3 lbs. of lean meat per day was 
required to check the loss of protein from the body when lean meat was 
fed alone — practically an exclusive protein diet. When carbohydrates 
or fat was added, only one-half to one-third as much lean meat was 
needed. Since the digestible portion of the crude fiber and likewise of 
the pentosans can serve as body fuel (48), these nutrients to some degree 
decrease the waste of nitrogen in the same manner as does a supply of 
the more easily digested sugars and starch. 

Experiments show that a pound of carbohydrates has somewhat greater 
"Ztschr. Biol., 5, 1869, p. 352. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 61 

protein-sparing action than a pound of fat, a surprising fact when we 
remember that, on burning, fat produces over twice as much energy as 
do carbohydrates. (70) Evidently there is no relation between the fuel 
values of these nutrients and their protein-sparing power. Landegren 13 
explains this superiority of carbohydrates over fat as follows : For the 
carrying on of their normal functions, living cells need a certain mini- 
mum not only of protein but also of carbohydrates, especially glucose. 
When carbohydrates are not supplied, the body forms the necessary 
glucose by decomposing protein. So long, however, as there is an ample 
supply of carbohydrates in the food, protein is not used for this purpose. 
As the body can form carbohydrates from fat only with great difficulty, 
if at all, the fats are less potent than the carbohydrates in checking the 
protein wastes in the body. 

By feeding rations ample in carbohydrates and fat, some investigators 
have succeeded in reducing the requirement of nitrogenous matter to 
slightly more than the normal nitrogen waste of the body during starva- 
tion. At the Pennsylvania Station 14 Armsby found in experiments with 
steers, covering 70 days, that from 0.4 to 0.6 lb. of digestible protein 
daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight was sufficient to maintain the nitrogen 
equilibrium. Contrary to the observations of some of the earlier inves- 
tigators, no ill effects followed this small supply of protein. Wintering 
cattle on feeds poor in crude protein — straw, inferior hay, corn stover, 
etc. — as practiced by many farmers, confirms this finding. 

In general, it is not wise to supply only the theoretical minimum of 
protein to animals for extended periods for the following reasons : As 
we have seen (81, 85), it is essential to make some allowance for the 
difference in composition of feeding stuffs and the varying capacities of 
animals to digest and utilize the nutrients in the ration. Besides supply- 
ing protein to replace the daily waste from the organs of the body, suffi- 
cient must also be given to maintain the growth of the nitrogenous hair, 
hoofs, wool, etc. When the ration has too wide a nutritive ratio, the 
digestibility of the feed is decreased. Moreover, certain proteins of 
unbalanced composition fed as the sole source of nitrogen will not suffice 
to maintain an animal. For example, in numerous experiments animals 
have never been maintained successfully on gelatin, which lacks 2 amino 
acids and contains only small amounts of others. As we have little 
knowledge concerning possible deficiencies in the mixture of proteins 
supplied in the different individual feeding stuffs, it is advisable to make 
allowance for waste which may occur if the feed contains low amounts 
of some of the amino acids essential for maintenance. It is also a well- 
known fact that in general protein is a cell stimulant, and a supply 
somewhat above the minimum promotes the well-being of the animal. 

The wisdom of not attempting to limit the protein supply to the theo- 
retical minimum for long periods is shown by the experience of Haecker 15 
of the Minnesota Station. During many years of patient study he found 

"Skand. Archiv. Physiol., 14, 1903, p. 112. 
"Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 142. 
1B Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 140. 



62 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

that dairy cows under good care and otherwise liberal feeding would for 
long periods continue a good flow of milk on a surprisingly small allow- 
ance of crude protein. After some years of such feeding, however, their 
vitality was so depleted that they became physical wrecks long before 
their time. These studies led Haecker to raise his crude protein standard 
for the dairy cow above his earlier allowance, tho such allowance is still 
below the Wolff -Lehmann standard, as is shown elsewhere. (182) 

Even when sufficient protein is fed to insure good health, the amount 
required to maintain mature resting animals is not large compared with 
the need of carbohydrates and fat for body fuel. Maintenance rations 
for such animals may therefore have a relatively wide nutritive ratio. 
For example, Kellner recommends for the maintenance of the mature ox 
at rest a supply of 0.6 to 0.8 lb. of digestible protein and 7.7 to 9.7 lbs. 
of digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (including fat X 2.25). (170) 
Armsby places the requirement of the horse somewhat higher, as is shown 
later. (172) 

95. Can amids replace proteins ? — Whether the functions of protein in 
the body can be filled by the group of nitrogenous compounds, more 
simple than the true proteins, which are included under the term amids 
(11), is a disputed question among scientists. In the light of recent 
experiments, which have shown that even certain true proteins are in- 
sufficient for maintenance or growth when fed alone, it is not surprising 
that single pure amids have failed to fulfill the functions of food protein. 
Thus numerous experiments have shown that animals cannot be main- 
tained on asparagin, an amid, as the sole source of nitrogen. Tho they 
cannot replace protein, such amids, even when fed in pure form, furnish 
energy to the body. 

We have seen (49), that all the digested food protein is broken down 
into amino acids and absorbed as such from the intestine, being later 
rebuilt into body protein. With this in mind it is reasonable to hold that 
if the mixture of amids in a feeding stuff contains all of the amino acids 
(the protein building-stones) needed to form body protein, these amids 
can be used in the same manner as true protein for the repair of body 
tissue or for the formation of new protein tissue. This belief is supported 
by the following : 

Nearly half the nitrogen in corn silage, and about 15 per ct. of that 
in dried corn forage, is in amid form. Yet, based on dry matter, corn 
silage is somewhat more valuable than corn forage as a feed for dairy 
cows, which require a liberal supply of crude protein. (630) The amids 
are abundant in grass, roots, and silage, all of which are especially usefuK 
to growing or pregnant animals and to those producing milk and wool, 

III. Requirements for Mineral Matter 

98. Importance of mineral matter. — That the ash of feeding stuffs is 
of the greatest importance to animals is shown by feeding them rations 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 63 

freed as far as possible from mineral matter, in which case they die of 
mineral starvation. Indeed, animals thus fed generally perish sooner 
than when no food is given. During such starvation the nervous system 
first suffers in a perceptible manner; marked weakness of the limbs, 
trembling of the muscles, convulsions, and great excitability result. 16 

Mineral matter is found in all the vital parts of the body. The nuclei 
of all cells are rich in phosphorus, and the skeleton is composed largely of 
calcium (lime) combined with phosphorus. Blood deprived of its cal- 
cium does not clot. The blood serum is rich in common salt and other 
salts of sodium, while the red blood corpuscles are rich in potassium 
compounds. The power of the blood to carry oxygen is due to hemo- 
globin, an iron-protein compound in the red corpuscles. In the stomach 
the pepsin acts only in the presence of an acid, normally hydrochloric, 
derived from the salts of this acid present in the blood. 

97. Mineral salts control life processes. — In some mysterious manner, 
possibly by carrying electric charges which stimulate the body cells, 17 
the mineral salts of the body direct its various vital processes. A simple 
experiment often performed in the laboratory will illustrate the im- 
portant functions of the mineral elements in life. If the heart, still 
beating, is removed from a frog and placed in a solution of pure sodium 
chlorid (common salt), its beats soon fade out. Now if a small amount 
of a calcium salt (lime) be added to the solution, the heart will at once 
begin to beat again, and will continue in rhythmical contraction for 
several hours. Unless a small amount of a potassium salt is likewise 
added, the beat will not, however, be normal, the heart failing to relax 
quickly and completely enough after each contraction. Therefore, if 
potassium is not added the relaxations become more and more feeble, 
until the heart stops in a contracted state. Not only must potassium be 
present, but there must be a correct proportion between the amounts of 
calcium and potassium. If too much potassium is added, the heart will 
fail to contract properly, and finally will again stop beating, but this 
time in a state of complete relaxation. 

Similarly, the other vital processes are dependent not only on the 
presence of various mineral salts, but also on a proper relationship be- 
tween them. Therefore it will be seen that unless the amount of these 
mineral salts in the blood is kept normal, serious consequences will follow. 
In large measure the kidneys protect the animal against an unbalanced 
mineral matter content in the blood by promptly excreting any excess of 
various salts which may be present. However, when the food continu- 
ally furnishes the blood an unbalanced salt mixture, the kidneys may be 
unable to keep the blood composition normal, with resultant injury to 
the animal. For instance, magnesium and calcium seem antagonistic in 
their action, and in voiding the excess of magnesium the body loses 
calcium. Given in excessive amount for long periods, feeds which con- 
tain much magnesium in proportion to calcium, such as wheat bran and 

'"Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907. p. 169. 
17 Forbes. Ohio Tech. Bui. 5. 



6 4 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

middlings, are said to cause a weakening of the bones, leading to such 
troubles as ''bran disease" or "miller's horse rickets." 

Appendix Table VI sets forth the mineral constituents of feeding 
stuffs so far as it has been possible to secure them. 

98. Calcium and phosphorus. — Large amounts of calcium (lime) are 
deposited in the bones of animals, chiefly as phosphate and in smaller 
amount as carbonate. Indeed, over 90 per ct. of the ash of bone is 
calcium and phosphorus. It is not surprising, therefore, that a long- 
continued lack of calcium or of phosphorus in the food is harmful to the 
skeleton. 

Hart, McCollum, and Humphrey of the "Wisconsin Station 18 have 
shown that the animal skeleton acts as a reserve storehouse of mineral 
matter, doling out calcium, phosphorus, etc., when the supply in the food 
is below requirements, in order that the metabolic processes of the body 
may be maintained. Under such conditions the calcium and phosphorus 
in the flesh and other soft parts remain as high as in animals liberally 
supplied with these mineral matters. These investigators found that a 
cow fed a ration deficient in calcium during 3.5 months gave off 5.5 lbs. 
more calcium in milk and excrement than was in the food. This was 
fully 25 per ct. of all the calcium in her body, including the skeleton, 
at the beginning of the trial. 

Such withdrawal of mineral matter from the skeleton produces 
porosity and brittleness of bone. In certain localities where the hay 
and other roughages are especially low in calcium and phosphorus, 19 
farm animals are so affected by the lack of these mineral substances that 
their bones are broken easily and in seemingly inexplicable ways. Often 
this brittleness of bone is noticeable only in years when the normal ab- 
sorption of calcium and phosphorus by the roots of plants is hindered 
by drought. Of grown animals, those carrying their young are most apt 
to suffer from the lack of these substances, since considerable amounts 
are deposited in the fetus. Growing animals whose bones are rapidly 
increasing in size suffer from a lack of calcium or phosphorus sooner 
than grown animals. Voit 20 found that young animals receiving a ra- 
tion low in calcium are soon attacked by rickets, the joints swelling, the 
limbs and the spinal column becoming crooked, the teeth remaining small 
and soft, and the animal finally being unable to walk. Pigs, because of 
restricted diet, suffer from insufficient calcium and phosphorus more 
often than do calves, colts, and lambs, which usually receive enough of 
these mineral matters in their hay and other food. 

The superior value of such leguminous roughages as clover, alfalfa, 
and cowpea hay for farm animals has in the past been ascribed to their 
high content of protein. Ingle 21 holds that in such concentrates as lin- 

18 Wis. Research Bui. 5; Am. Jour. Physiol., 1909. 

"•Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 185. 

^Ztschr. Biol., 16, 1880, p. 70. 

21 Jour, of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, Mar., 1907. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 65 

seed oil cake, Indian corn, oats, wheat, and barley, and in such roots and 
roughages as turnips, swedes, mangels, corn stover, wheat straw, etc., 
there is generally an excess of phosphorus over calcium, or lime. He 
holds that this excess of phosphorus tends to waste or carry the calcium 
out of the body to an excessive degree and is therefore unfavorable to 
normal nutrition. The leguminous roughages contain a large excess of 
calcium over phosphorus, and accordingly supplying legumes with the 
other feeds named makes good such wastage of calcium. To this high 
content of calcium as well as to the high protein content we must here- 
after ascribe the beneficial effects of clover, alfalfa, vetch, and other 
leguminous roughages on the growth, milk yield, and bone development 
of farm animals. 

99. Mineral requirements for maintenance. — It is probable that, by 
reason of its perfection, the animal organism is able to use many of the 
mineral substances over and over for the same functions, taking them 
back into the circulation again after they have once been used. In spite 
of this frugal economy, however, losses of mineral matter from the body 
constantly occur, even during starvation. Ordinarily the rations of farm 
animals contain all the necessary mineral matters, at least in small 
quantities, and since the body retains them with great tenacity when the 
supply is meager, these small amounts usually suffice, especially for 
mature animals. Common salt, calcium (lime), and phosphorus are 
often needed in such large amounts that they may fall short in certain 
rations, and hence must be added, if normal results are to be obtained. 
As is shown later (119), young growing animals require larger supplies 
of mineral matter than those which are full-grown; hence more care 
should be taken to provide a liberal allowance, especially of lime and 
phosphorus. 

In forming rations the calcium and phosphorus content of the feeds 
should be considered. Straw, chaff, the various root crops, molasses, and 
the cereals and their by-products, such as bran and middlings, are low 
in calcium. On the other hand, the legumes, as clover, alfalfa, etc., the 
meadow grasses, and many leguminous seeds, such as peas, beans, etc., 
are high in calcium. Straw, chaff, beet pulp, potatoes, and molasses are 
low in phosphorus, while the cereals and brans, malt sprouts, oil cakes, 
brewers' grains, slaughter-house and fish waste carry it in abundance. 
Where soft water is drunk, there may be a lack of calcium only ; in other 
regions both calcium and phosphorus may be deficient. 

100. Inorganic phosphorus. — A considerable part of the phosphorus of 
common feeding stuffs is present in the proteins, the phosphorus-con- 
taining fatty substances, and other organic compounds. A higher nutri- 
tive value has often been ascribed by scientists to phosphorus in these 
compounds than to phosphorus in such materials as ground rock phos- 
phate, ground bones, or bone ash, which contain phosphorus in inorganic 
form, like phosphate of calcium. These materials are the cheapest forms 
in which phosphorus can be added to a ration deficient in this mineral 



66 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

nutrient. The question as to whether animals can assimilate inorganic 
phosphorus and whether the body can use it for all purposes which 
organic phosphorus serves, are therefore questions to which scientists 
have devoted much study. 

Kohler 22 found that lambs can assimilate and use calcium phosphate, 
bone ash, and steamed bone. J. Neumann 23 fed calcium carbonate and 
calcium phosphate to calves with good results. Experiments at 
Mockern 24 indicate beneficial results from the use of 30 to 50 grams of 
calcium phosphate in the daily ration of steers which had shown marked 
brittleness of bone. At the Wisconsin Station, 2 "' Hart, McCollum, and 
Fuller found that pigs were able to assimilate inorganic phosphorus sup- 
plied in the form of precipitated calcium phosphate, bone ash, or ground 
rock phosphate, and that the addition of such phosphorus to a ration 
low in phosphorus caused increased bone formation. From 5 experi- 
ments with growing pigs, in which either inorganic phosphates or phos- 
phorus in organic forms were added to rations low in phosphorus, 
Forbes 20 of the Ohio Station concludes that the inorganic phosphates 
were absorbed and retained, and apparently utilized for growth in the 
same manner as the phosphorus in organic form. 

We may therefore conclude that when a ration must be used which 
is deficient in calcium or phosphorus, calcium may be supplied in the 
form of calcium carbonate in wood ashes or ground limestone, or phos- 
phorus and calcium in the form of precipitated calcium phosphate, bone 
ash, or ground rock phosphate. This latter is b}^ far the cheapest form 
of phosphorus easily available for such purposes. 

101. Common salt. — The hunger of herbivorous animals for common 
salt is well known, but practical men have differed as to the necessity or 
advantage of adding it to the ration. In spite of the earlier belief that 
salt increased the digestibility of food, numerous experiments have shown 
that the digestibility of the ration is neither increased nor diminished 
thereby. Rather than increasing the waste of protein from the body, as 
earlier investigators believed, salt appears to slightly lessen protein de- 
composition. Kellner 27 states that besides the physiological action of 
salt, it serves as a spice or condiment which whets the appetite and in- 
creases the palatability of many foods. It also stimulates the secretion 
of the digestive fluids, hastens the circulation of the fluids of the body, 
and prevents digestive disturbances. 

Excessive consumption of salt must be guarded against, since it great- 
ly increases the amount of water excreted in the urine. The consequent 
abnormal thirst causes animals to drink excessively, which impairs diges- 
tion and leads to other disturbances. If sufficient water is not supplied, 
the water content of the body will be lowered by the increased loss thru 
the kidneys, leading to greater waste of protein. Animals allowed free 

22 Landw. Vers. Stat., 61, 1905; 65, 1907. "Wis. Research Bui. 1. 

28 Jour. Land., 41, 1893, p. 343. M Ohio Tech. Bui 5. 

"Landw. Vers. Stat., 57, 1902, p. 239." T Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 173. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 67 

access to salt or supplied with it at frequent and regular intervals will 
consume only enough to meet the needs of the body. 

Of the numerous salt-feeding experiments, only those of Babcock and 
Carlyle of the Wisconsin Station 28 are satisfactory and conclusive. In 
these trials dairy cows, well nourished otherwise, were given no common 
salt (sodium chlorid) for long periods — more than a year in some in- 
stances. The following conclusions were reached: "In every case the 
cows exhibited an abnormal appetite for salt after having been deprived 
of it for 2 or 3 weeks, but in no case did the health of the animal, as 
shown by the general appearance, the live weight, or the yield of milk, 
appear to be affected until a much longer time had elapsed. This period 
of immunity varied with individual cows from less than a month to more 
than a year. There was finally reached a condition of low vitality in 
which a sudden and complete breakdown occurred. This stage was 
marked by loss of appetite, a generally haggard appearance, lusterless 
eyes, a rough coat, and a very rapid decline in both live weight and 
yield of milk. ' ' If salt was supplied at this period recovery was rapid, 
[n one case potassium chlorid was given instead of common salt (sodium 
chlorid). Considerable of the potassium salt was eaten, tho cows or- 
dinarily refuse to touch it, and recovery followed as quickly as when 
common salt was supplied — evidence that not the lack of sodium but the 
lack of chlorin was responsible for the troubles. The breakdown due to 
the lack of salt usually occurred after calving w T hen the milk flow was 
heavy, and generally the cows giving the largest amount of milk were 
the first to show distress. 

Babcock points out that the salt requirement will vary greatly in dif- 
ferent localities. Soils which contain large quantities of salt doubtless 
produce feeding stuffs containing more salt than those poor in this 
ingredient ; and again, the water of streams and wells varies greatly in 
salt content. These facts doubtless account for the disagreement among 
experimenters in different parts of the world as to the importance and 
value of salt. Cows in milk and sheep show the greatest need of salt; 
fattening cattle, horses, dry cows, and stock cattle require less salt ; and 
pigs but little. 

IV. Additional Requirements of Animals 

We have thus far considered in detail only the requirements of ani- 
mals for crude protein, carbohydrates, fat, and mineral matter. How- 
ever, just as vital as the demands for fuel and repair material, which are 
met by these nutrients, is the need for air and water. It is also necessary 
that the ration in its physical nature or bulkiness be adapted to the 
capacity of the digestive organs of the given animal. 

102. Air. — While animals survive starvation for considerable periods, 
lack of air brings immediate death, as a supply of oxygen is required for 
all vital processes. The amount of air breathed by farm animals, as 

28 Wis. Rpt. 1905. 



68 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



given by King, 29 is placed in the first division of the table below. The 
second division shows the quantity of fresh air that must pour into a 
room where animals are confined, in order to provide substantially pure 
air, or that which does not contain over 3.3 per ct. of air that has been 
previously breathed. 

Air breathed by animals, and air required for good ventilation 



Animal 


Air breathed 


Ventilation require- 
ment per animal 




Hourly 


Per 24 hrs. 


Hourly 


Per 24 hrs. 


Horse 

Cow 

Pig 

Sheep 


Cu. ft. 

142 
117 

46 
30 


Cu. ft. 
3,401 
2,804 
1,103 
726 


Lbs. 
272 

224 
89 

58 


Cu. ft. 
4,296 
3,542 
1,392 
917 


Cu. ft. 

103,104 

85,008 
33,408 

22,008 



The table shows that the horse breathes hourly 142 cu. ft. of air, and 
daily about 3,400 cu. ft., which weighs about 272 lbs. To provide the 
horse in confinement with air, not more than 3.3 per ct. of which has 
been previously breathed, there must hourly pass into the room not less 
than 4,296 cu. ft., or over 103,000 cu. ft. each 24 hours. These figures 
show the necessity of providing some adequate system of ventilation 
when animals are confined to closed barns, as in the case of horses and 
dairy cattle during winter in the northern states. 

The cow gives off about 19 therms of heat each 24 hours, or enough to 
raise 79,603 cu. ft. of dry air from 0° to 50° F. As shown in the preced- 
ing table, proper ventilation for the cow requires about 85,000 cu. ft. of 
air each 24 hours. This is only a little more air than the heat from her 
body will raise from 0° to 50° F., which is a desirable winter temperature 
for cow stables in cold climates. 

103. Water. — Animals can live much longer without solid food than 
without water, and an insufficiency of water in the body causes serious 
disturbances. The processes of mastication, digestion, absorption, and 
assimilation are hindered; the intestines are not properly flushed, and 
waste matter remains too long therein ; the blood thickens ; and the body 
temperature is increased. Thru these complications death may result. 
Animals partially deprived of water for a long period lose their appetite 
for solid food, and vomiting and diarrhea may occur, the latter also often 
taking place when water is again supplied. 

Under normal conditions animals consume a fairly uniform quantity 
of water for each pound of dry matter eaten ; Kellner places the amount 
at 4 to 6 lbs. for milch cows, 4 to 5 lbs. for oxen, 2 to 3 lbs. for horses and 
sheep, and for swine 7 to 8 lbs., which seems excessive. Possibly due to 
their laxative nature, feeds rich in crude protein — bran, linseed meal, 
peas, etc. — cause a greater demand for water than starchy feeds. 

20 Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 69 

Kellner 80 found that for each 100 lbs. of water drank and in the food, the 
stabled ox passed 46.3 lbs. in the solid excrement, 29.2 in the urine, and 
24.5 in the breath and perspiration. Water is an important regulator 
of the temperature of the animal body. A large amount of heat is ab- 
sorbed in converting water into the vapor given off by the lungs and 
skin, and when sweat evaporates it carries much heat from the body. (90) 

The free drinking of water does not diminish the gains of animals nor 
increase the breaking down of protein in the body, tho flushing the 
intestines with much water may at first cause a more complete removal 
of the nitrogenous waste therefrom. With animals which continue to 
drink freely the nitrogenous waste soon becomes normal again. Scientists 
now agree that farm animals should have all the water they will drink, 
for they do not take it in excess unless they are forced to live on watery 
foods or are given salt irregularly. The excess of water taken into the 
body is discharged thru the urine. 

Water taken into the body must be raised to the body temperature, 
thus consuming heat. When an undue amount of cold water is drunk 
in cold weather this demand for fuel may cause a waste of nutrients. 
Warington 31 points out that during winter sheep in the turnip fields of 
England consume about 20 lbs. of roots daily, containing over 18 lbs. of 
water, or about 15 lbs. more than is needed. To raise 15 lbs. of water 
from near the freezing point to the body temperature requires the 
burning of 11 per ct. of the nutrients furnished by the turnips. In ad- 
dition the equivalent of more than 2 oz. of glucose must be burned for 
each pound of water vapor given off from the lungs and skin. Warming 
cold water taken into the body does not necessarily mean that more food 
must be burned, for animals evolve a large amount of heat in the work 
of digesting food and converting the digested matter into body products 
or work. Due to this, many animals have an excess of body heat. Com- 
fortably-housed and well-fed steers and dairy cows burn more food than 
is needed to keep their bodies warm, and such excess may go to warm 
the water they drink, so that no food is directly burned for that purpose. 

Armsby 32 points out that in winter farm animals watered but once 
daily drink freely. The sudden demand for heat caused by taking into 
the body this large quantity of cold water may exceed the available 
supply, with the result that some of the food nutrients or body tissues 
are burned to produce heat. Animals unduly exposed to cold and those 
sparingly fed or with scant coats may be directly helped by watering 
frequently or by warming their drinking water. In cold regions in 
order to induce animals, especially cows, to drink freely in winter, it 
is usually best to warm the water, which should also be comfortably 
accessible. 

When entirely oxidized in the body, 100 lbs. of starch or cellulose will 
yield 55.5 lbs. of water and 163 lbs. of carbon dioxid, and fats over 

30 Landw. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, p. 404. n Principles of Animal Nutrition, p. 439. 
31 Chemistry of the Farm. 



70 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

twice as much water as starch. The nitrogenous compounds yield a 
little less than the carbohydrates because they are not entirely oxidized 
in the body. This shows that a very considerable amount of water comes 
to the animal body from the dry matter of the food consumed. It is 
probable that the water which results from the breaking down of the 
food is used in the building processes of the body, rather than that 
water which the animal drinks, tho this is not definitely known. 

104. Commonly unappreciated factors in food. — Within recent years 
evidence has been accumulating which indicates that the classes of 
nutrients previously enumerated — proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and 
inorganic salts — are not all that is necessary to make a satisfactory ration. 
It has long been known that when humans live for extended periods 
on a diet containing no fresh vegetables or meat, scurvy is apt to result, 
even tho an abundance of the common nutrients is furnished. The 
addition to the diet of fresh vegetables readily prevents this disease. 
In districts of the Orient, where the inhabitants subsist mainly on pol- 
ished rice, there often occurs a serious disease known as beri-beri, char- 
acterized by general weakness and even paralysis. Where unpolished 
rice, carrying the germ and part of the husk, is eaten instead, this 
disease is not found. In experiments by various scientists a similar 
condition has been produced in animals fed almost exclusively on pol- 
ished rice, while unpolished rice did not cause such an effect. Tho many 
attempts have been made to determine the mysterious substance in the 
rice husk or germ which exerts such a pronounced influence on health, 
but little is yet known regarding its composition. 

Another important development of recent years has been the finding 
that some of the substances included in the ether-extract or so-called 
"fat" of feeds are essential to the well-being of animals. Stepp 33 first 
found that animals well fed upon foods from which all substances of a 
fatty nature had been removed could not live. He further found that no 
better results were secured when pure true fats, such as palmatin, stear- 
in, and olein — the most common plant and animal fats — were added to 
the ration. On the other hand, when certain crude fatty extracts of 
foods, such as butter fat, were added, the animals could be maintained in 
a satisfactory condition. McCollum and Davis 34 of the Wisconsin Station 
subsequently showed that young animals (rats) could grow normally 
for 3 or 4 months on mixtures of casein, starch, milk sugar, and salts, 
but that growth then invariably ceased. The addition of lard, olive oil, 
or cottonseed oil did not prevent this condition. However, the addition 
of purified butter fat, egg fats, or kidney fat rendered the diet complete 
in every respect. Young rats grew from infancy to maturity, bore young, 
and brought them up normally on this ration. More recently they 
have shown that the fats of the corn kernel and the wheat germ likewise 
supply the lacking constituent in the ration. These findings have been 

31 Biocliem. Ztschr., 22, 1909, pp. 452-460; Ztschr. Biol., 59, 1912, p. 366. 

" Jour. Biol. Chem., 15, 1913. p. 167; 19. 1914. p. 245; 20, 1915, p. 641; 21, 1915, 
p. 179. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 71 

confirmed by Osborne and Mendel 30 of the Connecticut (New Haven) 
Station, who have found also that cod-liver oil and the softer portion 
of beef fats have the same remarkable properties. 

The foregoing experiments have shown for the first time a most unex- 
pected and important difference in the properties of the so-called fats 
from different sources. It seems certain that the substances which are 
responsible for the peculiar effects of these crude fatty mixtures are 
not true fats, but compounds of unknown nature which are soluble 
in fats and in the ether which is employed by the chemist to dissolve the 
fat from a feedr 

105. Complete and incomplete rations. — The following experiments 
conducted by Hart and McCollum 30 at the "Wisconsin Station with grow- 
ing pigs well show that rations which supply an abundance of protein, 
carbohydrates, and fat may be insufficient for normal development. 
Soon after weaning, young pigs were placed in pens indoors where they 
had no access to the earth and were supplied with distilled water (con- 
taining no mineral matter), so that an exact record could be made, not 
only of the organic nutrients — protein, carbohydrates, and fat — which 
were consumed, but also of the mineral matter as well. When pigs were 
restricted to corn meal and gluten feed, even tho a large amount of 
protein was supplied, little or no growth could be secured. However, 
when mineral matter was added, of kind and amount corresponding 
to the mineral matter in milk, pigs made approximately normal gains 
for 10 months, reaching weights of 235 to 275 lbs. When wheat and 
wheat gluten were fed, satisfactory growth was not secured even after 
mineral matter was added as before. The addition of both butter fat 
and mineral matter was somewhat beneficial, but ultimately growth 
ceased on this ration. However, when to the wheat ration were added 
not only butter fat and mineral matter but also 2.5 per ct. of casein 
(the chief protein of milk) normal growth was secured. These pigs 
fed wheat therefore needed not only additional mineral matter but also 
the mysterious substance in certain fats, and in addition a better bal- 
anced supply of protein than was furnished by wheat and wheat gluten 
alone. 

Studies of this character are just beginning to open up new fields of 
investigation in animal nutrition. It is yet too early to predict in what 
manner or to what extent the results may modify our present practices 
in feeding farm animals. These fragments of knowledge are, however, 
most interesting to the student in showing the limitations to our present 
understanding of the feeding of animals and in pointing out the possible 
path of future development. 

106. Feeding ruminants concentrates only. — By reason of their high 
ability to digest coarse roughage, ruminants are especially adapted to 
convert the coarse plant materials of no value for human food into useful 

33 Jour. Biol. Chem., 16, 1913-14. p. 423; 17, 1914, p. 401; Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, 
and Med., 12, 1915, p. 92. 

36 Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. 373. 



72 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

products. Tho only under most exceptional conditions would it be profit- 
able to feed such animals concentrates alone, the question whether they 
can be maintained on such feeds with no roughage is of scientific interest. 

In 1874 a Mr. Miller 37 of New York reported that for several years 
he had successfully maintained dry dairy cows weighing about 900 lbs. 
for 8 weeks in winter by giving to each animal as its sole feed not above 
3 quarts of finely-ground corn meal daily. The hay supply was stopped 
when meal feeding began. At first the cows were restless, but soon 
quieted down ; rumination, or chewing the cud, ceased ; and only a small 
quantity of water was drunk. The cows showed no signs of suffering 
or unrest, were much more quiet than cows fed meal with 4 or 5 lbs. 
of hay daily, and manifested no unusual desire for hay when it was 
shown them. 

Miller claimed that the animals remained in fair flesh and that the 
calves from these cows were fleshy, healthy, active, and of more than 
ordinary size. In the spring on changing back to normal feeding a 
limited amount of hay was at first given, and the supply gradually 
increased. The cows soon filled up and did not appear different from 
others wintered in the usual way. A committee of the American Dairy- 
man's Association, on making 2 visits to Mr. Miller's stables, substan- 
tiated his statements. 

Sanborn 38 maintained sheep successfully for several months on grain 
and roots alone at the Utah Station. In Great Britain sheep are often 
fattened solely on concentrates and roots. Sanborn also fed a 2-yr.-old 
steer, weighing 635 lbs., grain and water only for nearly 8 months, dur- 
ing which time it gained 190 lbs. Upon the withdrawal of coarse food, 
rumination ceased and little water was drunk. Gains were made on 
about the same amount of feed as is required by pigs. We may therefore 
conclude that mature ruminants can be maintained for considerable 
periods, if not indefinitely, on a limited amount of ground grain with 
no roughage, and if the grain supply is liberal they may make fair 
gains in weight. 

With young ruminants nature seems less yielding. Sanborn main- 
tained a c'alf for 6 weeks in winter on grain and milk, when, thru its 
craving for roughage, the sawdust used for bedding was eaten, causing 
death. At the Illinois Station Davenport 39 fed a calf skim milk exclu- 
sively for 7 months, by which time it refused its feed, could not hold up 
its head, and appeared nearly dead. When straw and hay were placed 
before it they were greedily consumed, and 3 hours later the calf was 
ruminating in contentment, thereafter making satisfactory gains on 
mixed feed. In a second experiment a May calf subsisted on skim milk 
until September, when, altho consuming 70 lbs. daily, it showed great 
unrest. Some grain was then fed in addition to the milk, with still 
unfavorable indications. In October when hay was offered it Avas greedily 
eaten, and rumination began some five hours later. Another calf was 

87 Rpt. Am. Dairyman's Assoc, 1874. ^Utah Bui. 21. "111. Bui. 46. 



MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 73 

maintained from June until September upon milk and mixed grains. 
By the latter date it evinced no desire for feed and would not rise ; later 
it suddenly died. Altho enormous quantities of milk or milk and grain 
were consumed, there was no fat on the carcass or about its kidneys, 
and the muscles, tho plump, were dense and rigid. 

107. Necessity for roughage. — Patterson of the Maryland Station 40 
attempted to feed 2 horses on oats alone, offering from 13 to 15 lbs. to each 
daily. By the end of the fourth day one of the horses refused the oats 
entirely and drank but little water. On the seventh day the other horse 
would eat only a part of the grain, and by the tenth day none whatever. 
Evidently the horse cannot live upon concentrates alone, even oats with 
their straw-like hulls. 

108. Milk alone for pigs. — At the Wisconsin Station 41 McCollum placed 
a 23-lb. sow pig in a dry lot with shelter, and fed it from May to July 
of the following year, at first on whole milk and skim milk, and later 
on skim milk alone. The sow remained in excellent condition, and at 
about 1 year of age, when weighing 406 lbs., gave birth to 8 living pigs 
averaging 2.3 lbs. each, and 2 dead ones, all normal. Before winter the 
pigs made an average daily gain of 0.39 lb. each, reaching an average 
weight of 18.6 lbs. in 6 weeks. 

This shows that milk alone will support the pig, and indicates that 
the failure of Davenport to maintain calves on skim milk and grain 
was probably due to the physiological requirement of herbivora for 
coarse food to fill the first three stomachs in order that they may develop 
normally. (40) The pig has no such peculiarity in the structure of its 
digestive tract, and hence no physiological disturbances result from 
taking liquid food alone in the form of milk. 

109. Succulent feeds. — Numerous scientific trials and common expe- 
rience on farms have abundantly demonstrated the value of adding 
succulent feeds to the rations of farm animals. The beneficial effects 
of succulence, whether supplied as pasturage, silage, soilage, or roots, 
are many. Just as our own appetites are stimulated by fruits and green 
vegetables, succulent feeds are relishes for the animals of the farm, 
inducing them to consume more feed and convert it into useful products. 
It is reasonable to hold that such palatable feeds stimulate digestion (56) , 
and it is well known that their beneficial laxative action aids greatly 
in keeping the digestive tract in good condition. The findings of San- 
born 42 that the flesh of root-fed animals is in general more "sappy" or 
watery has an important bearing on the feeding of farm animals. There 
is no doubt that, for breeding stock, less tense and more watery flesh, 
a natural sequence of feeding succulence, is more conducive to vigorous 
young at birth and to their hearty maintenance after birth than is the 
condition of hard, dry flesh produced by feeding only dry forage thru 
the winter. The dairy cow gives her maximum returns when she is sup- 
plied with succulence. Such feeds tend toward rapid, sturdy growth 

40 Md. Bui. 51. "Unpublished data. ^Utah Bui. 17. 



74 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

with the young of all farm animals. Some succulent food is especially 
beneficial in keeping the horse in condition, to which the thrift of the 
work horse when turned out to pasture bears witness. But the horse 
at hard or fast work should receive only a limited allowance of these 
feeds. Steers and sheep make rapid and economical gains on pasture, 
and grass-fed animals are in the best possible condition to make rapid 
gains when placed in the feed lot. Among the most important con- 
tributions of the experiment stations are their demonstrations of the 
economy of feeding silage to fattening cattle and sheep and of the possi- 
bilities of cheapening the cost of producing pork thru the utilization of 
pasture. The merits of the various forms of succulence for the different 
farm animals are discussed in detail in later chapters of the book. 

110. Light. — Sunlight is a most effective germicide. To prevent the 
contraction or spread of disease, it is therefore important that the stables 
of farm animals be well lighted, with the possible exception mentioned 
in the following. Trials conducted by Graffenberger 43 with rabbits 
suggest that less light may be advisable for fattening animals fed for short 
periods. He observed an increased formation of fat, especially marked 
in the case of mature animals confined in a dark room. The hemoglobin 
content of the blood was lowered and the amount of blood in the body 
decreased by 9 to 22 per ct. thru such confinement. When confined too 
long in the dark the increase in fat formation was relatively small, and 
prolonged darkness retarded the development of the skeleton and liver, 
injuring the health of the animals. Graffenberger does not advocate 
entire darkness for fattening animals, but rather the partial absence 
of light, which tends to quiet and hence favors fattening. 

111. Exercise. — For the maintenance of health exercise is essential. 
The only exceptions to this rule are fattening animals, soon to be mar- 
keted, which make more rapid gains if not allowed to move about too 
freely. Abundant exercise is of special importance with breeding animals. 
The exercise requirements of the various farm animals are discussed 
in the respective chapters of Part III. 

112. Quiet and regularity. — Farm animals are creatures of habit, and 
once accustomed to a routine of living show unrest at any change. The 
feed stable or feed lot should be free from disturbance, and the admin- 
istration of feed and water should be uniform in time and manner. 
Animals soon learn when these are to occur, and as feeding time ap- 
proaches the secretions begin pouring from the various digestive glands 
in anticipation of the coming meal. (55) The system of feeding and 
watering and the character of the rations should be changed gradually 
and only for good cause. In feeding operations a changing period is 
usually a losing period. 

48 Arch. Physiol. (Pfluger), 53, 1893, p. 238. 



CHAPTER V 

GROWTH AND FATTENING 

I. Growth 

The preceding chapter shows that even when liberally fed the mature 
animal stores but little protein or mineral matter in its body. On the 
other hand, as the body of the young, growing animal develops it in- 
creases rapidly in both protein tissues and mineral matter. The skin, 
muscles, ligaments, tendons, and internal organs of animals are almost 
wholly protein, as is a large part of the nervous system and of the organic 
portion of the bones. During youth all these parts steadily increase in 
size, and at the same time much mineral matter is being built into the 
skeleton or is retained in the growing protoplasm of the body cells. It 
is therefore evident that the requirements for growth differ radically 
from those for the maintenance of mature animals. 

113. Increase in protein and mineral matter. — Since the lean-meat 
tissues of the body are composed mostly of muscular fibers, any gain in 
these tissues can be caused solely by an increase in the number or by the 
thickening of these fibers. The fibers increase in number by divid- 
ing lengthwise, which process occurs with farm animals only while 
young and growing. Indeed, recent investigations show that with some 
animals all increase in the number of muscular fibers occurs before birth, 
the muscles of the new born young containing as many as those of the 
mature animal. 1 The fibers of the muscles can thicken to only a limited 
extent, and hence the muscular tissues, or lean meat, of the mature 
animal cannot be increased beyond a relatively narrow limit, compared 
with the great storage of fat which may occur. 

A healthy person with poor muscular development may materially 
strengthen and increase the size of his muscles, even after reaching 
maturity, thru a thickening of the individual fibers produced by suitable 
exercise and food. Caspari, 2 studying working dogs, and Bornstein, 3 
experimenting with himself, found that when a considerable amount of 
muscular work was performed there was a small but continued gain of 
body protein if the body was supplied with an abundance of protein-rich 
food. An animal whose muscles have wasted thru sickness or starvation 
will rapidly repair its tissues upon a return to favorable conditions, 
thereby storing protein. 

Since the internal organs and such tissues as the tendons, brain, nerves, 
etc., do not increase in size after maturity, no further building of protein 

•J. B. MacCallum. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bui. 90-91 (1898). 

= Archiv. Physiol.. 83, 1901, p. 535. s Archiv. Physiol., 83, 1901, p. 548. 

75 



76 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



tissue is possible in these parts after the animal is full grown. As is 
shown later (122), a limited storage of protein occurs in the mature 
fattening animal, since fatty tissue contains a small amount of protein. 

The skeleton, partly of protein, but chiefly of mineral matter, does 
not increase after maturity. While the amount of protein and mineral 
matter in the bodies of mature animals is thus subject to little change, 
the water, and especially the fat, may vary widely in total and relative 
amount according to heredity, the abundance and nature of the food, 
and the exercise taken. 

114. Utilization of food in youth. — The gains made by well nourished 
young animals are relatively much greater and more economical, based 
on weight and food consumed, than those of mature animals, even when 
fattening. The unweaned calf may increase 2 to 3 lbs. daily for each 
100 lbs. of body weight, while a daily gain of 0.3 to 0.4 lb. per 100 lbs. 
of body weight is large for the mature fattening ox. The economy with 
which the suckling utilizes its food is shown by a trial at the Wisconsin 
Station 1 in which lambs fed cow's milk gained 1 lb. in weight for each 
0.75 lb. of dry matter consumed. In respiration studies with a calf 2 to 
3 weeks old, Soxhlet 5 found a storage in the body of 72.6 per ct. of the 
protein, 96.6 per ct. of the lime, and 72.6 per ct. of the phosphorus fed 
in the milk. Weiske 6 found that even when 5 months old lambs stored 
22 per ct. of all the protein digested from their food. 

The more rapid increase of young animals is due to several causes — 
their flesh contains more water, their food is more digestible and con- 
centrated, and they consume more food in proportion to live weight. As 
growth continues, the total quantity of food eaten increases, while the 
amount per 1000 lbs. live weight diminishes. More exercise is taken 
as the animal becomes older, and hence a larger percentage of the food 
nutrients is broken down in the body. All these factors gradually de- 
crease the daily gain per 1000 lbs. of live weight and lessen the product 
returned from a given amount of food until, when maturity is reached, 
there is little further gain, except from the laying on of fatty tissue. 

The following table by Armsby 7 shows the gain of protein, mostly 
muscular tissues, by the growing ox at various ages : 





Storage of protein by 


the growing ox 






Authority 


Daily gain of protein to the body 


Average age 
of animal 


Per 1000 lbs. of 


Computed on total 






live weight 


protein in body 


Day3 




Lbs. 


Per ct. 


8 


Soxhlet 


3.99 


2.35 


15 


Soxhlet 


3.55 


2.08 


32 


Soxhlet 


2.76 


1.69 


50 


Neumann 


1.84 


1.08 


100 


De Vries 


1.19 


0.71 


840 


Jordan 


0.09 


0.06 



4 Agr. Science, 6, p. 397. B Ber. landw. chem. Vers. Stat. Wien, 1878, p. 101. 
"Landw. Jahrb., 9, 1880, p. 205. 7 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 108. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



77 



The table shows that when 8 days old a calf stored daily in its body 
tissues protein equal to 2.35 per ct. of the total protein then in its body, 
or about 4 lbs. daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight. The storage of protein, 
which practically measures the growth of muscular tissues in the body, 
steadily decreased with age and growth until the 100-day-old calf stored 
1.19 lbs., or less than one-third as much as the 8-day-old calf. When 
28 months old and nearly mature, the steer stored but 0.09 lb. of protein 
daily per 1000 lbs. of body weight. It is thus shown that, as the animal 
matures, the quantity of protein built up in the body steadily diminishes. 

115. Milk the natural food for young mammals. — Since milk is Nature's 
food for the young of all mammals, it is reasonable to hold that it con- 
tains all the nutrients necessary to sustain the life of the young and 
that these are arranged in proper proportion. A study of the composi- 
tion of milk will therefore aid in showing the requirements for growth. 
The first milk yielded by the mother for her young, called colostrum, 
is thick and viscous and differs from ordinary milk in being richer in 
protein and often richer in ash, that of the cow being low in fat and 
milk sugar. The following table shows the average composition of 
colostrum and normal milk of various farm animals : 8 



Composition 


of colostrum and normal milk 




Animal and character 
of milk 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Sugar 


Ash 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Cow, colostrum 

Cow, normal 


Per ct. 

75.1 
87.3 

61.8 

80.8 

70.1 
84.1 


Per ct. 

17.2 
3.4 

17.1 
6.5 

15.6 

7.2 


Per ct. 
4.0 
3.7 

16.1 
6.9 

9.5 
4.6 


Per ct. 

2.3 
4.9 

3.5 

4.9 

3.8 
3.1 


Per ct. 

1.5 

0.7 

1.0 
0.9 

0.9 
1.1 


1:0.7 
1:3.9 


Ewe, colostrum 

Ewe, normal 

Sow, colostrum 

Sow, normal 


1:2.3 
1:3.1 

1:1.6 
1:2.0 



The high protein content of colostrum is largely due to its excess of 
albumen, which causes such milk to clot on heating. Colostrum is laxa- 
tive and highly important for cleansing the alimentary tract of accumu- 
lated fecal matter and properly starting the work of digestion. During 
the week following birth the composition of the milk gradually changes 
to the normal. 

Normal milk contains an abundant supply of protein compared with 
the cereal grains, as is shown by its narrow nutritive ratio, ranging from 
1 :2.0 with the sow to 1 :3.9 with the cow. The proportion of ash, or 
mineral matter, is also higher in milk than in the grains. While only 
1.5 per ct. of the dry matter of corn and 3.5 per ct. of that of oats is 
mineral matter, 6.2 per ct. of the dry matter of cow's milk is mineral 
matter. The supply of lime and phosphoric acid, needed in large amounts 
in the growing skeleton, is especially liberal, over half the total mineral 
matter consisting of these two constituents. The non-nitrogenous nu- 

8 K6nig. Chem. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, Vol. I, 1903. 



I\ 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



trients — milk sugar and milk fat — serve as body fuel and furnish 
material for the development of fatty tissues. 

116. Relation between composition of milk and rate of growth. — In 
their analyses of different kinds of milk Bunge, Proescher, and Abder- 
halden noted the striking relationship, shown in the table, between the 
rate at which different species of animals grow and the amount of mineral 
matter and protein contained in the milk : 

Influence on growth of amount of protein and mineral matter in milk 

Time required Protein Lime Phosphoric Total ash 

Species to double weight in milk • in milk acid in milk in milk 

Days Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Human 180 1.6 0.03 0.05 0.20 

Horse 60 2.0 0.12 0.13 0.40 

Cow 47 3.5 0.16 0.20 0.70 

Sheep 15 4.9 0.25 0.29 0.84 

Pig 14* 5.2 0.25 0.31 0.80 

Dog 9 7.4 0.45 0.51 1.33 

Rabbit 6 14.4 0.89 0.99 2.50 

* According to more recent data the young pig may double its weight in 9 to 10 days. 

The infant, which requires about 180 days to double its weight, receives 
a milk containing but 1.6 per ct. protein, 0.03 per ct, lime, 0.05 per ct. 
phosphoric acid, and 0.20 per ct. total ash, or mineral matter. The 
shorter the time required by the new-born young of different species to 
double in weight the higher is the protein and mineral content of the 
milk, especially in lime and phosphoric acid. It thus appears that there 
has been provided for the young of each species milk of the composition 
needed for the development characteristic of that species. These studies 
emphasize the necessity of maintaining a liberal supply of protein and 
mineral matter in the ration of young animals as the mother's milk is 
replaced by other feeds during their early life. 

117. Rich and poor milk for young animals. — Beach of the Connecticut 
(Storrs) Station 10 fed calves, pigs, and lambs on skimmed milk, ordinary 
milk containing from 3 to 3.5 per ct. fat, and rich milk containing from 
5.1 to 5.7 per ct. of fat. The lambs also received a small quantity of hay. 
The table shows the milk solids, including fat, required to produce 1 lb. 
of gain: 

Milk solids consumed per 1 lb. gain by calves, pigs, and lambs 

Milk poor Milk rich 
Length of feeding period Skim milk in fat in fat 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Calves fed 45 days 1.03 1.18 

Pigs fed 40 days (1st trial) 1.36 1.78 

Pigs fed 30 days (2nd trial) 1.48 1.40 1.56 

Lambs fed 60 days 1.08* 1.37* 

* 0.42 lb. digestible matter in hay, additional. 

In every case milk rich in fat was less valuable per pound of dry matter, 
fat included, than milk poor in fat, or even skim milk. Beach reports 
that the pigs fed rich milk suffered loss of appetite and were attacked 
by diarrhea, finally not eating enough to sustain life, while those fed 

"Abderhalden, Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 27, 1899, p. 594, 

'"Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 31. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 79 

skim milk or milk low in fat, throve. The lambs ou rich milk showed lack 
of appetite. 

In Europe studies on infant feeding show that cow's milk rich in fat 
tends to produce intestinal disturbances and is not so well adapted to 
the needs of the human infant as poorer milk. The following explanation 
of this harmful effect of excess of fat in the food of infants has been 
offered : The general capacity of an organism for the absorption of fat 
is strictly confined within narrow limits, and consequently any excess 
is not absorbed but remains in the intestines. There it is converted into 
soaps, composed of part of the fats and an alkali, and as such eliminated 
from the body in the excreta, This excretion of soap brings about a 
heavy loss from the infant body of alkaline bases, such as soda, potash, 
lime, etc., which, if continued, results in disturbed nutrition. On an 
exclusive diet of milk containing about 3.5 per ct. fat, the supply of 
alkaline bases is only sufficient for normal development. Milk rich in fat 
does not contain proportionally more of the alkaline bases, for man has 
bred and selected cows only to meet the demands for more milk and for 
that which is rich in fat. As Kellner 11 suggests, the eagerness with 
which calves eat mortar, chalk, and other lime-containing substances 
points to the milk being deficient in this respect; accordingly in such 
cases it is advisable to supply calves with chalk or ground limestone. 

118. Protein requirements for growth. — As has been shown (11), the 
individual proteins differ markedly in the amount of the various amino 
acids they contain, and in some proteins certain amino acids are entirely 
absent. Scientists believe that animals are not able to construct in their 
bodies from other nutrients any of the different amino acids, with the 
single exception of the amino acid called glycocoll. In the formation 
of the protein tissues of the body all the various individual amino acids 
are required, for the body proteins contain some of each of these building 
stones. Hence for normal growth the protein in the food must supply 
all of the necessary amino acids. The following illustration will show 
the conditions the body may meet in forming body proteins from the 
mixture of amino acids resulting from the digestion of the food protein : 
Suppose we are building a brick wall in a certain pattern which requires 
that 1 brick in 10 have a green end. If we are using as our source of 
material a pile of bricks resulting from the tearing down of another 
wall, in which only 1 brick in 50 had a green end, it is evident that we 
would soon have to stop building, tho having many perfect bricks left, 
because none had the green end required for the pattern. 

Some proteins, as the principal ones of wheat, yield on digestion as 
much as 40 per ct. of a certain single amino acid, which forms only 14 
per ct. of the animal proteins. With this protein as the sole source of 
amino acids for growth, obviously a considerable part will be wasted. 
There are other proteins which entirely lack some of the essential amino 
acids and so will produce no growth. However, when the missing amino 
"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 461. 



80 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

acids are fed to supplement such a deficient or imperfect protein, the 
animal will then be able to continue growth. 12 

The various incomplete proteins do not all lack the same amino acid. 
Hence we should expect that when 2 incomplete proteins were combined, 
the first might supplement the deficiencies of the second and better 
growth be made than on either alone. To study this problem McCollum 13 
has recently fed 60 to 75-lb. pigs on many rations in which a single 
feeding stuff or 2 or more feeds, mixed in various proportions, sup- 
plied the protein. The percentage of the food nitrogen which was re- 
tained for growth on each ration was determined with the results shown 
in the table : 

Value for growth of protein from various sources 

Proportion of nitrogen 
Source of protein Number of in food retained 

trials Per ct. 

Skim milk 1 66 .2 

Casein 1 50 . 6 

Corn 4 23 .7 

Wheat 3 26 .7 

Oats 2 28.3 

Linseed meal 1 17 .0 

Wheat embryo 1 39 .0 

Corn y s , wheat %, oats Yz 1 32 .0 

Corn 2£, linseed meal % 1 32 .0 

Corn %, Unseed meal Y 1 37 .0 

Wheat 54 wheat embryo Y 1 30 .0 

The milk proteins, which resemble the body proteins in composition 
more than do those of the cereals, were much superior to corn, wheat, 
or oat protein for growth, 66.2 per ct. of the protein of skim milk being 
used for growth. In the single trial reported a mixture of one-third of 
each of these cereals proved slightly superior to any single one. While 
linseed meal fed as the sole source of protein was the least efficient of 
any of the feeds tested, when it was combined with corn the results 
were considerably better than with corn alone. From this we may 
assume that linseed meal and corn are not deficient in the same amino 
acids, and that when combined one tends to correct the deficiencies of 
the other. This agrees with the good results secured in numerous scien- 
tific trials and in practice when linseed meal is fed as a supplement to 
corn. On the other hand, no better results were secured when wheat 
and wheat embryo were combined than the average of the results ob- 
tained when each was fed separately. In this case evidently each feed 
is deficient in the same amino acids, and one cannot supplement the 
other. In time further studies of this character will, no doubt, reveal 
the supplementary relationships of the many feeding stuffs and so 
make possible the more efficient compounding of rations. From the 
foregoing it is evident that not only must the supply of protein for 
growing animals be liberal but its composition should also be considered. 

"Osborne and Mendel, Jour. Biol. Chem., 17, 1914, p. 325. 

13 Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. 323; information to the authors. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



81 



The methods of determining the amounts of the individual amino acids 
furnished by different feeds are not sufficiently perfected as yet to enable 
scientists to ascertain by chemical analysis alone the value of the proteins 
from various sources. Hence, further knowledge concerning the value 
of the proteins furnished by individual feeding stuffs and by combina- 
tions of feeds must come thru actual feeding tests. The available data 
on the protein requirements for growth by the various farm animals 
and the nutritive values of the different feeding stuffs are presented 
in the respective chapters of Part III. 

119. Mineral matter required for growth. — It has already been shown 
that the young animal, growing rapidly in skeleton and tissues, needs 
a liberal supply of mineral matter, especially calcium (lime) and phos- 
phorus. (113) The amounts supplied in the feeds must always be larger 
than the quantity actually stored in the body, in order to cover the con- 
tinuous excretion thereof from the body which occurs even in case of a 
deficient supply. 

The effects of a lack of mineral matter are shown in a trial by Hart, 
McCollum, and Fuller 14 at the Wisconsin Station in which one lot of 
pigs averaging 47 lbs. in weight was fed a ration consisting of wheat 
bran from which a large amount of phosphorus, mostly in organic form, 
had been removed by washing, and wheat gluten and rice, both extremely 
poor in mineral matter. As shown in the table, other lots were fed this 
basal ration plus calcium phosphate, bone ash, and ground rock phos- 
phate, respectively, all supplying inorganic phosphorus. A fifth lot was 
fed unwashed wheat bran, rice, and wheat gluten, a ration in which a 
considerable part of the phosphorus was present in organic form. 

For a considerable period all the pigs throve fairly well, tho no ration 
was entirely satisfactory. As time went on, those in Lot I fell behind 
the others ; they had no appetite and remained lying down ; later they 
lost control of their hind quarters and had to be carried to the trough at 
feeding time. At the end of 4 months, when a pig of each lot was 
slaughtered, the findings given below were obtained : 

Scant and full allowance of organic and inorganic phosphorus for pigs 





Lot I 

No phos- 
phorus 
added 


Lot II 
Precip. 

calc. 

phos- 
phate 
added 


Lot III 

Bone ash 
added 


Lot IV 

Ground 
rock phos- 
phate 
added 


Lot V 

Unwashed 
wheat bran 


Av. amt. phosphorus fed daily, 
grams 

Weight of pig at slaughter, lbs .... 

Average gain per pig, lbs 

Weight of skeleton, grams 

Breaking strength of thigh bone, 
per sq. millimeter, lbs 

Diam. of thigh bones, millimeters . . 

Specific gravity of thigh bone 

Ash in thigh bone, per cent 


1.12 

77 

32 

870 

0.87 
16 

0.9S 
33 


5.29 

87 

42 

950 

1.70 
16 

1.15 
46 


5.45 
85 
35 
950 

1.77 
15.5 

1.12 
53 


5.20 
82 
43 
1495 

1.65 
20 
1.19 

57 


5.28 
87 
58 
850 

1.86 
17 
1.14 

54 



"Wis. Res. Bui. 1. 



82 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The pigs of the first lot, getting little phosphorus, had light, weak 
thigh bones, of low specific gravity and low in ash. The ones getting a 
liberal supply of inorganic phosphorus, especially those fed ground rock 
phosphate, had heavier skeletons than either the low-phosphate lot or 
even those getting organic phosphate in the unwashed bran. The thigh 
bones of the rock-phosphate lot were the largest in size and the highest 
in ash and specific gravity. At present there is little data regarding 
the minimum amounts of lime and phosphorus which will permit normal 
development of growing animals. From the available data Kellner ir> 
concludes that the ration for growing animals should contain 3 times 
as much of these mineral constituents as the animals are storing daily 
in their bodies. On this basis he recommends that during the first year 
calves receive at least 40 to 60 grams of lime and phosphoric acid per 
head daily; pigs, 12 grams each of lime and phosphoric acid per head 
daily ; and lambs, at least 10 grams of lime and 11 grams of phosphoric 
acid daily for each 100 lbs. live weight. 

Since the common feeding stuffs which are rich in protein are likewise 
high in phosphorus, probably the phosphorus supply will be ample when 
rations are fed which are balanced according to the usual feeding stand- 
ards. 101 The calcium supply for calves and lambs will usually be ample 
when hay and the cereals constitute the greater part of the ration. De- 
ficiencies will occur only in districts where the roughages are unusually 
low in lime, or when large amounts of such roughages as wheat and 
barley straw or timothy hay, which are low in lime, are fed. Where 
pigs are fed exclusively on cereal grains, especially on corn, the lime 
supply will usually be deficient. As has been shown (99-100), where 
lime alone is deficient it may be supplied in legume hay, which is rich 
in lime, or in the form of chalk or ground limestone. If phosphorus 
alone, or both lime and phosphorus are lacking, these may be supplied 
in ground rock phosphate or else in the form of bone ash. 

120. Requirements for pregnant animals. — In considering the feeding 
of young animals it is important to remember that the influence of the 
feeder begins before the young are born, for the nutrition of the 
mother during pregnancy profoundly influences the growth of the 
fetus and hence the vigor and health of the offspring at birth. To supply 
the protein and mineral matter, especially lime and phosphorus, needed 
for the development of the body tissues and skeleton of the fetus the 
ration of the mother should contain a larger supply of nutrients than 
would be required for her maintenance. Based on data from Eckles and 
P. F. Trowbridge 17 of the Missouri Station, the body of an 80-lb. new- 
born calf contains about 14.0 lbs. of protein, 2.8 lbs. mineral matter, and 
2.5 lbs. fat, — an amount of protein and mineral matter that would be 
contained in 400 lbs. of milk of average composition. 

"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, pp. 472, 476, 478. 
18 Hart, Steenbock, and Fuller, Wis. Res. Bui. 30. 
"Information to the authors. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 83 

In the case of an immature female, still developing her own tissues 
as well as those of the fetus, a liberal supply of these nutrients is espe- 
cially important. Fortunately the mother is able to protect the offspring 
to a certain extent against temporary or small deficiencies in her food 
by drawing upon her own skeleton for the lime and phosphorus and her 
muscular tissues for the protein necessary to the growing body of the 
fetus. Such maternal protection is, however, at the expense of her own 
body. The requirements for the various farm animals when pregnant 
and the feeds best suited for their maintenance are discussed in the 
respective chapters of Part III. 

II. Fattening 

121. The object of fattening. — According to Armsby, 18 the accumu- 
lation of fatty tissue, as such, is of secondary importance in fattening, 
the main object being to otherwise improve the quality of the lean meat. 
To some extent during growth, and especially during fattening, there 
is a deposition of fat in the lean-meat tissue. A small portion of this 
may be deposited within the muscular fibers themselves, but a much 
larger part is stored between the bundles of fibers, constituting the so- 
called "marbling'' of meat. This deposition of fat adds to the tender- 
ness, juiciness, flavor, and digestibility of the meat, besides increasing 
its nutritive value. It seems possible that there is also an increase in 
the soluble or circulating protein and in other extractives of the muscles, 
resulting in a further betterment of the quality of the meat as an addi- 
tional advantage from fattening. 

122. Increase during fattening. — The changes in the composition of 
the bodies of farm animals during fattening were extensively studied 
by Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted Station 13 from analyses of the 
entire bodies of oxen, sheep, and pigs slaughtered at different stages of 
fattening. They give data from which the following table is derived : 

Percentage composition of the increase of fattening animals 

Mineral Total dry 
Animal Protein Fat matter substance Water 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Ox 7.7 66.2 1.5 75.4 24.6 

Sheep 7.1 70.4 2.3 79.9 20.1 

Pig 6.4 71.5 0.1 78.0 22.0 

In most cases the animals studied had not entirely finished their growth 
when the tests began. The table shows that in 100 lbs. of live-weight 
gain made by the fattening ox, 7.7 lbs. was lean-meat tissue, 66.2 fat, 
1.5 mineral 'matter, and 24.6 water. The sheep resembles the ox in 
character of increase during fattening, but stores more mineral matter, 
due to the growth of wool. The fattening pig stores very little mineral 
matter. 

"TJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 108. "Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1860. 



84 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Henneberg and Kern 20 slaughtered a mature lean wether and deter- 
mined the amount of lean meat and fat in the carcass. A similar wether 
was fed for 70 days and killed when half fat, and a third was slaughtered 
when extra fat, after being fed 203 d&ys. The carcass of the second 
wether contained 3 times as much fat and that of the third nearly 4 
times as much as the carcass of the unfattened sheep. During fattening 
these wethers made practically no gain in lean meat. Trials by Friske 21 
seem to indicate that under some conditions even mature animals may 
make considerable gains in lean meat. Scientists agree, however, that 
as a rule the fattening of mature animals is what the term implies — the 
laying on of fat — with but relatively small storage of protein. 

That animals fattened while growing will not only gain in fatty tissue 
but in lean meat is shown by the experiments of Waters, Mumford, and 
P. F. Trowbridge, 22 who analyzed the entire bodies of steers killed at 
various stages of fattening at the Missouri Station. The following table 
shows the composition of the carcass of a 748-lb. steer in thrifty growing 
condition and the composition of the gains made by other steers during 
fattening : 

Composition of unfattened steer and gains during fattening 

Carcass of unfattened steer 

First 500 lbs. of gain 

Second 500 lbs. of gain 

Total 1,000 lbs. of gain 

While the carcass of the steer killed before fattening was over half 
water, the first 500 lbs. of gain contained only 37.6 per ct. water and 
the second 500 lbs. but 17.8 per ct. The first half of the gain was 48.6 
per ct. fat and 11.9 per ct. protein, showing marked increase in lean 
meat. In the last half of the gain 75.6 per ct. was fat and only 5.2 per 
ct. protein. The storage of ash was likewise less in the last 500 lbs. of 
gain. Thus, as a partly mature animal fattens it progressively makes 
less growth in lean meat and skeleton, and a larger part of the gain is fat. 

123. Composition of steers of different ages. — For several years Haecker 
of the Minnesota Station 23 has been conducting extensive investigations 
on the food requirements of steers of different ages, in which he has had 
analyzed the entire carcasses of many animals. The following table shows 
the average composition of steers slaughtered at various stages, from 
birth up to a weight of 1,500 lbs. : 

20 Jour. Landw., 26, 1878, p. 549. 

"Landw. Vers. Stat, 71, 1909, pp. 441-482. 

22 Information to the authors. 

"Minn. Rpt. 21 and information to the authors. 



Water 


Fat 


Protein 


Ash 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


56.4 


18.6 


18.8 


5.7 


37.6 


48.6 


11.9 


2.0 


17.8 


75.6 


5.2 


1.5 


27.7 


62.1 


8.5 


1.7 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



85 



Average ec 


rmposiiion 


of steers 


at various 


stages* 




Normal Weight 


No. of 
steers 


Water 


Dry 
matter 


Protein 


Fat 


Ash 


100 


5 
4 
3 
5 
5 
3 
4 
3 
3 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 


Per ct. 

71.84 
70.46 
66.31 
65.78 
62.86 
61.99 
60.34 
58.43 
54.10 
53.01 
48.03 
48.63 
47.77 
43.46 


Per ct. 
28.16 

29.54 
33.69 
34.22 
37.14 
38.01 
39.66 
41.57 
45.90 
46.99 
51.97 
51.37 
52.23 
56.54 


Perct. 

19.90 
19.14 
19.02 
19.29 
19.17 
19.42 
18.60 
18.80 
17.66 
17.57 
16.18 
16.59 
16.15 
15.67 


Per ct. 

3.99 

5.98 
10.18 
10.59 
13.76 
14.00 
16.58 
18.53 
24.08 
25.60 
31.91 
31.11 
32.57 
37.67 


Perct. 
4.27 


200 


4.42 


300 


4.49 


400 


4.34 


500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1000 

1100 

1200 

1400 


4.21 
4.59 
4.48 
4.24 
4.16 
3.82 
3.88 
3.67 
3.51 


1500 


3.20 







* Not including contents of the digestive tract. 

The table shows that the percentage of water steadily decreases as the 
animal matures, falling from 72 per ct. in the calves to less than 50 per 
ct. in the 1500-lb. steer. The percentage of fat increases rapidly during 
the growth and fattening of the animal, increasing from 4.0 per ct. soon 
after birth to over 37 per ct. in the 1500-lb. steer. The protein and 
ash show less change than the water and fat, but decrease percentagely 
as the animals increase in weight. Haecker states that the storage of 
protein by the animal, which is rapid in early life, shows a marked 
slowing up when the animal reaches a weight of about 800 lbs. On the 
other hand, the gain in fat is most rapid after the steer reaches a weight 
of 600 lbs. 

124. Origin of body fat. — The source of the fat which animals store 
in their bodies has been the subject of much controversy. Kellner, 
Armsby, Hagemann, and other modern authorities agree that the body 
fat of animals may originate either from the fat or carbohydrates of 
the food. Scientists still disagree upon the possibility of animal fat 
being formed thru the decomposition of protein. The preponderance 
of evidence favors such formation, as is later shown. (128) 

125. Body fat from food fat. — Many experiments have conclusively 
shown that the fat in food, which has been acted on by the digestive 
fluids in the intestines, may be directly stored in the body tissues when 
supplied in large quantity. 

Hofmann 24 allowed a dog to starve until its weight had decreased from 
26.5 to 16 kilograms and the supply, of fat in its body had practically 
disappeared, as shown by the increased decomposition of the protein 
tissues at that time. For 5 days this dog was fed large quantities of 
fat and only a little fat-free meat, during which time it gained 4.2 kgms. 
in weight. When slaughtered its body contained 1,353 grams of fat, only 
131 of which could possibly have come from the protein fed. Hence 

S4 Ztschr. Biol., 8, 1872, p. 153. 



86 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

much of the fat formed during this time must have come from the fat 
of the food. 

Henriques and Hansen 23 fed 2 three-months-old pigs barley meal 
together with oil. The first pig received linseed and the second cocoa- 
nut oil. Samples of the body fat were removed from the back of each 
pig thru incisions, and analyzed. The fat which had formed during 
the feeding resembled in odor, consistency, and composition the vege- 
table fat which had been fed. Later, when the feeds were reversed the 
body fat then formed showed a corresponding change in properties. 

All the digested fat taken into the body of the animal beyond that 
required for maintenance cannot, however, be deposited as body fat, 
since considerable losses always occur thru the energy expended in 
digestion and metabolism. Kellner 26 states that in the case of carnivora, 
or flesh-eating animals, such as the dog, not more than 87.3 lbs. of body 
fat can be formed from 100 lbs. of pure fat supplied in the food. With 
herbivora, or animals which consume coarse forage, such as the horse, ox, 
etc., the work of moving the food thru the digestive tract, digesting it, 
and disposing of the waste is larger. Hence the amount of body fat 
which may be formed by these animals from 100 lbs. of digestible fat 
in the food consumed is much lower than with the carnivora, varying 
from 64.4 lbs. in the case of pure fats to 47.4 lbs. in the fats of roughages. 

126. Fat from carbohydrates. — Scientists agree that the fat in the 
body of animals can be formed from carbohydrates. As early as 1842 
Liebig maintained that animal fat was formed mainly from the carbo- 
hydrates, tho it might also originate from the protein of the food. The 
extensive experiments of Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted Station, 27 
conducted from 1848-1853 with more than 400 animals, clearly showed 
that much more fat was stored than could be derived from the fatty 
matter and protein of the food. 

Soxhlet 28 fed 2 full-grown pigs a ration of 4.4 lbs. of rice meal for 5 
days. One pig was then killed and its body analyzed, while the other 
was fed 4.4 lbs. of rice, daily, and later a ration of 3.3 lbs. of rice with 
some meat extract, both being foods which are almost free from fat. 
After 82 days this pig was also killed and its body analyzed. Assuming 
that the bodies of both pigs were of similar composition when the first 
was killed, Soxhlet found the quantity of fat formed in the body of the 
second pig and its source to be as follows : 

Grams 

Maximum fat possible from fat in food 340 

Maximum fat possible from protein in food 2,488 

Minimum fat that must have been formed from carbohydrates in 

food • 19,352 

Total fat from 3 sources 22,180 

It is shown that during the trial 22,180 grams of fat were formed. 

Deducting from this the sum of the maximum amounts of fat which 

a! Centbl. Agr. Chem., 29, 1900, p. 529. "Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. VI, Pt. 1, 1895. 

""Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 143. ^Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 1881, p. 434. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 87 

could have been derived from the fat and the protein supplied in the 
food, there remains 19,352 grams of fat as the minimum which must 
have been formed from the carbohydrates in the food. Hence at least 
87 per ct. of the fat formed by this pig during the trial was derived from 
the carbohydrates in the food. 

The formation of fat by ruminants from the carbohydrates was first 
demonstrated by Kiihn 29 with the aid of a respiration apparatus. Oxen 
were fed for long periods on meadow hay and starch, which provided 
a ration low in protein and fat. Kiihn shows that even if all the carbon 
resulting from the digestion of the protein and fat in the food went to 
form fat in the body there still remained a large amount of deposited 
fat which could only have come from the carbohydrates of the food. 
These conclusions are confirmed by later experiments by Kellner, 30 also 
with oxen. In these later trials it is shown that 100 lbs. of digested 
starch or digested fiber yielded about 24.8 lbs., and 100 lbs. of digested 
cane sugar only 18.8 lbs., of body fat. 

127. Fat from pentosans. — Tho no experiments have yet been carried 
on to show that body fat may be formed from pure pentosans, it is certain 
that these carbohydrates may aid in its formation. Kellner 31 fed oxen 
straw in which pentosans furnished 33 per ct. of the energy. The large 
deposits of fat which followed must have come in part from the pentosans 
of the food. 

128. Fat from protein. — When a liberal protein diet supplies the animal 
with more energy than is necessary for its maintenance, not only may a 
part of the excess protein be deposited in the body as flesh, but the non- 
nitrogenous portion resulting from the cleavage of protein may be con- 
verted into either body fat or glycogen. Since body fat may be derived 
from the carbohydrates, and since glucose and glycogen may be formed 
from the proteins, it is reasonable to hold that body fat may be formed 
from the protein of the food. Demonstration of the direct formation 
of body fat from food protein is difficult, as it is almost impossible to 
induce animals to consume any large quantity of pure protein food. 
The consumption of protein must be relatively large to maintain the 
nitrogen equilibrium of the body, and so usually but a small excess avail- 
able for the formation of fat remains above body requirements. 

Investigations by Cramer 32 with cats, and by Voit 33 and Gruber 34 with 
dogs which were fed large amounts of lean meat, show that the protein 
it contained must have been the source of the fat which was stored in their 
bodies during the trials. Henneberg, 35 working with dogs, concluded that 
100 lbs. of protein may, upon decomposition, yield 51.4 lbs. of fat. Rub- 
ner, 36 likewise experimenting with dogs, has shown that owing to the 

29 Landw. Vers. Stat, 44, 1894, pp. 1-581. 34 Ztschr. Biol., 42, 1901, p. 407. 

30 Land. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, pp. 1-450. M Landw. Vers. Stat, 20, 1877, p. 

31 Landw. Vers. Stat, 53, 1900, pp. 1-450. 394. 

32 Ztschr. Biol., 38, 1899, p. 307. ^Ztschr. Biol., 21, 1885, p. 250. 

33 Jaliresber. Tier-Chem., 22, 1892, p. 34. 



88 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

losses of energy which occur in the decomposition of protein not more 
than 34.7 lbs. of fat can be formed from 100 lbs. of protein in the food. 

Herbivora — the ox, horse, sheep, etc. — cannot be fed exclusively on 
protein, since such feeding causes intestinal disorders. Kellner, 37 ex- 
perimenting with steers, added wheat gluten, which is principally com- 
posed of vegetable proteins, to a ration which was already causing a 
considerable deposition of fat. The feeding of 100 lbs. of gluten caused 
the deposition of only 23.5 lbs. of fat above the amount due to the basal 
ration. Kellner maintains that this additional deposit was derived from 
the protein fed in the wheat gluten. 

129. Body fat from nutrients. — The following table from Kellner 38 
summarizes his studies on the amount of fat which may possibly be 
formed in the body of the growing ox from 100 lbs. of digestible matter 
of the several nutrients fed in combination with a basal ration already 
exceeding the maintenance requirements of the animal : 

Energy available 

for fat formation Possible fat 

Therms Lbs. 

Fat 204-259 47 .4-59 .8 

Protein 102 23 .5 

Starch and fiber 107 24 .8 

Cane sugar 81 18 .8 

The table shows that if an ox is getting enough food for maintenance, 
supplying 100 lbs. of fat in addition may result in the storage of from 
47.4 to 59.8 lbs. of body fat. For the other nutrients there is a smaller 
deposit, cane sugar forming only 18.8 lbs. 

130. The ration for fattening. — Since the fattening of mature animals 
consists mainly in the storage of fat, there is no demand for a large sup- 
ply of food protein. While the Wolff -Lehmann standards (Appendix 
Table IV) advise nutritive ratios of 1 :5.4 to 1 :6.5 for mature fattening 
cattle, 1 :4.5 to 1 :5.4 for fattening sheep, and 1 :5.9 to 1 :7.0 for fattening 
swine, numerous experiments have shown that mature animals of all 
classes can be successfully fattened on a much smaller allowance of crude 
protein. 

Kellner 30 found that the gains of the mature ox remained unchanged 
whether 1 lb. of protein was fed with 4 or with 16 lbs. of carbohydrates, 
the total quantity of nutrients remaining the same. In such case the 
quantity of fat formed was in proportion to the nutrients digested in 
excess of the wants of the body. However, where less digestible protein 
is fed than 1 lb. to 8 or 10 lbs. of carbohydrates, the digestibility of the 
ration may be decreased. Kellner accordingly advises that for mature 
fattening cattle the nutritive ratio should never be wider than 1 :10 or 
12. In regions where alfalfa hay or other nitrogenous feeds are abund- 
ant and low in price and the carbohydrates relatively high in cost, it may 
be profitable to feed a ration with a narrow nutritive ratio. Animals in 

"Landw. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, p. 452. 
^Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 158. 
^Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, pp. 418-420. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 89 

thin flesh should at first he liberally supplied with protein in order that 
their muscular tissues may develop. For such animals Kellner holds 
that the nutritive ratio should be about 1:6, with from 12 to 15 lbs. of 
digestible nutrients daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight. 

Owing to the greater economy of gains by young animals, in this 
country the larger part of our meat-producing animals are fattened and 
marketed before maturity. Such animals are adding not only fat, but 
also considerable lean meat to their bodies as they fatten, and therefore 
require a more liberal supply of protein than mature animals. Skinner, 
Cochel, and King 10 in extensive trials at the Indiana Station have found 
that 2-year-old steers make larger gains and require less feed per 100 lbs. 
gain when fed rations with a nutritive ratio of 1 :7 to 1 :8 than when 
the ration has a wider nutritive ratio. In 4 trials fattening lambs made 
larger gains and required less feed per 100 lbs. gain when fed rations 
having an average nutritive ratio of 1 :6.9 than when the nutritive ratio 
was 1 :7.9. 

It is important to bear in mind that since protein-rich feeds are usual- 
ly high in price, the most profitable ration may not be the one producing 
the largest gains, the larger gains being in some cases offset by the higher 
cost of the ration containing an abundance of protein. Rations for fat- 
tening each kind and age of animals are discussed in detail in Part III. 

131. Factors influencing fattening. — The deposition of fat in an animal 
depends primarily upon the quantity of food consumed in excess of main- 
tenance and growth requirements. Fattening may take place at any 
age, tho the tendency of young animals to grow greatly reduces the pro- 
portion of food usually available for that purpose. Since the process of 
fattening depends upon the excess of digested nutrients over the wants 
of the body, it is evident that anything that decreases the waste due to 
external work or to excess of exercise, and which lessens the internal 
work of digestion and assimilation, may aid in fat formation. Exertion 
of any kind increases the oxidations going on in the body. Vigorous 
exercise must therefore be avoided in the case of fattening stock and 
milch cows. Supplying an abundance of feeds that are palatable, con- 
centrated, and largely digestible tends to rapid fattening, because a 
large surplus of nutrients then remains after supplying the body needs, 
which surplus may go to form fat. 

The disposition of an animal to fatten depends upon breed and 
temperament. While a wild animal, nervous and active, can be fattened 
only with extreme difficulty, domesticated animals are more quiet and 
usually fatten readily. The restless animal is rarely a good feeder, while 
the quiet one, which is inclined to ' ' eat and lie down, ' ' will show superior 
gains. This is not due to difference in digestive or assimilative powers, 
but rather to the fact that the quiet animal has, from a given amount of 
food, a greater surplus of nutrients available for fat building. 

132. Comparative fattening qualities. — Lawes and Gilbert 41 give the 
following data regarding the comparative fattening qualities of the steer, 

^Ind. Buls. 153, 162, 167, 168, 178, 179. 41 Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 



90 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



sheep, and pig, based on trials in which there were required, on the aver- 
age, for 100 lbs. gain : By steers, 250 lbs. oil cake, 600 lbs. clover hay, 
and 3500 lbs. swedes (rutabagas) ; by sheep, 250 lbs. oil cake, 300 lbs. 
clover hay, and 4000 lbs. swedes ; by pigs, 500 lbs. barley meal. 

Comparative returns from the steer, sheep, and pig 



Average live weight 

Per head per week 

Total dry food eaten 

Digestible organic matter in food . 

Increase in live weight 

Per 1,000 lbs. live weight per week 

Total dry food eaten 

Digestible organic matter in food . 

Increase in live weight 

Required for 100 lbs. increase 

Total dry food eaten 

Digestible organic matter 




Pig 

Lbs. 
175 

48 
40 
11.3 

270 
227 
64.3 

420 
353 



The table shows that the average 1200-lb. fattening steer will consume 
during one week 151 lbs. of dry food, containing 106 lbs. of digestible 
organic matter, and will gain 13.6 lbs. Because they are smaller the 
food consumed and the gains per head by the sheep and pig are much 
less. When the feed consumption and gains per 1000 lbs. of live weight 
are compared, however, it is seen that 1000 lbs. of pigs consume 270 lbs. 
of dry matter per week against 125 lbs. for steers. However, the gains 
of pigs are enough more rapid to more than balance the greater con- 
sumption of feed. While the pigs consume about 2.2 times as much feed 
per 1000 lbs. as the steers, they make nearly 6 times as much gain. The 
reason why pigs require less food to produce 100 lbs. of increase than 
either steers or sheep is largely that their food is more concentrated and 
digestible, so that a smaller proportion is consumed in the work of diges- 
tion and assimilation, leaving a larger surplus for producing gain. 

133. Returns from feed. — The following by Jordan 42 shows the amount 
of food suitable for man returned by the different classes of farm animals 
for each 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed : 

Human food produced by farm animals from 100 lbs. of digestible matter 

consumed 



Animal 


Marketable 
product 


Edible 
solids 


Animal 


Marketable 
product 


Edible 
solids 


Cow (milk) 


Lbs. 

139.0 

25.0 

14.8 

36.5 

6.4 


Lbs. 

18.0 

15.6 

9.4 

8.1 
5.4 


Poultry (eggs) 

Poultry (dressed) .... 

Lamb (dressed) 

Steer (dressed) 

Sheep (dressed) 


Lbs. 

19.6 

15.6 

9.6 

8.3 

7.0 


Lbs. 

5.1 


Pig (dressed) 

Cow (cheese) 

Calf (dressed) 

Cow (butter) 


4.2 
3.2 
2.8 
2.6 







"The Feeding of Animals. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



91 



The table, which presents one side of a most complicated problem, 
shows that for 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients consumed : 

The cow yields about 139 lbs. of milk, containing 18 lbs. of solids, 
practically all digestible. 

The pig produces about 25 lbs. of dressed carcass. Allowing for water, 
bone, and gristle, there remains over 15 lbs. of edible dry meat. 

The steer and sheep yield less than 10 lbs. of dressed carcass, nearly 
half of which is water. Deducting this and the bone and gristle, there 
remains only from 2.6 to 3.2 lbs. of water-free edible meat. 

The cow easily leads all farm animals in her power to convert the 
crops of the field into human food, with the pig second, poultry following, 
and the steer and sheep coming lowest. 

III. Studies on Growth and Fattening 

134. Wide and narrow rations for growing steers. — At the Maine Sta- 
tion 43 Jordan studied the influence of a ration rich in crude protein and 
of one poor in crude protein on the rate of growth and character of the 
flesh formed by growing steers. Four high-grade Shorthorn steer calves, 
from 5 to 7 months old when the trial began, were used. Lot I, 2 steers, 
was fed a concentrate mixture of 2 parts linseed meal, 1 part corn meal, 
and 1 part wheat bran, which furnished a large amount of protein. Lot 
II, 2 steers, was given a mixture of 2 parts corn meal and 1 part wheat 
bran, furnishing much less protein. The roughage for both lots consisted 
mostly of timothy hay, some corn fodder and corn silage being fed dur- 
ing the first winter only. The ration fed Lot I was thus rich in crude 
protein, having an average nutritive ratio of 1 :5.2, and was also high in 
mineral matter. Lot II was fed a wide ration, having a nutritive ratio 
of 1 :9.7, which supplied much less protein and also less mineral matter. 
Both lots were liberally fed, tho there was no attempt to force growth. 
One steer in each lot was slaughtered at the end of 17 months and the 
remaining two at the end of 27 months, all carcasses being analyzed to 
determine whether any difference existed therein. 

Results of feeding wide and narrow rations to growing steers 







Digestible 


Composition of entire body except skin 




Total 


matter for 












gain 


100 pounds 
gain 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Ash 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Steer fed 1 7 months 














On narrow ration . . 


737 


495 


59.02 


17.89 


18.53 


4.56 


On wide ration. . . . 


552 


686 


56.30 


17.82 


20.27 


5.61 


Steer fed 27 months 














On narrow ration . . 


962 


773 


51.91 


16.93 


25.86 


5.30 


On wide ration .... 


1005 


708 


52.16 


17.10 


25.32 


5.42 



Maine Rpt., 1895. 



92 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The table shows that during the first 17 months the steer on the narrow- 
ration gained 185 lbs. more than the other on the wider one and that a 
given gain was made on less feed. The carcasses of both steers showed 
practically the same percentage of protein or lean-meat tissue, while that 
of the one getting the narrow ration had more water and less fat and ash. 
Of the steers fed 27 months, the one on the wide ration made the larger 
total gain and required less feed for 100 lbs. of gain. The water, protein, 
and ash in the bodies of these 2 steers were practically the same. 

These data support the statement previously made (116), that a ration 
having a narrow nutritive ratio is conducive to the rapid growth of the 
young growing animal. On the other hand, when the body is partly or 
largely grown, the largest gains, which are then mostly fat, come from 
liberal feeding with rations which are rich in digestible carbohydrates 
and rather limited in crude protein — i.e., having a comparatively wide 
nutritive ratio. Doubtless more economical results than were secured 
with either lot would have been obtained had these steers been fed the 
narrow ration during the first 17 months or thereabouts, and then fat- 
tened on a wider ration. Trials with larger numbers of animals, already 
mentioned (130), show that the largest gains are made by 2-year-old 
steers when fed a somewhat narrower ration than the wide one fed by 
Jordan. 

135. Feeding pigs corn only. — In 1884 Sanborn of the Missouri Agri- 
cultural College 44 conducted studies in which growing pigs fed exclusive- 
ly on corn meal were compared with others fed on corn meal and either 
wheat middlings or dried blood. The corn-meal ration furnished an 
abundance of easily digested carbohydrates and fat, but was deficient in 
crude protein and mineral matter. The addition of dried blood or wheat 
middlings to corn meal formed a ration rich in crude protein and mineral 
matter as well as carbohydrates and fat. Sanborn showed that, com- 
pared with the corn-fed pigs, those getting rations rich in crude protein 
had a larger muscular development and more blood, and that some of 
their internal organs were larger. 

Realizing the fundamental importance of Sanborn 's studies, the senior 
author conducted numerous trials at the Wisconsin Station 45 in which 
dried blood, wheat middlings, field peas, and skim milk, with or without 
corn meal, were fed in opposition to corn meal alone. Shelton of the 
Kansas Station 46 fed pigs a mixture of wheat shorts and wheat bran in 
opposition to corn meal, potatoes, and tallow. At the Alabama Station 47 
Duggar fed cowpeas, which are rich in crude protein, against corn meal. 
In France Fortier 48 duplicated a trial by the senior author, feeding skim 
milk, dried blood, and wheat middlings in opposition to corn meal. Thus 
at 5 widely separated points pigs were fed rations rich in crude protein 
and mineral matter, usually containing some corn meal, in opposition to 

44 Mo. Buls. 10, 14, 19. 46 Kan. Bui. 9. 

"Wis. Rpts., 1886, '87, '88, '89. "Ala. Bui. 82. 

4S Ext. Trav. Soc. Cent. d'Agr., Dept. Seine-Inf., 1889. 1890. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



93 



corn meal alone, which is rich in carbohydrates and fat but low in crude 
protein and mineral matter. The following table summarizes the findings 
of two trials at the Wisconsin and one at the Kansas Station, these being 
typical of all : 



Effect on pigs of rations rich in protein and ash, compared with corn alone 
I. Daily gains, live weights, dressing percentage, and strength of hones 



Station and feed 



Ay. 
daily 
gain 



Live wt. 
at end 
of trial 



Strength of 
Dressed thigh bone 
carcass per 100 lbs. 
live wt. 



Wisconsin 

Lot I, Milk, middlings, blood 
Lot II, Com meal 

Wisconsin 

Lot I, y% blood, %$ corn meal. . . . 

Lot II, 3^ peas, \^ corn meal 

Lot III, Corn meal 

Kansas 

Lot I, Shorts, bran 

Lot III, Potatoes, tallow, corn meal 



Lbs. 
1.0 
0.7 



Lbs. 
223 
187 



Per ct. 
81.2 
80.2 



Lbs. 
503 
380 



1.4 

1.2 
1.1 



298 
277 
254 



83.2 
82.3 
83.5 



385 
471 
354 



1.4 
1.1 



211 
183 



76.8 
79.8 



357 
332 



II. ^Ylight of internal organs and parts per 100 lbs. of dressed carcass 



Station and feed 



Blood 



Liver Kidneys 



Tenderloin Leaf lard 



Wisconsin 
Lot I, Milk, middlings, blood.. 
Lot II, Corn meal 

Wisconsin 

Lot I, 14 blood, % corn meal. . 
Lot II, J^2 peas, 3^ corn meaL . . 
Lot III, Corn meal ! . . 

Kansas 

Lot I, Shorts, bran 

Lot II, Potatoes, tallow, corn 
meal 



Oz. 
54.4 
41.3 



Oz. 

26.9 
24.3 



Oz. 

5.0 

4.2 



47.1 
44.7 
43.8 



22 


.2 


21 


.3 


17 


7 



3.9 
3.4 

2.8 



Oz. 

17.1 
13.8 



Oz. 
79.9 
89.3 



50.4 
36.8 



44.7 
33.8 



7.4 

5.8 



13.0 
10.0 



65.1 
75.3 



The first division of the table shows that the pigs fed rations rich in 
crude protein and ash made heavier gains than those fed rations poor in 
these constituents. As a rule the pigs getting the rations rich in crude 
protein had a larger amount of blood and heavier livers and other organs 
per 100 lbs. of carcass, as is shown in the second division of the table. 

The strength of the thigh bones was determined in the following man- 
ner : The 2 rounded, iron supporting edges of a machine used for testing 
the breaking strength of materials were set four inches apart. On these 
a thigh bone was placed, the rounded edge of the breaking-bar pressing 
down on the bone from above, midway of its length. The downward 



94 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

pressure was gradually increased, being measured by the tilting beam of 
the machine. Under the steadily increasing pressure the bone finally 
broke, its resistance at the time of breaking being recorded. The trials 
showed that the pigs fed the ration rich in crude protein had the strongest 
bones. In the first Wisconsin trial, as the table shows, the bones of the 
corn-fed pigs broke at an average pressure of 380 lbs. for each 100 lbs. 
of carcass, while those of the pigs fed milk, dried blood, and middlings 
broke at about 500 lbs. — a difference of 32 per ct. in favor of the pigs 
getting the ration rich in crude protein. 

In the first Wisconsin trial the pigs getting milk, wheat middlings, 
and dried blood had over 54 oz., or nearly 3.5 lbs., of blood for each 100 
lbs. of dressed carcass, while those getting only corn meal had less than 
42 oz., or but little over 2.5 lbs. The livers and kidneys of the pigs fed 
the rations rich in crude protein were in all cases relatively heavier, as 
were also the tenderloin muscles, lying along the back, showing that a 
superior muscular development was associated with the larger internal 
organs, more blood, etc. The corn-fed pigs, on the other hand, had stored 
more fat, as the proportion of leaf lard shows. Analyses of the organs 
and parts of the pigs used in the second Wisconsin trial showed further 
that the corn-fed pigs had proportionately less dry matter in their blood 
and kidneys and a smaller amount of dry lean-meat tissue than those on 
the narrow ration. 

Later investigations show that differences produced by the exclu- 
sive corn rations and those rich in crude protein were not entirely due 
to the difference in the supply of crude protein. In each case the ration 
rich in crude protein was also the richer in mineral matter, for corn is 
not only low in crude protein but it also lacks mineral matter. 

To study the effect upon the carcass of varying the amount of protein 
in the ration when an abundance of mineral matter was supplied, Grind- 
ley and colleagues 49 at the Illinois Station analyzed the carcasses of pigs 
fed corn and varying amounts of blood meal from weaning, all animals 
being supplied with calcium phosphate in addition, to furnish a liberal 
amount of lime and phosphoric acid. Pigs fed rations very high in pro- 
tein, containing 26 to 35 per ct. blood meal, had larger kidneys and livers, 
and heavier, stronger bones than when a ration containing only 7 per ct. 
blood meal was fed. No difference was found between the various lots in 
the forms of nitrogenous compounds in the protein tissues or in the dis- 
tribution of the ash between the various organs of the body. 

136. Effect on tenderloins of exclusive corn feeding. — At the Missouri 
Station 50 Forbes fed 6 lots, each of five 120-lb. pigs, on unlimited rations 
for 60 days. One lot was fed corn only, while the others received corn 
supplemented with the various by-feeds shown below. All rations but 
the one exclusively of corn had the same nutritive ratio. On slaughter- 
ing the pigs, portions of the tenderloin muscles were analyzed, with the 
results shown on the next page. 

40 Til. Buls. 168, 169, 171, 173. M Mo. Bui. 81. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 95 

Composition of the tenderloin muscles of pigs variously fed 

Supplement fed per 100 lbs. of corn Water Protein Fat Ash 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Lot I, Corn only 71.5 19.2 7.28 1.11 

Lot II, Wheat middlings, 81.8 lbs 72 .9 20 .7 5 .04 1 .15 

Lot III, Linseed meal, n. p., 17.8 lbs 74.1 20.5 4.01 1.18 

Lot IV, Soybeans, 19.6 lbs 72 .9 20 .9 4 .79 1 13 

Lot V, Tankage, 8.1 lbs 73.7 19.8 5.17 1.13 

Lot VI, Germ oil meal, 39.4 lbs 73 .5 20 .5 4 .67 1 .08 

It is shown that the muscles resulting from exclusive corn feeding had 
more fat and less water and protein than the others. The corn ration 
and the corn and germ oil meal ration, both low in mineral matter, pro- 
duced muscle lower in ash than the other rations. While the muscles 
from the pigs fed exclusively on corn contained less protein than the 
others and were therefore really smaller in size, because of their high 
percentage of fat they would, on cooking, furnish meat which would be 
more juicy and toothsome than that of the other lots. 

137. Discussion of the pig-feeding experiments. — In analyzing the two 
preceding experiments we should hold that the pigs given feeds rich in 
crude protein and mineral matter developed bodies that were normal in 
skeleton, muscles, and all internal organs. Those fed corn exclusively 
were prevented from building a normal body structure because of the 
insufficient and unbalanced supply of crude protein and a lack of enough 
mineral matter in their food. We should not forget that all parts of the 
normally nurtured body attain a certain normal development which 
cannot be materially increased beyond a constitutional limit. Only in a 
small degree can the stockman in a single generation increase by what he 
may feed the size of the bones and the muscles of the animals under his 
care. On the other hand, Nature sets no such close limitations on the 
amount of fat that may be stored. This varies according to inheritance, 
the nature and abundance of the food, the amount of exercise, etc. The 
skeleton, the muscles, and all the organs of the body increase during the 
plastic stage of youth and cannot be augmented in the mature animal. 
(113) The quantity of fat which the animal may lay on is limited dur- 
ing youth and is more easily and largely stored after maturity has been 
reached. (122) 

These experiments should impress upon the stockman the plastic nature 
of the bodies of young, growing animals. They show it possible for 
immature animals living on unsuitable food to survive a long time and 
develop bodies that are dwarfed in size and made unnaturally fat. They 
help to show that Nature 's plan is to first grow the body framework and 
afterwards to lay on the fat. They point to' the reasonable, important, 
and far-reaching conclusion that if a pig or other young animal is im- 
properly fed so as to modify its bones, muscles, and vital organs even a 
veiy little, and the process is repeated during several generations, the 
cumulative effects will be marked and permanently injurious. The prac- 
tical lesson is taught that young animals should be nurtured on a combina- 



96 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



tion of feeding stuffs that will develop the normal framework of bone, 
muscle, and all body organs. This calls for a ration containing crude 
protein and mineral matter not only in ample amount, but also of suita- 
ble composition for rapid formation of body tissues. Having developed 
the proper framework of bone, together with the enveloping muscular 
system and all the organs of the body, the food supply may then consist 
largely of carbohydrates and fat, which are the cheap and abundant 
sources of animal fat. 

In America corn is the common feeding stuff for swine, and pigs show 
such fondness for it that harm often results because the practice of the 
feeder and breeder is guided by the appetite of the animal rather than by 
a knowledge of the composition and limitations of feeds. Let us not 
despise corn because when wrongly and excessively used, as it purposely 
was in these experiments with young, growing pigs, it fails to develop 
the normal framework of bone and muscle. Each feed has its function 
in the nutrition of animals, and only by its abuse can unfavorable 
results follow. 

138. Growth under adverse conditions. — At the Missouri Station 51 
Waters kept 15 steers, varying from fat show animals to those in ordinary 
farm condition, for long periods on rations sufficient for maintenance. 
Below are given the results obtained with 4 yearling steers kept at con- 
stant body weight: 

Growth of steers maintained at constant body weight 





Length 
of period 


Increase in 


Decrease 
in width 
of chest 




Age at 
beginning 


Height 
at withers 


Length 
of head 


Depth 
of chest 


Decline in condition 
from — ■ 


Months 
11 

9.5 
16.5 
17 


Months 

7 
12 
12 
12 


Per ct. 
10.2 

9.9 
6.8 

5.8 


Per ct. 
11.1 

19.7 

12.0 

9.6 


Per ct. 
5.6 
8.5 

6.0 

1.1 


Per ct. 

10.1 

12.1 

10.6 

9.4 


Good to com. 
Med. to thin 
Prime to com. 
Prime to com. 



The table shows that in each case there was a marked increase in the 
height of the animal at the withers, the length of head, and the depth 
of chest, denoting a growth of the skeleton. The decrease in width of 
chest shows a thinning of the flesh covering the skeleton, indicating that 
the stored fat was re-absorbed or withdrawn from the tissues in the 
effort to continue growth on insufficient food. Examination of the fat 
cells of these animals showed a uniform reduction in their size as com- 
pared with those of animals receiving liberal rations. 

In other trials by Waters and P. F. Trowbridge 52 at the Missouri 
Station steers in a thrifty growing condition, weighing 573 to 740 lbs., 
were fed rations just sufficient to maintain their weight for various 
periods of time, and were then slaughtered and the carcasses analyzed. 

51 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1908. 5i Information to the authors. 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 



97 



Others were fed sub-maintenance rations on which they lost 0.5 lb. per 
head daily, and still other rations on which they made 0.5 lb. daily gain 
per head. Even the steers losing weight made steady growth in skeleton. 
A steer weighing 654 lbs. when placed on the experiment lost 199 lbs. 
in 12 months, but nevertheless gained 3.6 inches in height at withers, 
and 4.5 inches in length of body. While the carcass of the steer slaugh- 
tered and analyzed as a check animal at the beginning of the trial con- 
tained 56.5 lbs. of fattj r tissue, that of an animal which had been given 
a ration just sufficient to maintain its weight for 12 months contained 
only 24.3 lbs. of fatty tissue. An animal which had lost 0.5 lb. daily 
in weight steadily for a year had used up practically all of its fatty 
tissues for body fuel. Indeed only 0.4 lb. of fatty tissue could be sepa- 
rated from the entire carcass of the animal. 

The following table shows the changes which were produced in the 
composition of the fatty tissues, lean flesh, and skeletons of 3 of the 
animals, compared with the tissues of the steer slaughtered as a check 
animal : 



Changes in 


)ody tissues of steers on scanty and liberal rations 




Steer I, 
check animal 


Steer II, 

on maintenance 

12 months 


Steer III, 

losing 0.5 lb. per 

day for 12 mo. 


Steer IV, 

gaining 0.5 lb. daily 

for 5 mo. 


Fatty tissue 

Water 

Fat 

Protein 


Per ct. 

19.0 

74.8 

6.0 

0.2 

71.0 
8.0 

20.1 
0.9 

37.1 
14.7 
20.4 
25.3 


Per ct. 

36.2 

50.8 

13.6 

0.5 

74.0 
4.6 

19.7 
1.0 

36.2 
16.4 
20.0 
26.6 


Per ct. 
81.2 

4.6 

9.7 
1.1 

76.9 
2.1 

19.8 
1.0 

52.6 

2.9 

19.1 

22.8 


Per ct. 
18.5 

73.4 
6.5 


Ash 


0.2 


Lean flesh 

Water 


71.1 


Fat 


7.8 


Protein 


19.2 


Ash 


0.9 


Skeleton 

Water 


35.4 


Fat 


17.3 


Protein 


19.8 


Ash 


25.3 







The table shows that in the case of Steer II, held at constant weight 
for 12 months, much fat had been withdrawn from the fatty tissue, being 
largely replaced by water. So far had the withdrawal of fat progressed 
in the case of Steer III, that the small amount of ' ' fatty tissue ' ' which 
was secured from the carcass contained 81.2 per ct. water and only 4.6 
per ct. fat ! With the withdrawal of fat the percentage of protein and 
ash had increased. The lean flesh suffered much less change than the 
fatty tissues, even in the case of Steer III, which lost nearly 40 per ct. 
of the lean meat in his body during the trial. The data show that on 
insufficient food the fat was withdrawn to a marked degree from the 
lean flesh of the body. 

The skeleton is not affected by poor nutrition until practically all 



98 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the fat has been removed from the fatty tissues and the muscles. In 
the case of Steer III the withdrawal of fat had gone so far that nearly 
all the fat had been removed from the marrow of the skeleton and re- 
placed with water. Indeed, the marrow had practically disappeared and 
in its place was a watery, ill-smelling liquid. This re-absorption of fat 
takes place from all parts of the skeleton. In contrast with these changes, 
the protein and ash content was but slightly reduced, even in the case of 
Steer III. 

In the process of fattening, the fat is laid on the body in a certain 
order, being deposited first and most rapidly in certain regions, while 
in others little is stored until fattening is well advanced. Waters states 
that the withdrawal of fat from the tissues occurs in the reverse order 
from which it was laid on — that first deposited being the last to be 
absorbed. 

An experiment with two 8-months-old steers, one on full feed and the 
other on a maintenance ration, showed that on the whole the animal on 
full feed increased in height more rapidly than the one on maintenance. 
However, for a considerable period the poorly fed steer grew as rapidly 
as the other. Waters states that the length of the period during which 
poorly fed animals gain as rapidly in height as well nourished ones 
ranges from 70 to 120 days, depending on the constitutional vigor of 
the individual and the excess fat with which it starts. After this period 
the increase in height becomes less rapid, ceasing altogether in from 6 
months to a year and a half, by which time the animal has become quite 
thin and has re-absorbed all fat not necessary to its life. For 5 months a 
steer fed less than a maintenance ration and losing in weight grew in 
height as fast as one on full feed. 

Growth on scanty rations is not due directly to the fat re-absorbed from 
the body. The animal burns its stored fat to support the body, and the 
protein in its food is used for building body tissue. The supply of 
mineral matter in the maintenance ration used in these studies was 
probably sufficient to provide an excess for growth. The steers developed 
depraved appetites in a short time after being placed on scanty rations 
and ate considerable earth, possibly making use of some of its mineral 
matter. 

Waters concludes that the young animal may advance to normal size 
by any or all of the following ways : 

1. By growing steadily from birth to maturity. 

2. By storing fat in a period of abundant food supply to assist in 
tiding over a limited period of sparse food supply without serious inter- 
ruption of growth. 

3. By prolonging the growth period. 

4. By an increase in the rate of growth during a period of liberal 
feeding following a period of low nourishment and low gain. 

5. By conserving the cost. Apparently the animal when kept for a 
long period on scanty food gets on a more economical basis than when 



GROWTH AND FATTENING 99 

more, liberally fed A ration which is at first insufficient to maintain 
the animal may be capable later of keeping the animal at a constant 
body weight, and still later of causing gain. 

139. Effects of checking growth. — Waters, Cochel, and Vestal"'- have 
conducted numerous experiments at the Kansas Station to determine 
the effect on the subsequent development of pure-bred beef steers of 
checking their growth for various periods by under-feeding. They 
report that supplying a young, growing animal with a scant ration for 
a short period only will have no permanent effect on its development. 
Even when insufficient feeding is continued for a year or longer, the 
animal will recover to a surprising extent when placed on libera! feed, 
making unusually rapid and economical gains. Osborne and Mendel" 
have shown that while the normal growth period of rats rarely exceeds 
335 days, those whose growth has been checked by insufficient food will 
resume growth even at the age of 480 to 532 days. 

The Kansas experiments show, however, that while a steer whose 
rth has been checked for a year or more may grow nearly as tall as 
one fed well all along, it is almost certain to have a smaller digestive 
capacity, narrower hips, flatter ribs, heavier shoulders, and lighter hind 
quarters, even when finished for market. The form of the highly devel- 
oped beef animal has evidently been caused by broadening the animal 
thru heavy feeding while young. If insufficient, feed is supplied to 
distend the digestive tract and force out the ribs and hips when yet 
plastic, the body of the animal will never attain the desired conforms' 

These studies on growth are highly significant to the stockman. They 
show that under certain conditions it may be profitable to carry growing 
animals thru the winter on roughages alone, even tho they Jose slightly 
in weight, for on a return to good pasture, animals in spare but thrifty 
condition make exceedingly economical gains. However, the breeder 
who seeks to develop his animals toward an ideal must supply ample 
feed during the whole growth period. 

■Kansas Industrialist, May 10, 1913; Apr. 18, 1914; and information to the 
authors. 
"Jour. Biol. Chem. : 18, 1914, pp. 9r>106. 



CHAPTER VI 

PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 

I. Production of Work 

II, has long been known that muscular exertion or external body work 
greatly increases the amount of food material burned or broken down 
in the body, but scientists have disagreed as to whether one or all of the 
nutrients protein, carbohydrates, or fat— furnishes the energy. Liebig, 
"the father of agricultural chemistry," held that the protein of the 
muscular tissues w;is the only material broken down in producing volun- 
tary and involuntary motions, whether of the Limbs, heart, or other parts 

of the body. 

140. Waste of protein tissues during work. — Thai, protein is not an 
important source of body energy was shown by Pick and Wislicenus, 1 
wbo in 1865 ascended the Paulhorn, an Alpine mountain. While climb- 
ing the mountain these investigators consumed only non-protein food; 
i. e., starch, sugar, and fat, and during this time they collected all the 
urine passed. The amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine during 
the trial follows: 



Nitrogen 


excretion during 


mountain climbing 








Total ni 


rogen excreted 


Nitrogen excreted per hour 
(average) 




Picls 


Wislicenus • 


Fick 


Wislicenus 


Night before ascent 


Grams 
6.92 
3.31 

2.43 

■1 82 


Grams 

6.68 
3.13 
2.42 

5 .35 


Grams 
0.6:5 
0.41 
0.40 
0.45 


Grams 
0.61 


After ascent 


0.39 

0.40 




0.51 



The table shows that only about two-thirds as much nitrogen was 
excreted per hour during and immediately after the climb as prior to it, 
when there was more or less residue in the system from the previous 
meal containing protein. Had the nitrogenous tissues or the muscles of 
the body been broken down directly in proportion to the labor performed, 
there would have been a Large increase in the nitrogen excretion during 
and billowing this fatiguing work; but such was not the case. Measured 
by the nitrogen in the urine, the protein broken down during the trial 
could not possibly have furnished energy for more than one-third of 
the work done by these men in lifting their bodies to the top of the 
mountain. 

1 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1895; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 22. 

100 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 101 

From this trial and experiments by Voit, Pettenkofer, and Parks it 
was decided that only carbohydrates and fats were oxidized and burned 
in the production of muscular energy. Still later experiments by Ar- 
gutinsky, Zuntz, and others have shown that when carbohydrates and 
fat are sufficient in amount they furnish all the muscular energy, and 
in such cases the breaking down of protein is not increased during work. 
However, if the supply of carbohydrates and fat in the food is insufficient, 
some of the energy for the production of work may be furnished thru 
the breaking down of protein, with a resultant increase in the nitrogen 
excretion in the urine. 

141. Excretion of carbon dioxid. — Whether the material burned to 
furnish muscular energy be carbohydrates, fat, or protein, carbonic 
acid gas will be produced, the quantity directly depending upon the 
amount of work done. This was shown by Smith,- who determined the 
quantity of carbonic acid gas exhaled by the horse when at rest and 
performing labor as follows: 

Cubic feet 
Form of work per hour 

At rest 1 .03 

Walking 1 . 10 

Trotting 2 .95 

Cantering 4.92 

Galloping 14 .97 

Thus, unlike the nitrogen excretion, the amount of carbon dioxid ex- 
haled per hour is increased by the performance of work, and depends 
upon the work done in that time. 

142. Production of muscular energy. — We know that in doing work 
the muscles of the body contract; that is, become shorter and thicker. 
Yet in spite of all the study of scientists we do not yet know definitely 
the direct cause of muscular contraction. In just what manner the 
energy stored in the food is converted into the energy of muscular action 
is still an unsolved question. We do know, however, some of the pro- 
cesses which take place in the working muscles. 

The most significant change which takes place during muscular con- 
traction is the increased production of carbon dioxid, already noted, 
which seems to bear a definite relation to the amount of internal and 
external work performed. There is also a large increase in the amount 
of oxygen taken up by the muscles from the blood during work. The 
increase in oxygen consumed and car?jon dioxid given off might lead to 
the conclusion that the activity of the muscle during contraction is due 
to simple oxidation, such as occurs when fuel is burned. However, cer- 
tain facts which cannot be dwelt upon here lead scientists to believe 
that the chemical changes by which energy is liberated are not simple 
oxidations, but are more in the nature of sudden decompositions or 
cleavages of some complex substance or substances built up in the muscle 
during rest, carbon dioxid being evolved in such cleavage. 3 Part of 

2 Jour. Physiol., 1890, No. 1; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 22. 
3 Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 187. 



102 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the energy liberated in this decomposition appears as heat, and another 
part as mechanical work. 

Glycogen, or animal starch, is stored in the muscle during rest, forming 
between 0.5 and 0.9 per ct. of the weight of well-nourished muscle in 
the resting condition. (60) A smaller quantity of glucose is also found 
in the muscular tissues. During muscular activity this stored glycogen 
and glucose disappear more or less, in proportion to the extent and dura- 
tion of the contractions, so that after prolonged muscular activity or 
hard work the supply may be entirely exhausted. Tho the amount of 
these carbohydrates in the body tissues at any one time is small, a 
supply, especially of glucose, is being continuously produced from the 
food nutrients or body tissues to replace that oxidized in the production 
of work. As the larger part of the food of farm animals consists of car- 
bohydrates, the oxidation of the glucose formed from them probably 
furnishes most of the energy for the production of heat and work by 
these animals. To supply the muscles with the necessary oxygen and also 
carry away the waste products formed during muscular exertion, the 
circulation of the blood must be hastened and larger quantities of air 
be taken in by the lungs. 

143. Source of muscular energy. — All the organic nutrients absorbed 
from the food, not only the carbohydrates and fats, but also the proteins 
and apparently the pentosans, serve as sources of energy to the body. 
Under normal conditions the non-nitrogenous nutrients and the glycogen 
are first drawn upon for the production of work, no more protein being 
broken down than during rest. If the non-nitrogenous nutrients do not 
suffice for the production of muscular energy, then the body fat is next 
drawn upon. If this is insufficient or is much diminished by continued 
work, then as the last resort the muscles or other protein tissues will be 
called upon to furnish the needed energy. 

144. Relative value of nutrients. — Investigations by Zuntz and his 
associates show that the value of each of the different classes of food 
nutrients for the production of work depends upon the total energy it 
contains. In one experiment 4 the diet of a man turning a wheel consisted, 
during separate periods, chiefly of either fat, carbohydrates, or protein. 
For 1 unit (kilogr ammeter) of work the following amounts of energy 
were expended : 

Energy expended 
Period Nutrient eaten per kgm. of work. 

Cal. 

I Protein 11.92 

II Carbohydrates 11 .54 

III Fat 9.53 

IV Protein 10 .78 

V Fat 9.25 

It is shown that approximately the same fuel rations were required to 
produce a given amount of work whether the fuel was protein, carbohy- 
drates, or fat. It will be noticed that the energy expended was less in 

4 Arch. Physiol. (Pniiger), 83, 1901, p. 564. 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 103 

the last trials on account of the proficiency which had been attained in 
the work. 

145. Energy requirements for work. — The total energy required to 
produce a certain amount of external work depends upon many factors. 
Experiments by Zuntz 5 with the horse show that an increase in the speed 
at which work is performed results in an increased expenditure of energy 
per unit of work. Practice in performing a certain work lessens the 
energy expenditure for that particular form of labor. In experiments 
upon himself G ruber" found that in climbing a tower the amount of 
carbon dioxid exhaled and hence the energy expended was decreased by 
20 per ct. after training for 2 weeks. In experiments by Lowy 7 on him- 
self, and by Zuntz 8 upon horses, fatigue caused an increase of from 14 to 
41 per ct. in the amount of energy expended in performing a given 
amount of work. This increased expenditure of energy is largely due to 
the fact that with increasing fatigue the muscles normally used, and 
which are thus the most efficient in performing the given work, are put 
out of use. Then other less used muscles are called upon to a constantly 
increasing degree, and these cannot perform the work so efficiently or 
economically. 

The part of the expended energy appearing in useful work varies in 
accordance with the build of the animal, the development of its muscular 
apparatus, and the structure of its extremities which bring about the 
work. Zuntz found great variations in the energy expended by different 
horses of the same weight in traveling upon a level track, a lame horse 
expending 99 per ct. more energy than a sound one. In the work of 
climbing a grade he found a variation with different horses of as much 
as 52 per ct. in the proportion of the total energy expended which ap- 
peared as useful work. An animal which is able to accomplish one form 
of work most economically may have to expend an unusual amount of 
energy at other kinds of work. For example, horses bred for generations 
to the saddle can carry the rider with smaller expenditure of energy 
than those whose breeding, form, and qualities specially fit them for 
draft purposes. 

Certain forms of labor are performed with greater economy of energy 
than others. Katzenstein 9 found in experiments with men that about 65 
per ct. more energy was used in turning a wheel with the arms than was 
required Avhen the same work was done with the legs. 

146. The animal as a machine. — The extensive investigations by Zuntz 
and associates with men, dogs, and horses show that, aside from small 
variations due to the nature of the work and other factors, the part 
of the energy expended which is actually transformed into external 
work is quite constant for each class. With animals at moderate work 
the part of the energy which appeared in external work varied from 28.8 

r, Landw. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. III. "Landw. Jahrb. 27, 1898, Sup. III. 

"Ztschr. Biol., 38, 1891, p. 466. "Wolff, Farm Foods, p. 84. 

7 Arch. Physiol., 49, 1891, p. 413. 



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106 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

source than the fat in the food. This fat could not have come from the 
body of the cow, for Jordan writes : ' ' The cow 's body could have con- 
tained scarcely more than 60 lbs. of fat at the beginning of the experi- 
ment; she gained 47 lbs. in weight during this period with no increase 
of body nitrogen, and was judged to be a much fatter cow at the end; 
the formation of this quantity of milk fat from the body fat would have 
caused a marked condition of emaciation, which, because of an increase 
in the body weight, would have required the improbable increase in the 
body of 104 lbs. of water and intestinal contents. ' ' 

Jordan concludes that not over 17 lbs. of the fat produced during 
the trial could possibly have been produced from the protein supplied 
in the food. It is most evident that a large part of all the fat produced 
by this cow must have come from the carbohydrates in her feed, and so 
a long disputed question is at length settled. 

150. Nutrients required for milk production. — To aid in showing the 
nutrients required for the production of milk, let us compute the amount 
of product yielded by a well-bred dairy cow in the course of a year. 
Such an animal, of no unusual ability, should yield 8000 lbs. of milk 
of average quality. Taking the composition shown in a previous table 
(115), we find that she will produce annually in her milk 272 lbs. of 
protein, 296 lbs. of fat, 392 lbs. of milk sugar, and 56 lbs. of mineral 
matter. This is 56 per ct. more protein, 30 per ct. more non-nitrogenous 
nutrients (fat and carbohydrates), and 19 per ct. more mineral matter 
than is contained in the entire body of a fat 2-year-old steer weighing 
1200 lbs. (29) 

Thus each year the cow yields more protein and mineral matter than 
has been built into the body of the steer during its entire life. At 
the same time she is also storing considerable protein and mineral matter 
in the developing body of her unborn calf. It is therefore evident that, 
far different from the requirements of the mature horse at work or of a 
mature fattening animal (140,130), the cow needs a liberal supply of 
protein and mineral matter. To yield the great amount of nutriment in 
the milk a ration supplying a large amount of net nutrients is also neces- 
sary, for energy used up in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation 
of such feeds as straw is of no value for the formation of milk. We have 
seen (118) that for growth individual proteins have widely different 
values. Hart and Humphrey 13 have found in recent metabolism experi- 
ments with dairy cows at the Wisconsin Station that proteins from 
various sources are of different worth for milk production. In these 
trials cows were fed a basal ration of corn stover, which supplied but a 
small amount of digestible protein. To this ration was added either corn 
or wheat grain (much of the protein in both of which is unbalanced in 
composition) or milk protein, supplied in the form of skim-milk powder 
and casein (furnishing proteins which are complete in composition). 
The percentage of the digestible protein of these rations which was used 

13 Information to the authors. 



PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 107 

by the cows for milk production and the formation of body protein was 
40 per ct. with the corn ration, 34 per ct. with the wheat ration, and 58 
per ct. with the milk protein ration. Such complete proteins as are fur- 
nished by milk are thus apparently higher in efficiency for milk pro- 
duction. 

Since most of the scientific studies of the factors influencing the pro- 
duction of milk have been conducted with the dairy cow, the discussion 
of milk production as relating to that animal is continued in Chapters 
XXI to XXV. The requirements of the mare, ewe, and sow for the 
production of milk are also treated in the respective chapters of Part III. 



III. Wool Production 

151. Composition of wool. — Aside from moisture and dirt, "wool" is 
made up of pure wool fiber and yolk, the latter including the suint and 
the wool fat. The wool fiber is practically pure protein, and is of the 
same chemical composition as ordinary hair, but differs in being covered 
with minute overlapping scales. The suint, chiefly composed of com- 
pounds of potassium with organic acids, comprises from 15 to over 50 
per ct. of the unwashed fleece, being especially high in Merinos. As 
suint is soluble in water, most of it is removed by washing the sheep or 
fleece, and less is present in the wool of sheep exposed to the weather. 
The fat, often incorrectly called yolk, is a complex mixture of fatty sub- 
stances, insoluble in water, and may make up 8 to 30 per ct. of the weight 
of a washed fleece. 

152. Requirements for wool production. — Owing to the large amount of 
protein stored by sheep in their fleece, their ration should contain some- 
what more protein than rations for cattle or swine at the same stage of 
maturity. As is shown in the next chapter, this is taken into considera- 
tion in the various feeding standards which have been formulated for 
various classes of animals. With ewes, which are either pregnant or 
suckling lambs, there is a double demand for food protein, which makes 
a liberal supply especially advisable. Tho the suint of wool is rich in 
potassium, this constituent is amply supplied by all usual rations, since 
practically all the common roughages are rich in potassium, and most 
concentrates carry a fair amount. 

Experiments by Wolff 14 and Henneberg 15 show that when sheep are fed 
insufficient food to maintain their weight, the yield of wool is consider- 
ably diminished. On the other hand, according to Warington, 16 the 
production of wool hair and wool fat is practically no greater when a 
full-grown sheep receives a liberal fattening diet than when it is main- 
tained in ordinary condition. Feeding lambs liberally produces a larger 
body and consequently a heavier fleece. At the Wisconsin Station 17 
Craig found that lambs fed grain from an early age sheared about 1 lb. 

"Landw. Vers. Stat, 1870, p. 57. 16 Chemistry of the Farm. 

16 Jour. Landw., 12, 1864, p. 48. ,7 Wis. Rpt. 1896. 



108 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

more of unwashed but practically the same amount of washed wool as 
those getting no grain until after they were weaned. The early feeding 
had produced more yolk but no more wool fiber. 

The strength of the wool fiber is dependent on the breed, the quality 
of the individual sheep, and the conditions under which they are reared. 
Conditions which check the growth of the wool, such as insufficient feed, 
undue exposure, or sickness, will produce a weak spot in the wool fiber, 
thus lessening its strength. The feed and care for the flock should there- 
fore be as uniform as possible. Certain regions or districts may produce 
wool of superior or inferior quality, due to the climate, soil, topography, 
and the forms of vegetation. 



CHAPTER VII 

FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 

I. Early Feeding Standards 

In the preceding chapters we have considered the functions of the 
various nutrients in the nourishment of animals and have studied the 
general requirements for maintenance, growth, fattening, and the pro- 
duction of work, milk, and wool. To guide the farmer in choosing 
and computing rations for his stock, scientists have put these require- 
ments into definite form thru the drawing up of feeding standards. 
These are tahles showing the amount of each class of nutrients which, it 
is believed, should be provided in rations for farm animals of the various 
ages and classes, to keep them in the best condition and secure maximum 
production. 

At the beginning of the last century almost nothing was known con- 
cerning the chemistry of plants and animals. The farmer then gave his 
stock hay and corn without knowing what there was in this provender 
that nourished them. But science soon permeated every line of human 
activity, and agriculture was benefited along with the other arts. Davy, 
Liebig, Boussingault, Henneberg, Wolff, Lawes and Gilbert, and other 
great scientists were early laying the foundations for a rational agri- 
cultural practice based on chemistry, and animal feeding gained with 
the rest. 

153. Hay equivalents. — The first attempt to express the relative value 

of different feeding stuffs in a systematic manner was by Thaer 1 of 

Germany, who in 1810 published a table of hay equivalents with meadow 

hay as the standard. According to this writer the amounts of various 

other feeding stuffs required to equal 100 lbs. of meadow hay in feeding 

value were: 

91 lbs. clover hay 417 lbs. rutabagas 

91 lbs. alfalfa hay 602 lbs. cabbages 

200 lbs. potatoes 625 lbs. mangels 

Naturally opinions on feed values varied, and so there were about 
as many tables of hay equivalents as there were writers on the subject. 

154. The first feeding standard. — Chemistry having paved the way, 
Grouven 2 in 1859 proposed the first feeding standard for farm animals, 
based on the crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat in feeding stuffs. 

1 Landwirtschaft, New ed., 1880, p. 211. 

= Feeding Standard for Dom. Anim., Expt. Sta. Rec, IV; also Agricultur- 
chemie, Koln, 1889, p. 834. 

109 



110 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

This, however, was imperfect since it was based on the total instead 
of the digestible nutrients. 

155. The Wolff feeding standards.— In 1864 Dr. Emil von Wolff, the 
great German scientist, presented in the Mentzel & von Lengerke 's Agri- 
cultural Calendar 3 for that year the first table of feeding standards 
based on the digestible nutrients contained in feeding stuffs. These 
standards set forth the amount of digestible crude protein, carbohydrates, 
and fat required daily by the different classes of farm animals. 

The value and importance of the Wolff standards were at once recog- 
nized; and with their promulgation and adoption came the first wide- 
spread effort toward the rational feeding of farm animals. The Wolff 
standards were first brought to the attention of the American people 
in 1S74 by Atwater, 4 America's worthy pioneer in the science of animal 
nutrition. Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding, based on Wolff's book 5 
on the same subject, appeared in 1880. 

The Wolff feeding standards appeared annually in the Mentzel-Len- 
gerke Calendar down to 1896. From 1897 to 1906 they were presented 
by Dr. C. Lehmann of the Berlin Agricultural High School with some 
modifications. In 1907 Dr. 0. Kellner, the talented director of the 
Mockern (Germany) Experiment Station, took charge of this portion 
of the Calendar and substituted tables and feeding standards based on 
starch values, as elsewhere briefly presented in this work. (170) 

The numerous feeding experiments which have been carried on since 
the Wolff-Lehmann standards were formulated have given us a more 
complete knowledge of the nutrient requirements of the various classes 
of farm animals than was possessed by these pioneers in the field of 
animal nutrition. Naturally such results show that the standards set 
forth by Wolff and Lehmann are in some respects inaccurate. Taking 
these facts into consideration later scientists have formulated other 
standards which are presented elsewhere in this chapter. The Wolff- 
Lehmann standards are briefly explained first on account of their his- 
torical and foundational importance. 

II. The Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards 

156. The Wolff-Lehmann standards. — The nutrient requirements of 
the various classes of farm animals, as prescribed in the Wolff-Lehmann 
standards, are given in Appendix Table IV. From this table the fol- 
lowing examples have been selected for purposes of study: 

'Published annually by Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany. 
4 Rpt. Me. State Bd. Agr., 1874; Rpt. Conn. Bd. Agr., 1874-5. 
°Futterungslehre, 1st ed., 1874. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS m 



Digestible nutrients required daily by farm animals par 1000 lbs. 

live weight 



Ox, at rest 

Fattening catl le, 1st period 
Cow, yielding 22 lbs. milk. 
Horse, at medium work. . . 



Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 


( 'i mil! 
protein 


< '.II Im, 

hydrates 


Pat 


Lbs, 

IX 

30 

24 


I.I,:!. 

0.7 

2.r, 
2.6 

2 


Lbfl. 

8.0 

L5.0 

L3.0 

II 


Lba. 
0.1 
0.5 
0.5 
0.0 



Nutritive 
rutio 



I : 11 .8 

1 : 0.. r > 

I : 5.7 

1 : 6.2 



The table shows that according to Wolff's teachings a 1 000-1 b. ox at 
rest, neither gaining nor losing in weight, requires for 1 day's main- 
tenance 18 lbs. of dry matter containing the following digestible nutri- 
ents: 0.7 lb. crude protein, 8.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 0.1 lit. fat, with 
a nutritive ratio of 1:11.8. Tho the ox is resting, work is still being 
performed; the beating of the heart, mastication, digestion, standing, 
breathing — all the manifestations of life in fact — imply internal work 
and call dor energy and for repair material. 

When I lie animal is growing, fattening, giving milk, or doing external 
work, a larger quantity of nutrients must be supplied than for main 
tenance, as the table shows. For the cow yielding 22 Lbs. of milk daily, 
the standard calls for the following quantities of the several digestible 
nutrients: Crude protein 2.5 lbs., carbohydrates 13.0 lbs., and fat 0.5 
lb. These have a nutritive ratio of 1 :5.7, which is much narrower than 
for the ox at rest. In his effort to attain the proper standard Wolff" 
reasoned that, since pasture grass is the natural food of 11k; dairy cow, 
the nutritive ratio of such grass might most properly serve as the 
chosen standard. 

157. Notes on the Wolff -Lehmann standards. — Later investigations 
have shown that the Wolff- Lehmann standards are only approximately 
correct. Kiihn of the Mbckern Station 7 found that the 1 000-1 b. ox can be 
maintained on 0.7 lb. of digestible crude protein and 0.G lbs. of digestible 
carbohydrates. Kellner, who was Kiihn 's successor, has practically 
adopted the Kiihn standard as will be shown later. (171) It has been 
previously pointed out that Armsby succeeded in maintaining steers 
for 70-day periods on rations containing only 0.5 11). of digestible true 
protein per 1000 lbs. live weight. (94) Whether this allowance would 
satisfactorily maintain animals in good health over still longer periods 
has not yet been definitely shown. 

Haecker of the Minnesota Station 8 found that the 1000-lb. dry, 
barren cow can be maintained on 0.6 lb. of crude protein, 6 lbs. of 
carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. of fat, all digestible. For the maintenance 



"Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 224. 
7 Landw. Vers. Stat., 44, p. 450. 



'Minn. Bui. 79. 



112 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

of the 1000-lb. cow producing milk he would allow 0.7 lb. of crude 
protein, 7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. of fat, all digestible. In 
his standard, which is presented later (182), he holds that the Wolff - 
Lehmann allowance of crude protein for the cow in milk may be ad- 
vantageously cut 19 per ct. or more, unless feeds rich in that nutrient 
are available at relatively low cost. Woll of the Wisconsin Station 
likewise found that the Wolff standard for dairy cows was higher in 
crude protein than necessary. 

The Wolff allowance of crude protein for fattening animals may be 
materially reduced without decreasing the rate of gain. It has also 
been found that less protein is needed by the work horse than these 
standards recommend. These various findings are taken into consider- 
ation in the "Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards" which are presented 
later in this chapter. 

Altho we now have more accurate guides to the nutrient requirements 
of certain classes of animals than furnished in the Wolff-Lehmann stand- 
ards, both students and stockmen should, first of all, familiarize them- 
selves with the Wolff standards on account of their historical interest 
and because they are still widely and helpfully used in computing 
rations. These standards, coupled with tables of the digestible nutrients 
in feeding stuffs, such as Appendix Table III of this work, have been 
profoundly useful in advancing the great art of feeding farm animals. 
Having familiarized himself with the Wolff-Lehmann standards, one is 
prepared for the study of other more accurate systems and standards 
now in the process of formation. 



III. Calculating Rations for Farm Animals 

158. General requirements of satisfactory rations. — The various feeding 
standards make recommendations only in regard to the amounts of dry 
matter, of the various nutrients, and, in the case of the Kellner and 
Armsby standards, of the net energy which the ration should supply. 
However, the following highly important factors should also be taken 
into account in computing rations for farm animals. 

159. Suitability of feeds. — The feeds selected for any animal should 
be such that they will not injure its health or the quality of the product 
yielded. Feeds which are suited to one class of farm animals may not 
be adapted to others. Again, a given feed may give satisfactory results 
when combined with certain other feeds, yet in other combinations it 
may prove unsatisfactory. A few examples of such conditions are fur- 
nished in the following: Cottonseed meal in moderate amount is an 
excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and horses, yet it is so frequently 
poisonous to pigs that feeding the meal, as at present prepared, to these 
animals cannot be advised. (249) While there is always danger from 
using feeds damaged by mold, such material may often be eaten with 

"Wis. Rpt 1894. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 113 

impunity by cattle when it would poison horses or sheep. (397) Tim- 
othy hay, which is the standard roughage for the horse, is unsatisfactory 
for the dairy cow, and may cause serious trouble with sheep on account 
of its constipating effect. (312) 

Feeding cows a heavy allowance of ground soybeans produces unduly 
soft butter, while an excess of cocoanut meal makes the butter too hard. 
(256, 260) Peanuts and soybeans produce soft lard when forming too 
large a part of the ration of fattening pigs. (258) 

It is often highly beneficial to add wheat bran or linseed meal to the 
ration on account of their slightly laxative effect. (218, 254) On the 
other hand, when animals are already receiving such laxative feeds as 
silage, pasture grass, and legume hay, the use of bran or linseed meal 
may be unwise. 

160. Bulkiness of ration. — We have already seen that at least with 
the horse and with young ruminants the ration must contain some rough- 
age to distend the digestive tract properly. (106) Furthermore, 
for the best results the proportion of concentrates and roughages in the 
ration should be regulated according to the kind and class of animal 
to be fed and the results sought. Cattle, sheep, and horses can be 
wintered satisfactorily on roughages alone, if of suitable quality. (80, 91) 
Even brood sows may be maintained chiefly on legume hay, when not 
suckling their young. In the rations for growing and fattening animals 
and those at work or in milk, a considerable part of the ration should 
consist of concentrates. The various feeding standards recognize these 
facts in the amount of dry matter which they prescribe in the rations 
for the different classes of animals. Obviously, when the requirement of 
digestible nutrients or of net energy is high compared with the total 
amount of dry matter advised, the proportion of concentrates in the 
ration must be large. On the other hand, for the mere maintenance of 
animals the standards call for a much smaller amount of digestible 
nutrients or of net energy compared with the amount of total dry 
matter. 

161. Mineral matter. — In the various feeding standards no statement 
is made as to the amount or kind of mineral matter required by the differ- 
ent classes of animals, the supposition being that a ration which provides 
the proper amount of protein and other nutrients will also furnish an 
adequate supply of mineral matter. We have already seen that in some 
cases, especially with the pig, the mineral supply may be deficient in 
amount or unbalanced in character in rations which meet the ordinary 
standards. (96-101, 119) In computing rations the special requirements 
of the various classes of animals, as set forth in the preceding chapters, 
should therefore be kept clearly in mind. 

162. Palatability. — As has already been pointed out (56), the palata- 
bility of the ration is an important factor in stimulating digestion and in 
inducing the animal to consume heavy rations. The wise feeder will uti- 
lize feeds of low palatability chiefly for such animals as are being merely 



114 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

maintained, and will feed growing and fattening animals, milch cows, 
and horses at hard work rations made up, for the most part at least, of 
well-liked feeds. Some concentrates, such as malt sprouts and dried dis- 
tillers' grains, which may not be relished when fed alone, are entirely- 
satisfactory if given in mixture with other better-liked feeds. Similarly, 
such roughages as straw and marsh hay, which are of low palatability, 
may be given in limited amount even to animals fed for production, a 
practice widely followed by European farmers. While the maximum 
gains may be made on rations composed entirely of exceedingly palatable 
feeds, it should be remembered that one of the chief functions of our 
useful domestic animals is to consume and convert into useful products 
materials which would otherwise be wasted. (2) 

163. Variety of feeds. — Skilled feeders usually maintain that a ration 
composed of a variety of feeds will give better results than when a 
smaller number are employed, even tho the latter ration supplies the 
proper amount of protein, carbohydrates, and fat. From the discussions 
in the preceding chapters, in which it has been pointed out that the 
protein furnished by certain feeds is unbalanced in composition, it is 
evident that a larger variety of feeds may, by the law of chance, furnish 
a better balanced mixture of proteins than 1 or 2 feeds alone. (94, 118) 
With these facts in mind it would seem wise, in choosing supplements 
for a ration low in protein, to select those which will supply protein 
from different sources. For example, it is injudicious, if other supple- 
ments are equally available, to use corn by-products, such as corn gluten 
feed or gluten meal, in balancing the ration of pigs otherwise fed corn 
only. With dairy cows, especially in the case of high-producing animals 
being forced on official test, skilled feeders place emphasis on having 
variety in the ration, tho this does not imply changes in the ration from 
day to day. Indeed, sudden changes in kinds of feed are to be avoided. 
At least with horses and fattening animals, the advantage of a large 
variety of feeds in the ration does not seem to have been proven, pro- 
vided the simple ration furnishes the proper amount and kind of nutri- 
ents. For example, oats and timothy hay for the horse, and corn and 
skim milk for the fattening pig, furnish rations which can scarcely be 
improved from the standpoint of production and health, tho other com- 
binations may perhaps be cheaper. 

164. Cost of the ration. — The most important factor of all, for the 
farmer who must depend on the profits from his stock for his income, 
is the cost of the ration. In securing a ration which provides the nutri- 
ents called for by the standards and meets the other conditions previously 
discussed, lies a great opportunity for exercising foresight and business 
judgment on every farm where animals are fed. The wise farmer- 
feeder will consider the nutrient requirements of his animals in planning 
his crop rotations. Thru the use of grain from corn or the sorghums, 
legume hay, and such cheap succulence as silage from corn or the sor- 
ghums, it is possible in most sections of the country to go far toward 
solving the problem of providing a well-balanced, economical ration. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 115 

165. Feeding standards only approximate guides. — In a previous chap- 
ter it has been shown that the composition of a given feeding-stuff is not 
fixed, but may be materially influenced by such factors as climate, stage 
of maturity when harvested, etc. (81) Individual animals also differ 
from one another in their ability to digest and utilize their feed. (85-6) 
It should, therefore, be borne in mind that tables of digestible nutrients 
and likewise feeding standards are but averages and approximations — 
something far different from the multiplication table or a table of loga- 
rithms. They should be regarded as reasonable approximations to great 
vital facts and principles in the feeding of farm animals. 

The allowance of protein set forth in the standards is the minimum 
amount recommended by the scientists for the best results. Where pro- 
tein-rich feeds are lower in price than those carbonaceous in character, as 
alfalfa in the alfalfa districts of the West and cottonseed meal in the 
cotton-belt, it is often economical to furnish more protein than is called 
for by the standards. Except in the case of very young animals, it is, 
however, probably not advisable to feed rations having a nutritive ratio 
narrower than 1: 4 or 1 : 4.5. Where protein-rich feeds are high in price 
it may be economical to feed a wider ration than advised by the stand- 
ards, tho it is rarely wise to depart far from them. 

166. Limitations of balanced rations. — That other factors than the total 
amount of protein, carbohydrates, fat, and net energy are of importance 
in determining the value of rations, is shown in a striking manner by 
Hart, McCollum, Steenbock, and Humphrey 10 at the Wisconsin Station 
in experiments which are still in progress. In these trials, which have 
so far covered 8 years, heifers were fed to maturity on rations from a 
single plant source, which furnished the full amount of nutrients and 
of net energy called for by the standards. One lot was fed wholly on 
products from the corn plant alone, including corn stover, corn grain, 
and gluten feed; a second, a ration from the wheat plant, including 
wheat straw, wheat grain, and wheat gluten; a third, a similar ration 
from the oat plant ; and a fourth, a combination ration from all 3 plants. 
The effects of these restricted rations were not especially marked until 
the animals underwent the strain of reproduction. Then it became evi- 
dent that the wheat ration was strikingly deficient in some hidden way, 
the cows in this lot invariably bringing forth either dead or weak, under- 
sized offspring. On the other hand, the calves from the corn-fed mothers 
were always strong and healthy. Contrary to what many practical 
feeders would expect, the ration from the corn, wheat, and oat plants 
combined, altho supplying a much greater variety, proved inferior to 
the ration from the corn plant alone. Apparently the bad results from 
the wheat ration are due to an unbalanced protein supply (94-5, 118, 
150), to a deficiency of mineral matter (96-100, 119), and perhaps to 
other causes not yet ascertained. (104) It was found that when alfalfa 
hay replaced part of the wheat straw in the wheat ration normal calves 
were produced. 

"Wis. Res. Bui. 17; Rpts., 1912, 1914. 



116 FEUDS AND FEEDING 

li should not be concluded from these trials that feeding stuffs from 
the wheat plant are dangerous Eeeds or thai Heeding standards are of 
little value. They merely emphasize the fact that, in forming rations, 
we nmsl consider not only the physiological action of the individual 
feeds, ImiI also I ho effect of Hie combination as il is found in I ho ration. 
Willi this in view the practical feeder and the student alike will attach 
especial importance to the summaries presented in Part III of flu; re- 
sults actually secured with all classes of animals when led many different 

rat ions. 

167. Hints on formulating rations. — In computing rations one should 
have in mind the approximate amount of roughage and concentrates re- 
quired per 1()(io lbs. live weight by the various classes of animals. As 
will he shown in tin- experiments reviewed in Part Ml, the proportion 

of concent rates and roughages depends first of all on how much it is 
desired lo force the animal; for example, when if is desired to fatten 
animals rapidly the allowance of concentrates must, be considerably 
larger than when they are fattened more slowly and thru a longer 
period. In a similar manner, the horse at hard work should he given 
more grail] and less roughage than the horse working bu1 little. In 

general, the following summary will be helpful as a guide in computing 
rations: 

Mature idle horses and mature cattle and sheep being maintained at constant weight 

may he ir<\ chiefly or entirely on roughage, unless it is of poor quality, when some grain 
must be used. 

Horses at work should be given 2 to :> lbs. of feed (roughages and concentrates com- 
bined) daily per LOO lbs. live weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging from LO to 
is Ihs., depending on the severity of the work. 

Dairy cows in milk should be \'v<\ about, 'J lbs. of dry roughage or 1 lb. of dry roughage 
and 3 lbs. of silage daily per LOO lbs. live weight, with sufficient concentrates in addi- 
tion to bring the nutrients il)) to the standard. 

Fattening steers should receive 2.3 lbs. or more of concentrates and dry roughage 
(or fhe equivalent in silage) daily per LOO lbs. live weight, the allowance of concentrates 
ranging from less than 1 lb. to I .7 lbs. or more, depending on the rate of gain desired 
and Ok- character of the roughage. 

Fattening lambs will consume about, 1 A lbs. of dry roughage daily when fed all the 
grain they will eat, mid up to 2 .'.\ lbs. or over when the ^rain allowance is restricted. 
Silage may replace a, corresponding amount, of dry matter in dry roughage. 

Pigs can make but, limited use of dry roughage, except in the case of brood sows not 
suckling young. 

168. Maintenance ration for steers. — Having discussed the general 
factors which should hi- considered in computing rations for farm ani- 
mals, let us now calculate the ['cvd required, according lo the Wolff- 
Ijehiminn standard, to maintain a LOOO-lb. ox at rest in Ins stall when 
neither gaining nor losing in weight. Since il has been shown that 

mature animals can be maintained largely on roughages (91), let us see 

how nearly (ield-ciired corn stover and oat straw will meet the require- 
ments. Since the standard calls for 18 lbs. of (\\y matter we will first 
try quantities of these feeds which supply slightly less than this amount. 
If for the trial ration it is decided to \'vo(\ 10 lbs. of corn stover and 10 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 117 

lbs. of oal straw for roughage;, Mien, using the values Tor digestible mi 
trients given in Appendix Table III, the calculations for dry matter and 
digestible nutrients would be as given below: 



Corn Btover, field-cured 



I )ry matter , . . 
( 'rude protein 
( larbohydrates 

Kilt 



Oat straw 



l )y matter. . . . 
( Irude protein 
Carbohydrates 

Fal 



In 101) In HI 

pounds poundi 

59 : LOOX I" 5.90 

I A I loo/io 0.14 

31 I : 100/10 3 II 

0.0 : 100/10 0.06 



88.5 : loo/io 8.85 

I ,0 : 100/10 10 

42.6 : 100/10 4 ,26 
9 : 100/10 0.09 



Arranging these resulls in tabular form, we have: 

First trial ration for maintain/in,;/ lOOO-lb. ox at rest 





Dry 

DM ttOI 


i ill-.. ii :i [bla nutrients 


Nutritive 

i.'il [o 


Feeding p.uiITh 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Oat straw, io lbs 


1.1. 1 

5.90 

8.85 


Lbs. 

0.14 

0.10 


Lb». 
3 .11 
4 ,26 


Lbi. 
0.06 
0.09 




I n ii rial ra fcion 


II 75 
IS. 00 


-1 

0.70 


7 :*7 
8.00 


0.15 
0.10 


1 : .T2.2 


Wolff- Lehmann standard 


L : 11.8 




:; 25 


40 


o (>:>, 


I 05 





This trial ration contains only about one-third the digestible crude 
protein called for and also falls below the standard in dry matter and 
carbohydrates. To improve if, let ns substitute - r > Lbs. of clover hay, 
which is high in protein, for the same weight of corn stover, and add 0.5 

Id. of protein rich linseed meal. We Mien have j 



Second trial ration for m.ainlaininij KKX) lb. ox at rest 





Dry 

mni ter 


i ligestible nul rienl 


Nutritive 

i.'.i H, 


Feeding stuffs 


C 'nul" 

protein 


Carbo- 
hj dratPS 


Fa t, 


( 'lover hay, 5 lbs 


ii,. 
4 ,36 
2.95 
8.85 
45 


i.l, 

0.38 
07 
0.10 
15 


Lbs. 

I ,96 
1 ,56 
4.26 

10 


Lbs. 
0.09 
0.03 
0.09 
03 








Out k( raw, If) lbs 




Linseed meal, 0.5 lb 








Second i rial ral ion 


10.01 
18.00 


TO 
70 


7 'M 
8.00 


0.24 
1 


1 : 12.1 


WolfT-Lelirn.'iini :;t:ui'l.'iiil 


I : 11.8 






Excess or deficit 


— 1 .39 


0.0 


-0.06 


+0.14 





118 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

This ration closely approaches the standard. It falls below by more 
than 1 lb. of dry matter, but this deficiency is unimportant. Dry matter 
is only an indication of the bulk or volume of the ration, and may vary 
greatly with different feeds and animals without affecting results. The 
excess of fat will more than make up the trifling deficit of carbohy- 
drates, for fat has 2.25 times the heat value of carbohydrates. The 
nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 :12.1, which is very close to that 
called for by the standard. From this we learn that 5 lbs. of clover hay, 
5 lbs. of field-cured corn stover, 10 lbs. of oat straw, and 0.5 lb. of lin- 
seed meal should furnish sufficient nutrients to maintain a 1000-lb. ox for 
24 hours at rest when neither gaining nor losing in weight. 

It is practically impossible, as well as useless, to attempt to formulate 
rations that will exactly agree with the standard in all nutrients. The 
Wolff-Lehmann standards were devised to cover the common systems of 
feeding in Europe, where some straw or other low grade roughage is 
commonly included in rations for horses and ruminants. When only 
such high grade roughages as silage and legume hay are used, rations 
which supply enough digestible nutrients will fall below the standard 
requirement in dry matter. Provided the ration furnishes bulk suffi- 
cient to distend the digestive tract properly, no further attention need 
be paid to such a deficit of dry matter. American rations will usually 
furnish an excess of fat over the standard, in which case the carbohy- 
drates may fall somewhat below the standard as an offset, it being borne 
in mind that 1 lb. of fat will replace 2.25 lbs. of carbohydrates. (70) 

Several devices and expedients have been offered to shorten the work 
of calculating rations. Willard of the Kansas Station 11 presents a sys- 
tem based on alligation, while Spillman of the Washington Station 12 and 
Jeffers 13 have invented ingenious mechanical computers. It seems best 
in this work to show how to perform the calculations in the simplest and 
most direct manner. Thru such drill the student will become familiar 
with the quantity and proportion of the several nutrients in common 
feeding-stuffs and the amount of these required by farm animals ac- 
cording to the standards. The whole matter is less difficult and no more 
fatiguing than the simpler arithmetical operations of the secondary 
schools, while the benefits should richly compensate the agricultural 
student for the time and effort. 



IV. Kellner's Starch Values and Feeding Standards 

We have already pointed out that the careful and laborious investi- 
gations conducted by Kellner and Zuntz by means of a modern respira- 
tion apparatus and by Armsby by means of a respiration calorimeter 
show that the total quantity of digestible nutrients in a feeding-stuff 
is not necessarily the true measure of its feeding value, as is assumed in 

"Kan. Bui. 115; Cyclopedia of Am. Agr., Bailey, Vol. Ill, p. 103. 

12 Wash. Bui. 48. "H. W. Jeffers. Plainsboro. N. J. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 119 

the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards. These investigators have found 
that, to determine the true net value of any given feeding-stuff to the 
animal, it is necessary to deduct the energy expended in the work of 
mastication, digestion, and assimilation from the total available energy 
furnished by the digestible nutrients in the feeding-stuff. (78-80) 

169. Kellner's starch values. — As a result of his investigations Kellner 
formulated feeding standards based on what he called "starch values." 14 
He found that on the average 1 lb. of digestible starch fed to the ox in 
excess of maintenance requirements produced 0.248 lb. of body fat. 
(129) Taking 1 lb. of digestible starch as his unit, he gives the follow- 
ing starch values for the digestible nutrients in feeding-stuffs, based on 
the amount of body fat these several pure nutrients will form if fed to 
the ox: 

Starch Value 
In 1 lb. of digestible Lbs. 

Protein .94 

Nitrogen-free extract and fiber 1 .00 

Fat in roughage, chaff, roots, etc 1 .61 

Fat in cereals, factory and mill by-products 2. 12 

Fat in oil-bearing seeds and oil meal 2 .41 

Kellner further found that the net nutritive value of certain concen- 
trates, such as grains and seeds, oil cake, roots, and slaughter-house by- 
products was about the same as that obtained when the several pure 
nutrients in them were fed separately. Tho the exact starch value of 
each such feed can be determined only by careful experimentation, the 
approximate value may be computed from amounts of each class of 
digestible nutrients the feed furnishes. For example, the approximate 
starch value of dent corn can be found as follows, using the content of 
digestible nutrients as given in Appendix Table III. 

Calculation of approximate starch value of dent com 

Digestible q+„,„i, 

nutrients Factor 3°* 

in 100 lbs. value 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Digestible protein 7.5 X .94 = 7 .05 

Nitrogen-free extract and fiber 67 .8 X 1 00 = 67 .80 

Fat 4.6 X 2.12 = 9.75 

Total 79.9 84.60 

The approximate starch value of dent corn is thus about 84.6 lbs. It 
is not possible to compute the starch values of feeds high in fiber with 
any degree of exactness. From the few typical feeds which he actually 
studied in respiration experiments, Kellner found that with such feeds 
it was necessary to make deductions from the starch values computed 
as before, ranging all the way from 5 to 30 per ct. with mill and factory 
by-products, and from 50 to 70 per ct. with straw, to get their true 
starch values. By making arbitrary deductions in this manner he com- 

"Landw. Kal., 1909, I, pp. 103-119; Ernahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907. 



120 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

puted the starch values for a long list of feeding-stuffs. Owing to the 
great amount of labor involved, he determined the starch values by 
actual experiment for only about a dozen feeds. The others must, 
therefore, be regarded as approximations, which are helpful until the 
true net values of such feeds have been found. Moreover, he ascer- 
tained the starch values of these feeds only when they were fed in a 
moderate ration to the mature ox during the first stages of fattening. 
Eckles of the Missouri Station 15 has found these values too low when 
applied to the dairy cow, and "Woods 16 of Cambridge University, Eng- 
land, has shown that they are too high for the ox fed a heavy fattening 
ration. Concerning the starch values for other classes of animals we 
know little or nothing. With Kellner we must therefore conclude that, 
despite the vast amount of study given to the subject, there are still 
many gaps in our knowledge of the actual net value of the different 
feeding stuffs. 

170. Kellner's feeding standards. — Kellner has formulated feeding 
standards for the various classes of animals in which the requirements 
are expressed in dry matter, digestible protein, and starch values. For 
example, his standard for the maintenance of the mature steer per 
1000 lbs. live weight calls for 15 to 21 lbs. dry matter, 0.6 to 0.8 lb. 
digestible protein, and 6.0 lbs. starch values. 

The Kellner tables of starch values and his feeding standards are not 
here given in detail, but instead Armby's tables of net energy values 
and of feeding standards, which are similar and which are chiefly used 
in this country by those desiring to compute rations according to the net 
energy system. 

V. The Armsby Feeding Standards 

171. The Armsby energy values. — Armsby 17 of the Pennsylvania Sta- 
tion is studying the nutrient requirements of the ox with the first and 
only respiration calorimeter used in the study of farm animals in 
America. From his own work and that of Kellner he has constructed 
the following table, which shows the net energy of feeding stuffs ex- 
pressed in therms (75) in place of Kellner's starch values, and has also 
formulated feeding standards based thereon. 

The last column of the table does not show the total energy in the 
digestible portion of 100 lbs. of the various feeding stuffs, but only the 
net energy, i.e., that portion which is finally available to the animal after 
deducting the losses occurring thru mastication, digestion, and assimila- 
tion. 

15 Mo. Res. Bui. 7. 

10 Jour. Agr. Sci., 5, 1914, p. 248. 

17 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Buls. 51, 74, 101; Farmer's Bui. 346. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 121 



The Armsby table of dry matter, digestible protein, and net energy 
values in 100 lbs. of various feeding stuffs 



Feeding stuffs 



Green fodder and silage: 

Alfalfa 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, red 

Corn fodder, green 

Corn silage 

Hungarian grass 

Rape 

Rye fodder 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodder: 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay, red 

Soy bean hay 

Cowpea hay 

Corn forage, field-cured . . 

Corn stover 

Hungarian hay 

Oat hay 

Timothy hay 

Straws: 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw 

Roots and tubers: 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains: 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Oats 

Pea meal 

Rve 

Wheat 

By-products: 

Brewers' grains — dried . . . 

Brewers' grains — wet .... 

Buckwheat middlings. . . . 

Cottonseed meal 

Distillers' grains — dried — 

Principally corn 

Principally rye 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal — Buffalo. . . . 

Gluten meal — Chicago . . . 

Linseed meal, old process. 

Linseed meal, new process 

Malt sprouts 

Rye bran 

Sugar-beet pulp, fresh. . . . 

Sugar-beet pulp, dried. . . 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 



Total dry 
matter 



Pounds 
28.2 
19.1 
29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 

91.6 

84.7 
88.7 
89.3 
57.8 
59.5 
92.3 
84.0 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 

9.1 

21.1 

11.4 

9.4 

89.1 
89.1 
84.9 
89.0 
89.5 
88.4 
89.5 

92.0 
24.3 
88.2 
91.8 

93.0 
93.2 
91.9 
91.8 
90.5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10.1 
93.6 
88.1 
84.0 



Digestible 
protein 



Pounds 
2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 

7.68 
8.57 
2.13 
1.80 
3.00 
2.59 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 
.88 
.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 



Net energy 
value 



Therms 
12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
38.65 
42.76 
30.53 
26.53 
44.03 
36.97 
33.56 

21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 

80.75 
88.84 
72.05 
66.27 
71.75 
81.72 
82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 
88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 



Of all the feeds listed, corn has the highest net energy value, 88.84 
therms per 100 lbs. Due to the large amount of fiber contained in the 
hulls, the net energy value of oats is only 66.27 therms per 100 lbs. The 
dry roughages furnish much less net energy than the concentrates, wheat 
straw having a value of only 16.56 therms per 100 lbs. 

172. The Armsby standards for maintenance. — The following table by 
Armsby sets forth the maintenance requirements of horses, cattle, and 
sheep, no table having yet been formulated for swine : 



122 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 





Armsby 's 


maintenance standards for hor 


ses, cattle, 


and sheep 






Horses 


Cattle 


Sheep 


Live 
















weight 


Digestible 


Energy 


Digestible 


Energy- 


Live 


Digestible 


Energy 




protein 


value 


protein 


value 


weight 


protein 


value 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


Lbs. 


Therms 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


150 


0.30 


2.00 


0.15 


1.70 


20 


0.023 


0.30 


250 


0.40 


2.80 


0.20 


2.40 


40 


0.05 


0.54 


500 


0.60 


4.40 


0.30 


3.80 


60 


0.07 


0.71 


750 


0.80 


5.80 


0.40 


4.95 


80 


0.09 


0.87 


1000 


1.00 


7.00 


0.50 


6.00 


100 


0.10 


1.00 


1250 


1.20 


8.15 


0.60 


7.00 


120 


0.11 


1.13 


1500 


1.30 


9.20 0.65 


7.90 


140 


0.13 


1.25 



The table shows that a young horse weighing 500 lbs., if neither 
gaining nor losing in weight, would require for its daily support 0.60 
lb. of digestible protein and 4.40 therms of net digestible matter, the 
latter including the 0.60 lb. of digestible protein. When this growing 
horse reaches 1000 lbs., there is required for its maintenance 1 lb. of 
digestible protein and 7 therms of net digestible matter. Tho it has 
doubled in weight, the food requirement has not likewise doubled. When 
the horse reaches the weight of 1500 lbs., there is required a further in- 
crease of only 0.3 lb. of protein and 2.20 therms of net energy. This is 
due to the fact, already pointed out (91), that the maintenance require- 
ment depends not on body weight but upon body surface. In recog- 
nizing this fact, Armsby has made an important advance over the Wolff- 
Lehmann standards. 

173. Standards for growing animals. — In the table which follows, 
Armsby sets forth the digestible protein and net energy requirements of 
growing cattle and sheep, no data as yet having been given for horses and 
swine. The figures include the maintenance requirements. 

The Armsby standards for groiving cattle and sheep 







Cattle 






Sheep 




Age 


Live 


Digestible 


Net energy 


Live 


Digestible 


Net energy 




weight 


protein 


value 


weight 


protein 


value 


Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


3 


275 


1.10 


5.0 








6 


425 


1.30 


6.0 


70 


0.30 


1.30 


9 








90 


0.25 


1 .40 


12 


650 


1.65 


7.0 


110 


0.23 


1.40 


15 








130 


0.23 


1.50 


18 


850 


1.70 


7.5 


145 


0.22 


1.60 


24 


1000 


1.75 


8.0 








30 


1100 


1.65 


8.0 









The table shows that a 3-months-old calf, weighing 275 lbs., requires 
1.10 lbs. of digestible protein and 5 therms of net energy value, the latter 
including the 1.10 lbs. protein. When the calf has grown to 1100 lbs., 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 123 

or quadrupled in weight, it requires but 0.55 lb. more protein and 3 
more therms than before. This relative lessening in feed requirement is 
due to the fact that the larger animal requires relatively less for main- 
tenance, as explained elsewhere. (91) For the 1000-lb. steer Armsby al- 
lows 1.75 lbs. of digestible protein, and but 1.65 lbs., or 0.10 lb. less, for 
the same animal when weighing 1,100 lbs. This is because at the higher 
weight the steer has practically ceased muscular growth and therefore 
needs less protein than earlier in life. A comparison of the maintenance 
and growth requirements of animals, as here set forth, reveals the fact 
that a large portion of all the feed the animal consumes is used for the 
support of the body, and that the additional requirements for growth are 
not relatively large. 

174. Milch cows, fattening steers, and other animals. — Armsby supple- 
ments the foregoing partial standards with the following : 

1. For milk production, add to the maintenance standard 0.05 lb. of 
digestible protein and 0.3 therm for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be 
produced. 

2. For 2- to 3-year-old fattening cattle, add 3.5 therms to the standard 
for growth for each pound of gain to be made. 

For the milch cow Armsby provides additional food, both protein and 
therms, as noted in the foregoing, because milk is rich in complex pro- 
tein compounds, and also contains carbohydrates and fat. Furthermore, 
the cow is usually growing a calf. Armsby holds that, after providing 
the protein set forth in the ration for growth, the steer will fatten sat- 
isfactorily without any additional protein, provided there are supplied 
sufficient carbohydrates and fat to meet the standard. It should be borne 
in mind that to prevent a depression of the digestibility of the ration on 
account of too large a proportion of carbohydrates, at least 1 lb. of 
digestible protein should be supplied in the ration for each 8 to 10 lbs. 
of carbohydrates and fat. (84) As a rough guide to the amount of dry 
matter to be fed, Armsby recommends that: 

1. A 1000-lb. ruminant should receive 20 to 30 lbs., or an average of 
25 lbs., dry matter per day. 

2. The horse should receive somewhat less dry matter than ruminants. 
For work horses he recommends Kellner's standard which is based 

upon the extensive work of Zuntz. This standard, converted from starch 
values to therms, is given in a later chapter. (456) Armsby has formu- 
lated no standards for fattening sheep or lambs, for growing horses, or 
for pigs. 

175. Fattening lambs. — Bull and Emmett of the Illinois Station 18 have 
made a critical and comprehensive study of the American investigations 
in fattening lambs, covering trials in which 265 lots of lambs, aggregat- 
ing 5,127 animals, were fed. From the results secured in these trials, 
they give the following as the approximate minimum requirements of 
digestible crude protein and net energy per 1000 lbs. live weight. 

"111. Bui. 166. 



124 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Bull-Emmett standards for fattening lambs 





Per 1000 lbs. live weight 


Weight 


Digestible crude 
protein 


Not energy 
value 


Lambs weighing f)0-70 lbs 


Lbs. 

3.1-3.3 

2.5-2.8 

2.2-2.4 

• 1.4-1.9 


Therms 

17-19 


Lambs weighing 70-1)0 lbs 


18-20 


Lambs weighing 90—1 10 lbs 


17-20 


Lambs weighing 110-150 lbs 


16-19 



It will be noted that the requirements for protein are expressed in terms 
of crude protein instead of true protein, as in the Armsby standards. 
Bull and Emmett state that the figures for lambs weighing 110 to 150 lbs. 
are only approximations, owing to the small amount of data available for 
animals of these weights. It will be noted that as the lambs become more 
mature the amount of protein required per 1000 lbs. live weight grows 
less. 

176. Ration for maintaining the steer. — To illustrate the method of 
using the Armsby standards and table of net energy values, let us com- 
pute' a ration for maintaining a mature steer weighing 1000 lbs., when 
neither gaining nor losing weight, assuming that there are available corn 
stover, oat straw, dent, corn, and cottonseed meal. According to the 
standard, an animal of this weight requires 0.5 lb. digestible protein and 
G.O therms of net energy. As corn stover and oat straw are much cheaper 
than the concentrates, let us first see how nearly a ration of these rough- 
ages alone will meet the requirements. Suppose that we select for a trial 
ration 10 lbs. of oat straw and 15 lbs. of corn stover. The calculations 
will then be as follows: 



Calculations for trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer 



Corn stover 
In 100 lbs. In 15 lbs. 



Dry matter 59.5 + 100x15=8 .92 

Dig. protein 1 .80+ 100x15=0 .27 

Net energy 26.53 + 100x15= 3 .98 



< >al straw 
In 100 lbs. In 10 lbs. 

Dry matter 90 .8 + 100x10=9 .08 

Dig. protein 1 .09 + 100x10=0.11 

Net energy 21.21 + 100x10=2.12 



First trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer 



Feeding stuffs 


Total 
dry matter 


Digestible 

protein 


Net energy- 
value 


Corn stover, 15 lbs 

Oat straw, 10 lbs. . 


Lbs. 

8.92 
9. OS 


Lbs. 
0.27 
0.11 


Therms 
3.98 
2.12 






First trial ration 


18.00 


0.38 
0.50 


6.10 


Standard requirement 


6.00 


Excess or deficit 




—0.12 


+0.10 







This ration furnishes enough net energy but is deficient in digestible 
protein. Corn, which is high in net energy but low in protein, will not 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 125 

improve the ration, while cottonseed meal, which is rich in protein, will 
supply the deficiency of this nutrient. Let us therefore substitute one- 
half pound of cottonseed meal for 1 lb. of corn stover. We then have : 

Second trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer 



Feeding stuffs 


Total 
dry mattor 


Digestihlo 
protein 


Net energy 
valuo 


Corn stover, 14 lbs 

Oat straw, 10 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, .5 lb . . 


Lbs. 

8.33 
9.08 
0.46 


Lbs. 
0.25 
0.11 
0.18 


Therms 

3.71 

2.12 
0.42 


Second trial ration 

Standard requirement .... 


17.87 


0.54 
0.50 


6.25 
6.00 


Excess or deficit 




+0.04 


+0.25 



This ration agrees closely with the standard in digestible protein and 
net energy value. Thus, according to the Armsby standard, a satisfactory 
ration for maintaining a 1000-lb. steer may be composed of 14 lbs. corn 
stover, 10 lbs. oat straw, and 0.5 lb. cottonseed meal. 

177. Discussion of the net energy systems. — The determination of the net 
energy values of feeding-stuffs is an important advancement in our knowl- 
edge of the values of different feeds for productive purposes. Owing to 
the immense amount of labor involved in each such determination, data of 
this kind can be secured but slowly. In 14 years Armsby has been able to 
study only 10 feeds, several determinations of course having been made 
upon each. The actual net energy value of only 22 feeding-stuffs has 
thus been determined by both Kellner and Armsby. While these values 
are helpful in estimating the probable net energy values of other feeds 
not yet tested, such computed results are but approximations. For ex- 
ample, in his table of energy values, Armsby gives a net energy value of 
33.56 therms for timothy hay containing 86.8 per ct. dry matter. This 
value was computed from Kellner 's data. After conducting several res- 
piration experiments in which the actual net value was determined, 
Armsby has now found that timothy hay containing the same amount of 
dry matter has a net energ}' value of 42.20 therms, or 25.7 per ct. more 
than his former figure. Even for the feeds on which experiments have 
been conducted, the values are far from exact. Not only do different 
samples of a given feeding-stuff vary in composition (81), but the trials 
show that the ability to utilize feed, even by animals of the same kind, 
age, and condition, may vary to a greater or less extent. Moreover, both 
Kellner and Armsby have practically worked only with the steer, and 
the extent to which the values thus secured apply to other classes of ani- 
mals is still a question. (169) Zuntz, 10 who has conducted extensive 
studies on the utilization of different feeding-stuffs, states that with the 
horse and pig only a small portion of the starch in feeds ferments in the 
19 Inter. Inst. Agr., Monthly Bui., 5, 1914, No. 4, pp. 435, 446. 



120 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

digestive tract. On the other hand, in cattle upwards of 10 per ct. of the 
heat value of the digested food is lost in methane gas and about 7 per ct. 
is wasted, so far as productive purposes are concerned, in the heat pro- 
duced in the fermentations. (79-80) Accordingly, with horses and pigs 
starch will have a higher value compared with fat than in the case of 
ruminants. Zuntz concludes : "If we apply to pigs or horses the same 
starch values for a fat food, such as an oil seed, as was determined by 
Kellner, we commit a notable error. . . . We must no longer attribute to 
a certain food the same nutritive value under all circumstances, as has 
hitherto been done. We must rather find out in what combination the 
nutritive value of a food proves the most advantageous. ' ' We must thus 
regard the present net energy values of feeding stuffs, not as exact 
measures of their value for all classes of animals, but as approximations 
which are most helpful in teaching great principles in the feeding of live 
stock. 

From the foregoing discussion the wise feeder will see the importance 
of studying carefully the results actually secured with different combina- 
tions of feed when fed to the various classes of animals, as presented in 
detail in the respective chapters of Part III. 

VI. The Scandinavian Feed-Unit System 

A system of feed equivalents, based mainly on the extensive experi- 
ments with milch cows and swine by Fjord and his successors at the 
Copenhagen Station, has been adopted in Denmark and other Scandina- 
vian countries, especially by the cow-testing associations, for measuring 
the relative production economy of cows. This system is extensively used 
with cows, occasionally with pigs, and rarely with other animals. It has 
great merit, especially in co-operative efforts to improve dairy cattle and 
their feeding — lines in which the Scandinavian farmers are leaders. 

178. The feed unit. — The feed unit of the Danish associations is 1 lb. of 
standard grain feed, such as corn and barley, or their equivalents in feed- 
ing value. In Sweden it is one kilo (2.2 lbs.) of mixed concentrates or 
their equivalent. All feeding-stuffs are reduced to this standard in cal- 
culating the feed consumption of the animal. The amounts of various 
feeds required to equal 1 feed unit are shown in the following table . 

The table shows that corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, the dry 
matter in roots, etc., are all considered to have about the same value for 
the dairy cow, 1 lb. equaling 1 feed unit. On this basis it requires 1.1 
lbs. of wheat bran or oats, or 1.5 to 3 lbs. of alfalfa or clover hay to equal 
1 unit. Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten 
feed, and soybeans are rated at a higher value than the same weight of 
corn or wheat, less than a pound of these concentrates being required for 
a feed unit. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 127 

Amount of different feeds required to equal one feed unit* 



Feed 



Feed required to 
equal 1 unit 



Average 



Range 



For dairy cows 
Concentrates 

Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried brewers' grains, wheat middlings, oat 

shorts, peas, molasses beet pulp, dry matter in roots 

Cottonseed meal 

Oil meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten feed, soy beans 

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, malt sprouts 

Alfalfa meal, alfalfa molasses feeds 

Hay and straw 

Alfalfa hay, clover hay 

Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay, red top hay 

Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay 

Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut straw 



Lbs. 



1.0 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
1.2 



2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
4.0 



Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds 

Green alfalfa 

Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, cannery refuse . 

Alfalfa silage 

Corn silage, pea vine silage 

Wet brewers' grains 

Potatoes, skim milk, buttermilk 

Sugar beets 

Carrots . 



7.0 
8.0 
5.0 
6.0 
4.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

Rutabagas 9.0 

Field beets, green rape 10.0 

Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey 12.0 

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp ! 12.5 

The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 10 units per day, on the average, 
varying with kind and condition. 



For pigs 
Indian corn, barley, wheat, oil cakes . 

Rye, wheat bran 

Boiled potatoes 

Skim milk 

Whey 



1.0 
1.4 
4.0 
6.0 
12.0 



For horses 
One lb. of Indian corn equals 1 lb. of oats or 1 lb. of dry matter in roots 



Lbs. 



1.5-3.0 
2.0-3.0 
2.5-3.5 
3.5-6.0 



6.0-8.0 
7.0-10.0 



5.0-7.0 



8.0-10.0 
10. 0-15.0 



*The values for pigs and horses are those given in the Danish valuation 
table and those for dairy cows the values as revised by Woll for American 
feeding stuffs, given in Wis. Cir. 37. 



The feed-unit values are uot true expressions of net energy, for in this 
system feeds rich in protein are given a higher value than feeds low in 
protein which furnish the same amount of net energy. For example, in 
the feed-unit system, only 0.8 lb. of cottonseed meal or 0.9 lb. of linseed 
meal is required to equal 1 feed unit. Yet, according to Armsby and 
Kellner the net energy value of these feeds is lower than that of corn. 
Again, the energy value of timothy hay is about the same as that of 
clover or alfalfa hay, but in the feed-unit system timothy hay is rated 50 
per ct. below the legume hays. When added to rations deficient in pro- 
tein, feeds rich in protein will have a higher value than those supplying 
an equal amount of net energy but which are low in protein. But as 
has been pointed out (63, 93), when the protein supply in the ration is 
already adequate, any additional amount of this nutrient is broken down 
in the body, the nitrogenous portion being excreted in the urine, and only 
the remainder utilized for the formation of the fat and carbohvdrates in 



128 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

flesh or milk, for body fuel, or for the production of work. In all such 
cases protein will have a value corresponding only to the amount of net 
energy it furnishes. Over large sections of our country protein-rich 
feeds are cheaper than those high in carbohydrates. In the West with 
its abundant and cheap alfalfa hay, and in the South with its low-priced 
cottonseed meal, it is often necessary to add carbonaceous feeds rather 
than protein-rich concentrates to balance the usual rations. Thus the 
feed-unit system does not furnish a safe guide by which the farmer can 
determine the value of feeds under all conditions. The worth of a given 
feed to him will depend on the other feeding-stuffs with which it is to be 
combined. In some instances protein-rich feeds will be worth the most, 
and in others, those which are high in carbohydrates. The feed-unit 
system has been evolved in a comparatively small region, where similar 
crops are grown on the different farms and the price of purchased feeds 
does not vary widely thruout the entire district, hence this difficulty 
has not arisen there. No arbitrary values for feeding-stuffs, expressed 
in terms of money or other fixed units, can be devised which will hold 
good under widely differing conditions. 

179. Measuring economy of production in feed units. — The chief value 
of the feed unit system for dairymen in any given region is that it fur- 
nishes a simple means of comparing the feed consumption and the milk 
and fat production of different cows, as is shown in the following : 

If during a month a cow has consumed 240 lbs. of hay, 1000 lbs. of 
silage, 60 lbs. each of barley and ground corn, and 90 lbs. of linseed oil 
meal, the calculation based on the valuation table would be as follows : 

Feed consumed Lbs. for 1 unit Feed units 



240 lbs. hay 

1000 lbs. silage 

120 lbs. corn and barley 
90 lbs. oil meal 



2.5 = 96 

8.0 = 125 

1.0 = 120 

0.9 = 100 



Total feed units = 441 

It is shown that the cow consumed 441 feed units during the month. 
If in that time she yielded 850 lbs. of milk, containing 30.6 lbs. of fat, 
each 100 feed units produced §^ = 193 lbs. of milk, containing §^f = 
6.9 lbs. butter fat. If the fat brought 30 cents per lb., 100 feed units 
would return 6.9x$0.30=$2.07. 

180. The Swedish Test Associations. — In what follows is shown some 
of the work of the Swedish Test Associations for the year 1906-7. The 
first table shows the feed units consumed per cow annually in the associa- 
tion having the poorest and the best returns, and the average of 96 
associations. The second table shows the production per cow and per 100 
feed units consumed. 

The first table shows that the association with the poorest record fed 
each cow on the average 4920 feed units during the year. The association 
with the highest record fed 5733 units per cow, while the average for 96 
associations was 5280 feed units. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 129 

Feed units consumed annually per cow in the Swedish Test Associations 





Concentrates 


Roughages 






Oil 
cakes 


Bran and 

grains 


Roots, beet 
pulp 


Hay and 
straw 


Soilage and 
pasture 


Total 


Association 

Showing poorest returns. . 
Showing best returns 

Average of 96 associations . . 


Units 

900 
1056 

856 


Units 

581 

878 

708 


Units 

900 
1410 

1186 


Units 

1142 
1078 

1256 


Units 

1397 
13U 

1294 


Units 
4920 
5733 

5280 



Average production per cow and per 100 feed units 





Production per cow 


Production per 100 units 




Milk 


Butter fat 


Butter 


Milk 


Butter 


Value of 
product 


Association 

Showing poorest returns . . 
Showing best returns 

Average of 96 associations . . 


Lbs. 
6261 
8650 

7429 


Lbs. 

200.0 
295.2 

239.9 


Lbs. 

218.0 
327.1 

265.3 


Lbs. 
280.1 
332.1 

309.5 


Lbs. 
10.0 
12.5 

11.0 


Dollars 

2.51 
3.17 

2.85 



The second table shows that the average cow in the poorest association 
gave 6261 lbs. of milk, while in the best association she gave 8650 lbs. 
The herds in the poorest association yielded about 200 lbs. of butter fat 
per cow, and those in the best over 295 lbs. The well-fed herds returned 
66 cents more for each 100 feed units consumed than did the poorly-fed 
herds — a difference of over 22 per ct. in favor of the heavier feeding. 
These results show the manner in which Scandinavians have utilized the 
feed-unit system for comparing individual cows, herds, and associations 
to the great betterment of their dairy industry. The same comparisons 
can be made by means of the Armsby system of net-energy values. 
Except where the rations fed to different animals vary widely in pro- 
portion of concentrates to roughages, a fair comparison may also be made 
by using the total digestible nutrients in the ration, as given for each 
feed in Appendix Table III. 

181. The feed-unit standard for dairy cows. — Hansson 20 has proposed 
the following as the requirements for dairy cows according to the feed- 
unit system. 

For maintenance, feed 0.65 lb. digestible protein and 6.6 feed units 
daily per 1000 lbs. live weight. 

For each pound of milk produced add to the maintenance requirement 
0.045 to 0.05 lb. digestible protein and 0.33 feed unit. 

The requirements of a cow producing any given amount of milk can 
be readily ascertained by computation. 



:0 Kontrolfbren, Arbetsfalt, 1910. 



130 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



VII. American Standards for Dairy Cows 

182. The Haecker standard. — As the result of long years of intimate 
study with a high-grade working dairy herd at the Minnesota Station,- 1 
Haecker has made an important advance in the formulation of rations 
for the dairy cow. He has shown that the nutrients required for her 
nourishment should vary not only with the quantity of milk yielded, as 
is taught in the Wolff -Lehmann, the Kellner, Armsby, and the feed-unit 
standards, but also with the quality of the product. The allowance of 
crude protein recommended is also considerably lower than that set forth 
in the Wolff-Lehmann standard. In his standard Haecker first sets down 
the total digestible nutrients daily required to maintain the 1000-lb. cow, 
independent of the milk she produces, as follows : Crude protein 0.7 lb., 
carbohydrates 7.0 lbs., and fat 0.1 lb. 

For each 100 lbs. live weight the cow may exceed or fall below the 
1000-lb. standard there is added or subtracted one-tenth of the standard 
ration. 

To this maintenance provision the further allowance set forth in the 
table is added. 



H decker's feeding standard for the dairy cow 






Daily allowance of digestible nutrients 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For support of the 1000-lb. cow 

To the allowance for support add: 


Lbs. 
0.700 

0.047 


Lbs. 
7.00 

0.20 
0.22 
0.24 
0.26 
0.28 
0.30 
0.32 
0.34 
0.36 


Lbs. 
0.100 

0.017 




0.049 
0.054 
0.057 
0.060 
0.064 
0.067 
0.072 


0.019 


For each lb. of 4 .0 per ct. milk 


0.021 
0.023 




0.024 




0.026 




0.028 




0.029 


For each lb. of 7 .0 per ct. milk 


0.074 


0.031 



The table shows that a cow yielding milk containing 3 per ct. of butter 
fat should be fed, in addition to the maintenance ration, 0.047 lb. crude 
protein, 0.20 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.017 lb. fat, all digestible, for each 
pound of milk she gives. If the milk is richer than 3 per ct. the provision 
must be greater. Haecker has formulated the requirements for each 
increase of 0.1 per ct. in the fat content of milk. At least for ordinary 
herd feeding it is not necessary to refine the calculation of rations to this 
extent. Hence only a condensed table is here presented. 



" Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 140. 



FEEDING STANDAEDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 131 

To illustrate the use of the table there is formulated below the nutrient 
allowance for a 1100-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily : 

Digestible nutrients required daily by a 1100-lb. cow yielding 25 lbs. of 

4 per ct. milk 



Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


For maintenance 


Lbs. 

0.77 


Lbs. 
7.70 

6.00 


Lbs. 
11 


For 25 lbs. of 4 per rent milk 


1.35 


0.52 


Total 


2.12 


13.70 


0.63 



Iii the above there is first set down the maintenance allowance for 
the 1000-lb. cow, increased by one-tenth because this cow weighs 100 lbs. 
more than the standard; this is 0.77 lb. crude protein, 7.7 lbs. carbo- 
hydrates, and 0.11 lb. fat, all digestible. The previous table shows the 
daily nutrient allowance for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be 0.054 lb. 
crude protein, and 0.24 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.021 fat, all digestible. 
Since this cow is yielding 25 lbs. of milk daily, the foregoing numbers 
multiplied by 25 are placed in the second line of the table. Thus it is 
shown that the production of 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk calls for 1.35 lbs. 
of crude protein, 6.00 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.52 lb. of fat. Adding 
these nutrients to those for maintenance, we have 2.12 lbs. of protein, 
13.7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.63 lb. of fat as the quantity of digestible 
nutrients required daily to nourish a 1100-lb. cow properly when giving 
25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily. 

183. The Woll-Humphrey standard. — From studies at the Wisconsin 
Station 22 "VVoll and Humphrey have prepared convenient tables showing 
the feed requirements of cows of different weights and producing various 
amounts of butter fat per day. To simplify the computation of rations, 
in these tables the requirements are stated in terms of dry matter, digest- 
ible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients, the latter term including 
the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the digestible 
fat X 2.25. This simplification is in harmony with the uses made of the 
different nutrients in the animal body, for as we have already learned 
(88, 124-9), carbohydrates and fat in general perform the same functions 
in the body. Likewise, after there has been supplied the minimum 
amount of protein needed for the repair of body tissues and the formation 
of milk protein, any additional amount serves the same purpose as do the 
carbohydrates and fat. (83, 128) The requirements of a 1000-lb. cow 
according to these tables are shown in the table on the next page. The 
allowance for maintenance is the same as that prescribed in the Haecker 
standard. For the 1000-lb. cow yielding 1.0 to 1.25 lbs. of butter fat 
58 Wis. Res. Bui. 13; Bui. 200. 



132 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



per day the standard calls for a daily allowance of 23.6 lbs. dry matter, 
2.11 lbs. of digestible crude protein, and 15.8 lbs. of total digestible 
matter. 

~W oil-Humphrey standard for 1000-lb. dairy cow 



Dry matter 



Maintenance 

Production of butter fat per day : 

Less than . 5 pound 

0.5 to 0.75 pound 

0.75 to 1 .0 pound 

1 .0 to 1 .25 pounds 

1 .25 to 1 .5 pounds 

1 .5 to 1 .75 pounds 

1.75 to 2.0 pounds 



Lbs. 
12.5 



16.2 
18.7 
21.1 
23.6 
26.0 
28.5 
30.9 



Digestible 
crude protein 



Lbs. 
0.70 

1.18 
1.49 
1.80 
2.11 
2.43 
2.74 
3.05 



Total digest- 
ible matter 



Lbs. 
7.9 

10.6 
12.3 
14.1 
15.8 
17.6 
19.3 
21.1 



This system of expressing the requirements of dairy cows has been 
found convenient in practice. It is not strictly accurate, however, when 
applied to milks varying widely in the percentage of fat contained. 
Haecker's table places the requirements for a pound of butter fat in 
rich milk considerably lower than for a pound in milk low in fat. For 
example, for 100 lbs. of 3 per ct. milk there are required 4.7 lbs. pro- 
tein, 19.9 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.7 lbs. fat, while for 50 lbs. of 6 per ct. 
milk, containing the same amount of fat, only 3.3 lbs. protein, 16.1 lbs. 
carbohydrates, and 1.4 lbs. fat are required. This is due to the fact 
that, tho the 6 per ct. milk contains twice as much fat as the 3 per ct. 
milk, it is not twice as rich in sugar and protein. 

184. The Savage standard. — From trials at the New York (Cornell) 
Station 23 Savage concludes that for maximum production the nutritive 
ratio of rations for dairy cows should not be wider than 1 : 6. He has 
accordingly modified the Haecker standard by increasing the protein 
requirement per pound of milk by from 18 to 20 per ct. His standard 
is also simplified by being stated in terms of dry matter, digestible crude 
protein, and total digestible nutrients (or as Savage terms it "total 
nutriment"), in the same manner as in the Woll-Humphrey standard. 
The requirements according to this standard are shown in Article 186. 

185. The Eckles standard. — From experiments at the Missouri Sta- 
tion 24 and from the work of Savage and Armsby, Eckles has formulated a 
tentative standard according to the Armsby system, showing the require- 
ments of cows producing milk containing various percentages of fat. He 
points out that these are but approximations, for the following reasons : 
The digestion coefficients in use, which have been chiefly obtained with 
steers and sheep, are too high for feeds fed in heavy rations to dairy 
cows. This is, however, more than offset by the fact that the cow is 
able to utilize the nutrients she actually digests more efficiently in milk 
production than the steer or sheep does in formation of flesh. Hence 

23 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 323. 24 Mo. Res. Bui. 7. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 133 

the net energy values given by Armsby are too low Avhen applied to milk 
production. 

186. Comparison of standards for dairy cows. — In the following table 
the Ilaecker, Savage, and Eckles standards are brought together for 
comparison. Haecker's figures have been converted into total digestible 
nutrients as in the Savage standard. The Woll-Humphrey standard can 
not be included for it is not based on the fat content of the milk, as are 
the others. 

Feeding standards for dairy coivs compared 





Haecker standard 


Savage standard 


Eckles standard 




Diges'ble 


Total 


Diges'ble 


Total 


Diges'ble 


Net 




crude 


digestible 


crude 


digestible 


true 






protein 


nutrients 


protein 


nutrients 


protein 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Therms 


For maintenance of 1000-lb. cow. . 


0.700 


7.925 


0.700 


7.925 


0.500 


6.00 


To alloivance for maintenance add: 














For each lb. of 2 .5 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.045 


0.254 


0.053 


0.257 






For each lb. of 3 .0 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.047 


0.284 


0.057 


0.287 


0.050 


0.26 


For each lb. of 3 .5 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.049 


0.313 


0.061 


0.319 


0.052 


0.28 


For each lb. of 4 .0 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.054 


0.343 


0.065 


0.350 


0.055 


0.30 


For each lb. of 4 .5 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.057 


0.372 


0.069 


0.379 


0.058 


0.33 


For each lb. of 5 .0 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.060 


0.39S 


0.073 


0.405 


0.062 


0.36 


For each lb. of 5 .5 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.064 


0.424 


0.077 


0.431 


0.066 


0.40 


For each lb. of 6 .0 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.067 


0.451 


0.081 


0.457 


0.070 


0.45 


For each lb. of 6 .5 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.072 


0.480 


0.085 


0.484 


0.075 


0.50 


For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk. . . . 


0.074 


0.502 


0.089 


0.508 







The Haecker and Savage standards agree in the requirements for 
maintenance. Savage's digestible crude-protein requirement for pro- 
duction is higher in each case, as already pointed out. In total digestible 
nutrients he agrees almost exactly with Haecker. As Eckles' standard 
is expressed in digestible true protein (not crude protein) and therms, 
it can not be directly compared with the others. We may, however, 
compare this standard with the others in the following manner : In such 
a ration as 20 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. corn, and 4 lbs. wheat bran, we would 
find that about one-third of the total digestible crude protein is in amid 
form (11) and hence not included in Eckles' figure for digestible true 
protein. With rations including green forage or silage, the proportion 
of true protein will be still lower. It is evident, then, that were Eckles' 
figures for protein converted into crude protein they would be even 
higher than Savage's when applied to ordinary rations. As about 1.1 to 
1.2 lbs. total digestible nutrients have a net-energy value of 1 therm in the 
ordinary rations used for milk production, it will be found on compu- 
tation that Eckles' standard calls for about the same amount of total 
nutrients as the others for milk low in fat, but up to one-fifth more for 
milk high in fat. 

From the foregoing we may conclude that when protein-rich feeds are 
high in price compared with those low in protein, it will usually be 
economical to feed no more protein than is called for by the Haecker 



134 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

standard, at least to cows of average production. On the other hand, 
when protein-rich feeds are comparatively cheap the dairyman may well 
feed as heavy an allowance as Savage and Eckles recommend. Even these 
amounts are lower than called for in the original Wolff-Lehmann stand- 
ards. (156) The skilled dairyman wall adapt the amount of concen- 
trates fed to the productive ability of each cow, not compounding a 
different ration for each animal, but will balance the ration for the 
average of the herd and then feed the cows as much roughage as they 
w T ill consume and concentrates in proportion to the milk or butter fat 
produced by the several cows, as is explained in a later chapter. (661) 

VIII. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards 

187. Methods of computing rations compared. — In this chapter it has 
been pointed out that the valuation of feeding stuffs for productive 
purposes, on the basis of their net energy content, is theoretically more 
accurate than the Wolff-Lehmann method of comparing them in terms 
of the digestible nutrients they furnish. Unfortunately, the net-energy 
values have actually been determined for but a few feeds, and with 
these only for the fattening ox. For other feeds and other classes of 
animals, the values which may be computed are but approximations. 
On the other hand, during the last half-century scores of thousands 
of analyses of feeding stuffs have been made, as shown in Appendix 
Table I, and large numbers of digestion experiments have been con- 
ducted in which the coefficients of digestibility have been determined, 
as given in Appendix Table II. Thus the values for digestible nutrients 
in the various feeding-stuffs, given in Table III, rest on a reasonably 
secure basis, tho we must remember that different kinds of animals 
digest somewhat different percentages of feeds, especially of roughages 
(85) 

The value of a concentrate and of a roughage for productive purposes 
can not be compared on the basis of the digestible nutrients each fur- 
nishes, for in the roughage, containing more fiber, a larger part of the 
energy in the digested nutrients is used up in the non-productive work 
of mastication, digestion, and assimilation. (78-80) In the ordinary 
rations for each class of animals, concentrates and roughages are, how- 
ever, usually fed in about the same proportions. This tends to lessen 
any error due to inaccuracy in computing rations according to the 
Wolff-Lehmann method. Furthermore, the prescription of a definite 
allowance of dry matter is a check upon the net-energy value of the 
ration. If a ration contains sufficient digestible nutrients to meet the 
Wolff-Lehmann standards, but carries an excess of dry matter, obviously 
too much roughage or concentrates too high in fiber have been used 
and the net-energy value will consequently be too low. On the other 
hand, if the content of digestible nutrients satisfies the standard, while 
the ration does not contain the dry matter called for, it indicates that 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 135 

feeds more concentrated in character than necessary have been used, in 
which case some roughage or feeds higher in fiber may be substituted till 
the dry-matter content is brought up to the standard. With this simple 
check any large error in formulating the ration may be avoided. 

188. Necessity for modifying the Wolff -Lehmann standards. — It has 
already been shown in this chapter that in several instances the original 
Wolff-Lehmann standards do not set forth the actual requirements of 
farm animals as revealed by the many experiments which have been 
carried on since these standards were drawn up. We know, for example, 
that the allowance of digestible crude protein prescribed is higher than 
is needed by fattening animals, dairy cows, and work horses. Yet 
these standards are today more commonly employed in this country, 
except perhaps with the dairy cow, than any other system for formu- 
lating rations. Indeed, the authors have recently found feeders, annu- 
ally fattening hundreds and even thousands of animals, who were 
balancing rations according to the original Wolff-Lehmann standards 
by the addition of unnecessary amounts of high-priced protein-rich con- 
centrates. 

189. Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. — With these facts in mind 
the authors have attempted to combine in one standard what appear in 
their judgment to be the best guides we have at present in the formu- 
lation of rations for various classes of animals. To facilitate the 
computations, the standards, which are given in detail in Appendix 
Table V, are expressed simply in terms of total dry matter, digestible 
crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. Realizing that feeding 
standards are but approximations, in most cases minimum and maxi- 
mum figures are given for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and 
total digestible nutrients. Since progressive feeders thruout the country 
now appreciate the significance of the nutritive ratio of a ration, the 
approximate upper and lower advisable limits of nutritive ratios for 
the different classes have been stated. To correspond with these stand- 
ards a column has been added to Appendix Table III, showing the total 
digestible nutrients furnished in 100 lbs. of each feed. Likewise, so 
that one may see at a glance which feeds are high and which are low in 
protein, compared with carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio for each 
feed has been computed and is given in the table. With these aids it is 
hoped that the standards presented may be of real assistance to students 
and feeders who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance 
with the Wolff-Lehmann method, while recognizing the results of the 
later investigations in animal feeding. 

The recommendations gathered together in these standards are from 
many sources. The standards for the dairy cow are those formulated 
by Haecker and Savage. The data for growing, fattening steers have 
been kindly furnished by Haecker, 25 and are based upon his extensive in- 
vestigations of the nutrient requirements of steers of various ages. (123) 

- z Information to the authors. 



136 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The figures for fattening 2-yr.-old steers and for growing, fattening 
pigs are based chiefly upon studies made at the Wisconsin Station by 
the junior author- 6 of the feeding experiments carried on at American 
stations. Those for fattening lambs are computed from the Bull-Emmett 
standards, based on their study of American feeding trials, and that for 
work horses from the investigations of Zuntz and from American feeding 
trials. In revising the requirements for the other classes of animals 
there have been utilized the Kellner and Armsby standards, which have 
already been discussed, and the extensive standards of Pott 27 of Ger- 
many, which are formulated in substantially the same terms as the Wolff- 
Lehmann standards. 

190. Ration for fattening 2-yr.-old steers. — To illustrate the manner of 
computing rations in accordance with the Modified Wolff-Lehmann 
standards, let us formulate a ration for fattening 2-yr.-old feeder steers. 
The steers, averaging 900 lbs. when placed in the feed lot, are to be fed 
a heavy fattening ration for 150 days so that they will gain 2.4 lbs. per 
head daily, or more. The Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards for 2-yr.- 
old steers on full feed are as follows : 

Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards for 2-yr.-old steers on full feed 
(From Appendix Table V ) 





Per 1,000 lbs. live weight 






Dry 

matter 


Minimum 

of dig. 

crude protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Nutritive 
ratio 


First 50 to 60 days 


Lbs. 
22-25 
21-24 
18-22 


Lbs. 
2.0-2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 


Lbs. 
18.0-20.0 
17.0-19.5 
16.0-18.5 


1:7.0-1:7.8 


Second 50 to 60 davs 


1:7.0-1:7.8 


Third 50 to 60 days 


1:7.0-1:7.8 







It will be noted that the allowance of dry matter is the largest for the 
first 50 to 60 days of fattening. During this period the steers are being 
brought to a full feed of grain and are hence consuming a larger pro- 
portion of roughage to concentrates than in the later periods. The 
amount of total digestible nutrients required per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
also decreases as the steers fatten, but not so much as does the dry 
matter. The minimum amount of digestible crude protein advised for 
the first period is 2.0 to 2.3 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight, The larger 
amount will probably tend to slightly more rapid fattening than the 
lower figure, but as is pointed out later, may be less economical than 
the lesser amount. (196) 

On comparing these standards, which are based on the results of 
American feeding trials, with the original Wolff-Lehmann standards, it 

20 The compilation and computation of data in the study of the pig feeding 
experiments was chiefly done by Messrs. M. L. Geraldson and J. G. Poynton, 
students in the Wis. College of Agriculture. Mr. G. Bohstedt, a graduate 
student in the same College, has assisted in the compilation of still other data 
upon which these standards are based. 

- 7 Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., I, 1907, pp. 374-376. 



FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 137 

is seen that the minimum allowance of digestible crude protein advised 
is considerably lower than in the original standards. The dry matter 
is also materially lower, for fattening steers fed roughage of good qual- 
ity, as is commonly done in this country, will not consume as much dry 
matter as set forth in the original Wolff-Lehmann standards. 

In formulating rations for these steers, the most accurate way is to 
compute the rations on the basis of the average live weight of the steers 
during each period of fattening. If the steers weigh 900 lbs. when 
placed on feed and gain 2.4 lbs. per head daily, their average weight for 
the first 50 days will be 1,020 lbs. ; for the second 50 days, 1,140 lbs. ; 
and for the last 50 days, 1,260 lbs. Computing the standard require- 
ments for each period on this basis we have : 



Requirements 


for given 


steers at different periods of fattening 




Av. wt. 
during 
period 


Dry 

matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Nutritive 
ratio 


First 50 days 

Second 50 days 

Third 50 days 


Lbs. 

1,020 
1,140 
1,260 


Lbs. 
22.4-25.5 
23 .9-27 .4 
22.7-27.7 


Lbs. 
2.04-2.35 
2.17-2.62 
2.27-2.65 


Lbs. 
18.4-20.4 
19.4-22.2 
20.2-23.3 


1:7.0-1:7.8 
1:7.0-1:7.8 
1:7.0-1:7.8 



Owing to the greater weight of the cattle in the last periods, tho they 
require less dry matter and total digestible nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight, the requirements per steer are slightly greater. Let us now 
formulate rations to meet these requirements. The steers are to be fed 
all the well-matured corn silage and good clover hay they will clean up, 
morning and night, and shelled corn is to be fed as the chief concentrate, 
with choice cottonseed meal if needed to balance the ration. As shown 
later (776), 2-yr.-old steers full fed on corn will eat 25 to 30 lbs. of corn 
silage during the first period of fattening and gradually less as fattening 
progresses. Owing to the palatability of the silage they will usually eat 
only 3 to 6 lbs. of clover hay. For a trial, ration during the first period 
Ave will therefore take 28 lbs. of corn silage, 4 lbs. of clover hay, and 
enough shelled corn to bring the amount of total digestible nutrients up 
to the standard. As shown in the following table, this will require 14 
lbs. of corn : 



Trial ration for fattening 2-yr.-old steers, first period 



Feeding stuff 



Dry 
matter 



Dig. 
crude 
protein 



Total 

dig. 

nutrients 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Corn silage, 28 .0 lbs. 
Clover hay, 4 .0 lbs. . 
Shelled corn, 14.0 lbs 

Total 



Lbs. 

7.36 

3.48 

12.53 



Lbs. 

0.308 
0.304 
1 .050 



Lbs. 

4.96 

2.04 

12.00 



23.37 



1.662 



19.00 



1:10.4 



138 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



This ration furnishes sufficient total digestible nutrients and agrees 
with the standard in dry matter, but falls far short in protein. Let 
us, therefore, replace some of the corn with cottonseed meal. As we 
wish these steers to make maximum gains we will supply somewhat more 
protein than called for by the lowest figure in the standard. Substitut- 
ing 2.0 lbs. of choice cottonseed meal for the same weight of corn, we 
will have the ration shown in the first division of the following table. 
This agrees well with the standard and should produce rapid gains 
when fed to thrifty feeders. In the same manner we will formulate 
rations for the middle and the last periods of fattening, bearing in mind 
that steers on full feed will eat less roughage and more concentrates as 
they fatten. Since we wish these steers to reach a high finish we will 
increase the protein supply during the last period to the higher figure 
set forth in the standard, 2.65 lbs. per head daily. Arranging the data 
as before, we will have the rations shown in the table : 



Rations for fattening 2-yr.-old steers, for first, second, and third periods 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 
matter 


Dig. 
crude 
protein 


Total 
dig. 

nutrients 


Nutritive 
ratio 


First 50 days 

Corn silage, 28 . lbs 


Lbs. 

7.36 

3.48 

10.74 

1.85 


Lbs. 

0.308 
0.304 
0.900 
0.740 


Lbs. 

4.96 
2.04 

10.28 
1.56 




Clover hay, 4 .0 lbs 




Shelled corn, 12 .0 lbs 




Cottonseed meal, 2 . lbs 








Total 

Second 50 days 

Corn silage, 24 .0 lbs 


23.43 
6.31 


2.252 

0.264 
0.228 
1.125 
0.925 


18.84 

4.25 

1.53 

12.86 

1.96 


1:7.4 


Clover hay, 3 . lbs 


2.61 
13.42 




Shelled com, 15 lbs . . 






2.31 








Total 


24.65 

5.52 

2.61 

14.32 

2.54 


2.542 

0.231 

0.228 
1.200 
1.018 


20.60 

3.72 

1.53 

13.71 

2.15 


1:7.1 


Third 50 days 
Corn silage, 21 .0 lbs 




Clover hay, 3 .0 lbs 




Shelled corn, 16 .0 lbs 












Total 


24.99 


2.677 


21.11 


1:6.9 



These rations meet the standards in all particulars and should give 
good results in practice. (777) As is explained later (196), when protein- 
rich feeds are high in price compared with those carbonaceous in char- 
acter, it may be more economical to supply only as much protein as 
called for in the lower figures in the standard. If the steers were to be 
fattened more slowly, the rations could be computed in accordance with 
the standards for "growing, fattening steers," based on Haecker's ex- 
tensive studies. These would require less concentrates and in many 
instances result in much cheaper gains. (716, 768, 780) 



CHAPTER VIII 

ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 

I. Selecting Economical Rations 

To secure the largest returns from his farm animals the stockman 
must, first of all, thoroly understand the fundamental nutrient require- 
ments of the various classes of live stock which have been discussed in 
the preceding chapters. He must next study the possibilities of his farm 
for the production of crops, paying attention to both the probable yields 
and the value of the various crops for feeding to stock or for selling on 
the market. It is also necessary to consider the feeding value of the 
many feeds on the market and compare the prices at which they can be 
secured. With this knowledge he is in a position to plan his rotations 
so that from the crops raised, supplemented when it is economical by 
purchased feeds, well-balanced rations for his stock may be provided at 
minimum expense. As a rule it will be found wise to raise all needed 
roughage on the farm. Owing to the increasing demand for the cereal 
grains for human consumption, it is often economical to sell more or less 
of the farm-grown grains and replace them with purchased concentrates 
which economically supplement the feeds raised on the farm. 

191. Market prices not guides to value. — On studying the market prices 
of different feeds it will be evident that the market price is often no 
index to the value of a feed to the individual stockman. A few examples 
will illustrate this fact. In the northeastern states timothy hay is gen- 
erally higher in price than clover hay, tho it is much inferior to clover 
for all animals except the horse. In the South cottonseed hulls usually 
cost more than the sum for which an equivalent amount of corn silage, a 
much more palatable feed, can be produced on the farm. Owing to their 
popularity, some feeds, such as linseed meal and wheat bran, are often 
high in price compared with other concentrates which are entirely satis- 
factory substitutes. At the other extreme, low grade concentrates, such 
as trashy corn and oat feed, cottonseed feed, and inferior mixed feeds 
often sell for as much or but slightly less than high grade concentrates 
of far greater feeding value. 

192. How to select feeds for economical rations. — Many attempts have 
been made to assign a definite money value to 1 lb. of digestible crude 
protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat, and then compute 
the value of different feeds on the basis of the amount of these nutrients 
they contain, the same as is commonly done in arriving at the money 
value of fertilizers. (432) While such a system of valuation may be of 
some limited value for a short period of time and when applied to a 

139 



140 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

small district where the systems of farming do not vary widely, no such 
set of values has general application to the United States. As has been 
emphasized before (178), the value of any given feed to the stockman 
depends on the nature and composition of the other feeds he has at hand. 
If his chief roughage is alfalfa hay, protein-rich concentrates are often 
worth less to him than those rich in carbohydrates. On the other hand, 
if the cheapest roughage he can provide is corn or sorghum silage, low 
in protein, then concentrates rich in protein will be of higher value 
to him than those carbonaceous in character. 

In planning economical rations for any class of animals the stockman 
should first choose from suitable feeds a combination, containing the 
proper proportion of concentrates and roughages, which will supply the 
necessary total amount of nutrients at the minimum expense. If this 
ration is too low in protein, protein-rich feeds should be substituted for 
those lower in protein, until the protein supply is brought to the de- 
sired amount. On the other hand, if the ration which supplies the neces- 
sary total amount of nutrients is too rich in protein, then carbonaceous 
feeds should be substituted until the nutritive ratio is widened as much 
as is desired. 

In determining which feeds furnish total nutrients at the lowest price, 
the comparisons may be made on the basis of the cost per therm of net 
energy, per feed-unit, or per pound of total digestible nutrients. For 
the reasons pointed out in preceding articles (177-8), the authors be- 
lieve that the most convenient system for American farmers is on the 
basis of the cost per pound of total digestible nutrients. In comparing 
roughages with concentrates this system gives roughages somewhat too 
high a relative value, for 1 lb. of total digestible nutrients in a roughage 
is lower in net energy value than 1 lb. of net energy in concentrates. 
However, in most cases, the desire will be, not to compare roughages 
with concentrates, but, instead, to determine which one of several con- 
centrates is the cheapest source of total nutrients, or which of the differ- 
ent available roughages is the most economical feed. To determine which 
feeds are the cheapest supplements to balance a ration low in protein, 
it will be found convenient to compute the cost of the different feeds 
per pound of digestible crude protein. 

In comparing the relative cheapness of different feeds, it is reasonable 
to value marketable farm-grown grain or roughage at the market price 
less the cost of hauling to market. Feeds which are not usually market- 
able may be assigned a value based on the cost of production. To the 
price of any purchased feeds should be added any cost of hauling to the 
farm. Often, however, purchased concentrates may be brought back to 
the farm on a return trip from market with little or no additional 

expense. 

193. A comparison of corn-belt feeds for milk production. — To illustrate 
the manner in which the prices of the available feeds should be studied 
in computing rations, let us assume that a dairyman in the corn belt 
has available the following: Ground dent corn at $20, ground oats at 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING- LIVE STOCK 



141 



$25, ground barley at $26, timothy hay at $16, red clover hay at $12, 
and corn silage from well-matnred corn at $3.50 per ton. He can pur- 
chase hominy feed at $23, high-grade gluten feed at $30, wheat bran at 
$25, corn and oat feed at $25, choice cottonseed meal at $34, old-process 
linseed meal at $34, and alfalfa meal at $22 per ton. For convenience 
we will arrange in tabular form the data from Appendix Table III for 
these different feeds, and compute the cost per pound of digestible crude 
protein and the cost of 1 lb. of total digestible nutrients in each. 



Comparison of the economy of various feeds at the stated prices 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Hominy feed 

Gluten feed, high grade 

Wheat bran, all analyses 

Oats 

Corn and oat feed 

Barley, ground 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Linseed meal, old-process 

Distillers' grains, dried, from 
corn 

Roughages 

Timothy hay, all analyses 

Alfalfa meal 

Red clover hay, all analyses 

Corn silage, recent analyses .... 



Dry 

matter 

in 100 

lbs. 



Lbs. 
89.5 

89.9 
91.3 
S9.9 
90.8 
88.6 
90.7 
92.5 
90.9 

93.4 

88.4 
91.2 
87.1 
26.3 



Dig. 

crude 

protein 

in 100 

lbs. 



Lbs. 

7.5 

7.0 

21.6 

12.5 

9.7 

7.3 

9.0 

37.0 

30.2 

22.4 

3.0 

10.2 
7.6 
1.1 



Total 
dig. 
nutri- 
ents in 
100 lbs. 



Lbs. 

85.7 
84.6 
80.7 
60.9 
70.4 
75.6 
79.4 
78.2 
77.9 

88.9 

48.5 
50.7 
50.9 
17.7 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



10 

11 

2 

3 



6.3 
9.4 
7.8 
1.1 
1.6 

3.0 

15.2 
4.0 
5.7 

15.1 



Price 
per 
ton 



Dollars 

20.00 
26.00 
30.00 
25.00 
25.00 
25.00 
26.00 
34.00 
34.00 

31.00 

16.00 

22.00 

12.00 

3.50 



Cost 
per lb. 
of dig. 
crude 
protein 



Cents 

13.33 

18.57 

6.94 

10.00 

12.89 

17.12 

14.44 

4.59 

5.63 

6.92 

26.67 

10.78 

7.89 

15.91 



Cost of 
1 lb. of 
total 
dig. 
nutri- 
ents 



Centa 

1.17 

1.54 
1.86 
2.05 
1.78 
1.65 
1.64 
2.17 
2.18 

1.74 

1.65 
2.17 
1.18 
0.99 



This table does not assume to represent average conditions in any dis- 
trict of the country, but illustrates the manner in which any stockman 
may compare the relative economy of the different available feeds at local 
prices. The last column shows clearly that, for the feeds given and with 
prices as stated, corn is by far the cheapest source of total digestible 
nutrients among the concentrates. Of the roughages, corn silage sup- 
plies total digestible nutrients most cheaply, followed by clover hay. For 
balancing a ration deficient in protein, cottonseed meal will furnish di- 
gestible crude protein at 4.59 cts. per pound, linseed meal at 5.63 cts., 
dried distillers' grains at 6.92 cts., gluten feed at 6.94 cts., red clover hay 
at 7.89 cts., and wheat bran at 10.00 cts. In supplying protein these feeds 
will of course also furnish carbohydrates and fat as well, which are in- 
cluded in the total digestible nutrients. 

194. A corn-belt ration for milk production. — From the feeds listed 
let us now formulate the most economical ration which will be satis- 
factory for a 1200-lb. cow yielding daily 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk. For 
this cow there will be required, according to the Modified Wolff-Lehmann 
standard (Appendix Table V) a minimum daily allowance of 2.31 to 



142 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and 18.99 lbs. total digestible nutrients. 
The ration should contain from 25 to 30 lbs. of dry matter, and should 
have a nutritive ratio no wider than 1 : 6.1 to 1 : 7.2. 

Altho corn silage is the cheapest roughage available, some dry rough- 
age should be fed with it to dairy cows. (629, 664) Of the dry rough- 
ages, clover hay is the cheapest. Let us then follow the general rule 
of feeding 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage per 100 lbs. live 
weight. (167) To this allowance of roughage, we will add enough corn 
to bring the total digestible nutrients up to the amount advised in the 
standard, for corn is the concentrate which furnishes total digestible 
nutrients most cheaply. Tabulating the results we will have : 

First trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 

matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 12 .0 lbs 


Lbs. 
10.45 
9.47 
7.16 


Lbs. 

0.912 
0.396 
0.600 


Lbs. 
6.108 
6.372 
6.856 


Cents 

7.20 
6.30 
8.00 




Corn silage, 36 . lbs 




Corn, dent, 8.0 lbs 








Total 


27.08 


1.908 


19.336 


21.50 


1:9.1 







This ration, which costs 21.5 cts., meets the standard in total digest- 
ible nutrients and dry matter but is decidedly deficient in protein. We 
could narrow the nutritive ratio by feeding less silage and more clover 
hay, but corn silage is the cheapest feed available. Therefore we should 
substitute protein-rich concentrates for a part of the dent corn. 

If 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was substituted for the same weight of 
corn the ration would furnish about 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein, 
the minimum amount recommended in the standard. Ground corn and 
cottonseed meal are, however, both heavy feeds, weighing about 1.5 lbs. 
per quart. (Appendix Table VII) It is hence desirable to add some bulky 
concentrate which is also high in protein. Dried distillers' grains are 
about as bulky as wheat bran and furnish protein much more cheaply. 
Alfalfa meal is not so economical as distillers' grains, and gluten feed 
is a somewhat heavier feed. Let us then substitute 0.5 lb. of cottonseed 
meal and 2.0 lbs. of dried distillers' grains for 2.5 lbs. of corn, and again 
1 abulate the results : 



Second trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 
matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 12.0 lbs 


Lbs. 
10.45 

9.47 
4.92 
0.46 
1.87 


Lbs. 
0.912 
0.396 
0.412 
0.185 
0.448 


Lbs. 
6.108 
6.372 
4.714 
0.391 
1.778 


Cents 

7.20 
6.30 
5.50 
0.85 
3.10 




Corn silage, 36 .0 lbs 




Corn, dent, 5 .5 lbs 




Cottonseed meal, . 5 lb 

Distillers' grains, dried, 2.0 lbs. 




Total 


27.17 


2.353 


19.363 


22.95 


1:7.2 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 



143 



This ration, which costs 22.95 cts., supplies the minimum amount of 
protein recommended by the standard, and is slightly above it in total 
digestible nutrients. Tho costing 1.45 cts. more than the first ration, 
it will be more economical for it should produce much better results. 
The concentrate mixture weighs about 1.2 lbs. per quart, being somewhat 
heavier than advised by some dairymen. Such mixtures as this have, 
however, been satisfactor}' in practice. 

It is explained elsewhere that the lower amounts of digestible crude 
protein advised for the dairy cow in the Modified Wolff-Lehmann stand- 
ards are the amounts recommended by Haecker, while the higher fig- 
ures are those set forth by Savage. (182, 184, 186; Appendix Table V) 
As has been stated before (186), for cows of pronounced dairy temper- 
ament it may be advisable to feed as much protein as called for by the 
higher figures, providing this does not greatly increase the cost of the 
ration. Let us then see how cheaply a ration can be provided which 
will supply 2.67 lbs. of digestible crude protein, the higher figure advised 
by the standard. The protein can be added most cheaply by substi- 
tuting more cottonseed meal for corn, but instead of merely using more 
cottonsed meal, let us feed 1 lb. of wheat bran, which will lighten the 
concentrate mixture and which is much relished by the cow. At the 
prices given bran is an expensive source of protein, since it is not high 
in that nutrient. The price per pound of total digestible nutrients is, 
however, slightly lower than that of cottonseed meal. Arranging the 
results as before, we will have : 



Third trial ration for 1200-lb. cow producing 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 

matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Clover hay, 12 lbs 


Lbs. 
10.45 
9.47 
3.13 
1.39 
1.87 
0.90 


Lbs. 

0.912 
0.396 
0.262 
0.555 
0.448 
0.125 


Lbs. 
6.108 
6.372 
3.000 
1.173 
1.778 
0.609 


Cents 

7.20 
6.30 
3.50 
2.55 
3.10 
1.25 




Corn silage, 36 . lbs 




Corn, dent, 3 .5 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 1 .5 lbs 

Distillers' grains, dried, 2 .0 lbs. . 
Wheat bran, 1 lb 








Total 


27.21 


2.698 


19 .040 


23.90 


1:6.1 



This ration, which has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.1, costs about 1 cent 
more than the preceding ration. The concentrate mixture will be pre- 
ferred by many dairymen, for it is more bulky, weighing 1.1 lbs. per 
quart. Whether this ration will produce enough more milk to pay for 
the increased cost will depend on how pronounced is the dairy temper- 
ament of the particular cow getting the ration. 

195. A cotton-belt ration for milk production. — Let us next use the 
method which has just been illustrated in determining the most eco- 
nomical ration for the same cow if owned by a southern dairyman who 
has the following feeds available: Ground corn at $30, oats at $35, 
corn silage at $3.50, cowpea hay at $15, and Johnson grass hay at $15 



144 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



per ton. Cottonseed meal may be secured at $25, dried distillers' grains 
at $29, dried beet pulp at $29, wheat bran at $32, and cottonseed hulls 
at $7.50 per ton. Arranging the data for these feeds as before, we will 
have the following: 

Comparison of the economy of various feeds at the stated prices 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Wheat bran, all analyses 

Oats 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Dried beet pulp 

Distillers' grains, dried, from 
corn 

Roughages 

Cottonseed hulls 

Johnson grass hay 

Cowpea hay, all analyses 

Corn silage, recent analyses .... 



Dry 
matter 
in 100 

lbs. 



Lbs. 

89.5 
89.9 
90.8 
92.5 
91.8 

93.4 



90.3 
89.9 
90.3 
26.3 



Dig. 

crude 

protein 

in 100 

lbs. 



Lbs. 

7.5 
12.5 

9.7 
37.0 

4.6 

22.4 



0.3 

2.9 

13.1 

1.1 



Total 
dig._ 

nutri- 
ents 

in 100 
lbs. 



Lbs. 

85.7 
60.9 
70.4 
78.2 
71.6 

88.9 



37.0 
50.1 
49.0 
17.7 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 



1: 

10.4 
3.9 
6.3 
1.1 

14.6 

3.0 



122.3 

16.3 

2.7 

15.1 



Price 
per 
ton 



Dollars 

30.00 
32.00 
35.00 
25.00 
29.00 

29.50 



7.50 
15.00 
15.00 

3.50 



Cost 
per lb. of 

dig. 
crude 
protein 



Cents 

20.00 
12.80 
18.04 
3.38 
31.52 

6.59 



125.00 

25.86 

5.73 

15.91 



Cost of 
1 lb. of 
total 
dig. 
nutri- 
ents 



Cents 

1.75 
2.63 
2.49 
1.60 
2.03 

1.66 



1.01 
1.50 
1.53 
0.99 



With feeds at these prices cottonseed meal is not only the cheapest 
source of protein, but also furnishes total digestible nutrients at the 
lowest price among the concentrates. However, it is not safe to feed 
too large an allowance of this concentrate. (249-50, 596-7) In economy 
with which they furnish total digestible nutrients, dried distillers ' grains 
and dent corn rank close to cottonseed meal. Among the roughages, corn 
silage is still the cheapest source of total digestible nutrients, followed 
by cottonseed hulls. Cowpea hay and Johnson grass hay furnish total 
digestible nutrients at about the same price. 

Since it is economy to feed a large allowance of cottonseed meal, which 
is exceedingly rich in protein, the roughage allowance should be rela- 
tively low in protein. We might feed only corn silage and cottonseed 
hulls as roughage, but for the improvement of southern farms it is highly 
important that legumes be included in the crop rotation. Tho cowpea hay 
is more expensive than cottonseed hulls, when the benefit to the soil from 
growing the crop is considered the wise dairyman will decide to raise cow- 
peas or some other legume and feed the resulting hay. Let us then first 
compute a ration with a heavy allowance of silage, 42 lbs., with 8 lbs. 
of cowpea hay and 3 lbs. of cottonseed hulls, and to this add sufficient 
choice cottonseed meal to bring the total digestible nutrients up to the 
standard. On computing we will find that about 8 lbs. is required, as 
is shown in the table : 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 



145 



First trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 

matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Corn silage, 42 . lbs 


Lbs. 

11.05 
7.22 
2.71 
7.40 


Lbs. 
0.462 
1.048 
0.009 
2.960 


Lbs. 
7.434 
3.920 
1.110 
6.256 


Cents 
7.35 
6.00 
1.12 

10.00 




Cowpea hay, 8 .0 lbs 




Cottonseed hulls, 3 .0 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 8 .0 lbs 




Total 


28.38 


4.479 


18.720 


24.47 


1:3.2 



This ration contains more cottonseed meal than is safe and has too 
narrow a nutritive ratio. To improve it we should substitute concen- 
trates which are lower in protein and also bulkier. Of the concentrates 
listed dried beet pulp best meets both these requirements. It is much 
more economical than oats or bran, and is bulkier than corn which sup- 
plies total digestible nutrients somewhat more cheaply. Let us there- 
fore substitute 2 lbs. of dried beet pulp for the same weight of cotton- 
seed meal and likewise replace 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal with the same 
weight of dried distillers' grains, which are bulky, lower in protein than 
cottonseed meal, and nearly as cheap a source of total digestible nutri- 
ents. We will then have : 



Second trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk 



Feeding stuff 


Dry 
matter 


Dig. crude 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Cost 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Corn silage, 42 .0 lbs 


Lbs. 

11.05 

7.22 
2.71 
4.62 
1.84 
1.40 


Lbs. 
0.462 
1.048 
0.009 
1.850 
0.092 
0.336 


Lbs. 
7.434 
3.920 
1.110 
3.910 
1.432 
1.334 


Cents 

7.35 
6.00 
1.12 
6.25 
2.90 
2.21 




Cowpea hay, S .0 lbs 




Cottonseed hulls, 3 .0 lbs 

Cottonseed meal, 5 .0 lbs 

Dried beet pulp, 2 .0 lbs 

Dried distillers' grains, 1 . 5 lbs. . . 




Total 


28.84 


3.797 


19.140 


25.83 


1:4.0 



This ration costs only 1.36 ets. more than the first, and does not con- 
tain more cottonseed meal than is safe when fed in mixture with bulky 
concentrates along with succulent feed like silage. It is evident that 
with feeds at the prices given in this illustration the question is not how 
little protein need be supplied, but how much may be safely fed. 

The 2 examples which have been given in the preceding pages — the 
most economical ration for the particular corn-belt dairyman, and the 
best ration for a given cotton-belt dairyman — show how widely the char- 
acter of the ration should be changed to make it the most economical 
under conditions in different parts of the country or with varying prices 
for the various feeding stuffs. The farmer who wishes to secure the 
largest returns from his stock should use a similar method to determine 
the relative economy of the available feeds for all his farm animals. 



146 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

II. Adapting Systems of Feeding to Local. Conditions 

196. Amount of protein to supply. — The illustrations given in the pre- 
ceding articles show clearly that rations should be adapted to the local 
conditions. Feeding standards set forth approximately the amount of 
protein and total nutrients, which it is believed should be furnished for 
the maximum production of flesh, milk, work, etc., and for maintaining 
the highest well-being of the animal. It will be noted that in the Modi- 
fied Wolff-Lehmann standards a range is indicated in the amount of di- 
gestible crude protein advised for most classes of animals. For example, 
for 2-yr.-old steers on full feed from 2.0 to 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude 
protein per 1,000 lbs. live weight are recommended for the first 50-60 
days of fattening. When protein-rich feeds cost but little or no more 
than carbonaceous feeds, it is well to feed at least as much protein as 
indicated by the higher figures. On the other hand, when corn or the 
other grains are relatively cheap it may be better economy to feed no 
more protein than called for by the lower figures. Rarely is it advisable 
to feed a materially smaller allowance of protein than the lower figures, 
for the production will be thereby lowered. 

As is shown later ( 732, 844-5 ) , corn and clover hay alone make a fairly 
well-balanced ration for fattening cattle and sheep. However, the gains 
are usually slightly increased and a higher finish secured when a small 
allowance of some suitable nitrogenous concentrate is added to the ration. 
Whether such addition will be profitable or not depends on the prices 
of the feeds and on whether the market will pay a better price for the 
more highly finished animal. (733, 858) 

When protein-rich feeds supply nutrients more cheaply than those 
carbonaceous in character, as in the cotton belt and the alfalfa districts 
of the West, it will be economy to feed much more than the minimum 
amounts of protein set forth in the standards. (612, 768) However, 
protein should not be supplied in such excess as to injure the health of 
the animals. 

197. Proportion of concentrates to roughages. — To meet the standards 
for fattening cattle and sheep and for milch cows, fairly liberal amounts 
of concentrates are required. When concentrates furnish total digest- 
ible nutrients nearly as cheaply as do roughages it is advisable to feed 
as large a proportion of concentrates as is called for by the standards. 
With feeds at the prices given in Article 193 dent corn furnishes nutri- 
ents at no greater cost than red clover hay. Under such conditions it 
may be most profitable to feed fattening steers and sheep as much corn as 
they will clean up. (716, 902, 906-7) On the other hand, in many of 
the alfalfa districts of the West, grain is usually high in price compared 
with alfalfa hay. Here it may be more profitable to restrict the grain 
allowance, even tho gains are slower. (768) 

With dairy cows much depends on the productive capacity of the 
animal. Except when concentrates are unusually high in price, the cow 



ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 147 

of good dairy temperament will pay for at least a fair allowance of con- 
centrates. On the contrary, for a low or limited productive capacity 
the most economical ration may be silage and legume hay with no con- 
centrates. (658-9) 

198. Roughing growing animals thru the winter. — The recommenda- 
tions of the standards for growing cattle and sheep are based upon 
continuous thrifty growth, and hence call for a limited allowance of 
concentrates in addition to roughage. The breeder of pure-bred ani- 
mals who wishes to develop the best there is in his young stock will feed 
the concentrates needed to keep them growing rapidly. On the other 
hand, the western beef producer may find it most profitable to carry 
young stock thru the winter on roughage alone or with but a small allow- 
ance of concentrates. Thus fed, they will gain in frame, and tho losing 
in flesh, will be thrifty enough in the spring to make good gains on the 
cheap pasturage. (138-9, 797-9) 

199. Finish animals to meet demands of the market. — The wise stock- 
man will keep in close touch with the demands of the market and adjust 
his feeding operations accordingly. If the market pays a sufficient pre- 
mium for thoroly fattened animals he will finish his stock well before 
marketing them. On the other hand, on local markets which pay no 
more for a prime carcass than for one carrying less fat, it will pay not 
to prolong the fattening process or to feed as heavy an allowance of 
concentrates as is necessary to make the carcass "ripe," or thoroly fat. 
(121-2, 768, 800) 

200. Adapt type of farming to local conditions. — It is outside the field 
of this volume to discuss in detail the many factors which the stockman 
should take into consideration in deciding the type of live-stock hus- 
bandry in which to engage and the systems and methods to follow. The 
foregoing paragraphs serve to illustrate how the farm operations and 
practices should be suited to local conditions, taking into consideration 
price of land and labor, nearness to market, and available crops. For 
example, the beef producer on high-priced land in the eastern part of 
the corn belt will generally crowd his calves to rapid growth on a heavy 
allowance of grain and fatten them as baby beef. Or he will raise no 
cattle, but fatten feeder steers from the western ranges on a liberal 
allowance of corn. On the other hand, in the West where pasture is 
cheap compared with grain the stockman will usually follow a less in- 
tensive system, roughing his growing stock thru the winter and market- 
ing them from grass as 2- or 3-yr.-olds, having been fed little grain at 
any time. 

The market milk for our cities must come from the surrounding dis- 
tricts which are within easy shipping distance. Dairymen maintaining 
herds on high-priced land to meet this demand properly tend to use a 
minimum acreage as pasture, but instead rely largely on corn silage or 
soilage during the summer months. They often buy much of their con- 
centrates, for grain can be produced on land farther from market and 



148 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

shipped in at less expense than it may be possible to grow it on their 
farms. Such a system is not, however, economical for the dairyman 
remote from the large markets, whose milk is used in the manufacture 
of butter or cheese. Since with him land is relatively less expensive 
than labor, he must adopt a less intensive system of dairying, where the 
herd is maintained largely on pasture in the summer. 

The reader will come to realize as he goes on in this book that, while 
there are no hard and fast rules for successfully managing live stock, a 
clear understanding of the principles of the nutrition of animals is 
essential to the highest success. This must be supplemented by good 
judgment and by a thoro knowledge of the farm animals themselves, 
which can only be gained by actual experience. He will further find 
that expensive buildings for housing stock and complex devices for 
feeding and caring for them are not necessary ; that there are no ' ' best ' ' 
feeds for all conditions ; that elaborate and laborious preparation of feed 
is often wasted; that patent stock foods guaranteed to work miracles 
enrich, not the farmer, but the manufacturer. 

On the other hand he will come to appreciate that a proper balancing 
of the rations for his stock not only benefits the animals, but also in- 
creases his profits; that comfort for farm stock can be secured in 
inexpensive, easy ways, and that the operations of preparing and 
administering feed are really simple and direct, when once understood. 
He will further come to the deep and fundamental realization that 
animal husbandry under normal conditions is most successful when com- 
bined with general farming and the raising of farm crops, that it rests 
upon pasture lots which are fertilized so as to produce abundant forage 
and upon tilled fields which are so managed that the fertility is main- 
tained and bumper crops are grown, a large part of which is marketed 
thru the animals of the farm. 

Having discussed in the preceding chapters the fundamental principles 
governing the rational feeding and care of the various classes of farm 
animals, let us now consider in detail the value of the many different 
feeding stuffs for live stock. 



Part II 
FEEDING STUFFS 



CHAPTER IX 

LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 

I. Indian Corn and its By-products 

The prime importance of Indian corn, or maize, Zea mays, as a grain 
crop in the United States is evident from the fact that in 1914, about 
103,435,000 acres were grown, producing two and a half billion bushels 
of grain, worth $1,720,000,000. In acreage, in total production, and in 
value of grain, the corn crop of the United States exceeds that of wheat, 
oats, barley, rye, kafir, milo, emmer, buckwheat, and rice, combined. 
Indian corn can be successfully grown in every state of the Union, tho 
it flourishes best in the great middle region of our country lying between 
the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountain Plateau. In the South the 
tropical corn stems, 4 or 5 months from planting, carry great ears 
burdened with grain so high that a man can only touch them by reach- 
ing high above his head. At the other extreme, the Mandan Indian 
in the country of the Red River of the North developed a race of corn 
which reached only to the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne 
scarcely a foot from the ground on pigmy stalks. Corn is a heat-loving 
plant, and will not thrive in regions having cool nights during the grow- 
ing season. 

Like the other leading cereals which grow en masse, the corn plant 
must grow with others of its kind, but it requires more space, air, and 
sunlight. Because it requires thoro tillage and makes most of its growth 
during late summer and early fall, Indian corn stands in a class by itself 
among the cereals. (23) This requirement of thoro tillage brings many 
advantages to the soil not forced upon us in growing the other cereals. 
The corn grain is pre-eminently a carbohydrate bearer, every 100 lbs. 
containing nearly 75 lbs. of starch, which is its chief carbohydrate. Add 
to this 5 lbs. of oil, and we can understand why Indian corn among the 
cereal grains may be likened to anthracite coal among the fuels. 

Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-furnishing food for the 
animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on a given space and with 
a given expenditure of labor, so much animal food in both grain and for- 
age. On millions of farms successful animal husbandry rests upon this 
imperial grain and forage plant. (475, 575, 732-7, 844-7, 939-42) A pos- 

149 



150 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

sible explanation of the great fondness of farm animals for corn lies in 
the considerable amount of oil it carries. Again, on mastication the ker- 
nels break into nutty particles which are more palatable, for example, 
than meal from the almost oil-free wheat grain, which on crushing and 
mingling with the saliva turns to a sticky dough in the mouth. (For a 
discussion of corn as a forage, see Arts. 290 to 307.) 

201. Corn lacks protein and mineral matter. — Being so rich in carbo- 
hydrates, corn is naturally low in crude protein. The crude protein of 
this grain is also somewhat unbalanced, for about 58 per ct. of it consists 
of the single protein, zein, which lacks some of the amino-acids neces- 
sary for animal growth. (118) Corn is also unusually low in mineral 
matter, especially calcium, so necessary for growing animals. Numerous 
experiments show that even with fattening animals, which require rela- 
tively little protein and mineral matter, it is profitable to supplement 
these deficiencies of the corn grain by other feeds high in the nutrients 
which corn lacks. (732, 845, 939) Fortunately, the legume hays are rich 
in protein and calcium, and therefore admirably supplement corn. By 
the use of these roughages, less protein-rich concentrates are needed to 
balance a heavy allowance of corn. Indeed, for some animals legume 
hay and corn alone form a satisfactory, well-balanced ration. (733, 84-4) 

202. Races of corn. — Three races of corn — dent, flint, and sweet — are of 
interest to the stockman. In dent corn the starch is partly hornlike and 
partly floury, rendering the kernel easy of mastication. In flint corn 
the starch is mostly hornlike and flinty, making the kernel more difficult 
for the animal to crush. Both chemical analysis and experience oppose 
the assertion, often heard, that yellow corn is more nutritious than white, 
or the opposite. In fact, the coloring matter of yellow corn is so minute 
in quantity as to be unweighable. While a certain strain or variety of 
one may be superior to any particular strain or variety of the other in 
a given locality, there is no uniform difference between white and yellow 
corn in productiveness or feeding properties. 

In sweet corn the starch is hornlike and tough. Before hardening, 
the milky kernels of this race carry much glucose, which is changed to 
starch as they mature into the shrunken grain. The sweetness of the 
immature grains of sweet corn, due to the glucose they then carry, adds 
to the palatability but not necessarily to their nutritive value, since glu- 
cose and starch have the same feeding value. (48) Sweet corn has some- 
what more crude protein and fat and less carbohydrates than the other 
races. 

Earliness of maturity tends to dwarf the corn plant. Hence, the 
higher the latitude or the altitude at which a variety was originated the 
larger will be the proportion of ears to stalk and leaves, tho the total 
yield of ears will usually be decreased. 

203. Corn cobs. — Well-dried dent ear corn of good breeding carries 
about 56 lbs. of shelled corn to 14 lbs. of cob. The proportion of cob 
to grain varies according to race, variety, and dryness, ranging from 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 151 

below 20 to about 40 per et., flint varieties having a larger proportion of 
cob to grain than does dent corn. The cobs carry about 30 per ct. of 
fiber, which at best is of low feeding value, and much of their nitrogen- 
free extract is in the form of pentosans. (9) Since the cobs have some 
nutritive value, under certain conditions it is profitable to grind the 
whole ear into corn-and-cob meal. (208) Manifestly it is not economical 
to purchase ground corn cobs in adulterated commercial feeds at a price 
that would buy good concentrates. (285) 

204. Shrinkage of ear corn. — While the amount of water in old corn 
varies but little from 12 per ct., the Iowa Station 1 found as high as 36 
per ct. in freshly husked ear corn. Rarely will corn carrying 20 per ct. 
or more of water keep if stored in any considerable quantity. Studies 
conducted by the Kansas Station 2 with 3 lots of ear corn fairly dry 
when cribbed, others by the Illinois Station 3 with 2 cribs, each contain- 
ing 20,000 lbs., and an 8-year test by the Iowa Station 4 show the fol- 
lowing results : 

Shrinkage in ear corn during storage 

Nov. and Dec. Nov. to Mar. Nov. to Apr. In 1 year In 2 years 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Kansas 3.3 6.8 8.6 .... 

Illinois 2.6 6.0 17.8 19.4 20.6 

Iowa 6.9 9.7 12.8 18.2 

In a year the corn in the Kansas trial shrank only 8.6 per ct. while 
that in the Iowa trial shrank 18.2 per ct. The rate of shrinkage de- 
pends not only on the maturity of the corn when husked, but also on the 
moisture content of the air. When the water content of ear corn falls 
to 12 per ct., shrinkage practically ceases. A large part of the shrinkage 
of ear corn is in the cobs, which usually form about one-fourth of the 
weight of the ears at husking and one-fifth of their cured weight. Twist- 
ing the ears slightly will fairly indicate the moisture contained. Loose 
grained, "sappy" ears carry 20 per ct. or more of water, while solid ones 
usually contain not much over 12 per ct. Seventy lbs. of dry dent corn 
of good varieties will make 1 bushel, or 56 lbs., of shelled corn, but in 
early fall the buyers frequently demand 75 or 80 lbs., according to the 
estimated water content. According to the Federal corn grades, by 
which corn is sold on the large markets, the percentage of water in corn 
must not exceed for Number 1, 14 per ct. ; Number 2, 15.5 per ct. ; Num- 
ber 3, 17.5 per ct. ; Number 4, 19.5 per ct, ; Number 5, 21.5 per ct. ; and 
Number 6, 23 per ct. Corn is stored mostly on the husked ear in the 
North, but in the South the husks are left on the ears because of the wee- 
vil, a beetle that lives in the kernels unless they are protected. Shelled 
corn does not keep well in bulk, especially in summer, and so corn is 
held in ear form as long as possible. 

205. Soft corn. — Corn frosted before the grains mature contains too 
much water for storage or shipment, and is best utilized by immediate 

J Iowa Bui. 77. =Kan. Bui. 144. "111. Bui. 113. 'Hoard's Dairyman, 49, 463. 



152 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

feeding. Soft corn has been fed successfully to swine (940), and for 
steers a pound of dry matter in soft corn containing 35 per ct. of water 
is equal in feeding value to a pound of dry matter in hard corn. (736) 

A late-maturing variety of corn should not be planted in a locality 
having a short growing season, with the hope of getting a larger yield. 
The corn will usually not mature, there is great danger of its heating 
and molding, and the shrinkage is large. It is also difficult to secure 
seed for the following year which will retain its vitality. 

206. Composition of the corn kernel. — To determine the composition 
of the different parts of the corn kernel, Hopkins of the Illinois Station 5 
separated the kernels of an ear of average dent corn into their several 
parts and analyzed each. The weights of each part and the nutrients 
contained therein for 100 lbs. of air-dry corn are shown in the following 
table : 

Location of nutrients in the water-free corn kernel 

Total wt. in Crude Carbo- 

100 lbs. corn protein hydrates Fat Ash 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Hull and tip cap 7.39 0.36 6.88 0.08 0.07 

Hornlike gluten 8.51 1.89 5.88 0.59 0.15 

Hornlike starch 47.08 4.80 42.05 0.11 0.11 

Floury starch 25.49 2.00 23.36 0.06 0.07 

Germ 11.53 2.28 4.09 4.02 1.14 

Whole kernel 100 .00 11 .33 82 .26 4 .86 1 .54 

In 100 lbs. of water-free corn the hulls and tip caps together weighed 
7.39 lbs., the hornlike layer of gluten just under the skin 8.51 lbs., and 
the flinty, hornlike starch at the sides and base of the kernel 47.08 lbs., 
or nearly one-half of the total weight. In each 100 lbs. of kernels the 
soft, floury starch in the middle portion of the kernel formed 25.49 lbs. 
and the germ 11.53 lbs. The last 4 columns of the table show the number 
of pounds of each nutrient contained in each of the several parts of 100 
lbs. of water-free corn. It is seen that the hull and tip cap are largely 
carbohydrates, while the germ is heavily charged with crude protein and 
fat, or oil. 

Appendix Table I shows that air-dry dent corn contains 70.9 per ct. 
nitrogen-free extract — nearly all starch — and only 2.0 per ct. fiber, 
which comprises the fiber of the hull, or skin, of the kernel, and of the 
cell walls inclosing the starch grains. On comparing the composition of 
corn with that of the other common cereals, it will be noted that corn is 
by far the richest in fat, containing 5.0 per ct. fat, or oil. Because of 
this abundance of starch and oil, corn excels as a fattening food. Corn 
has slightly less crude protein than wheat, barley, oats, or rye and is 
also lower in ash. It is especially deficient in lime, containing only 0.3 
lb. per 1,000 lbs. of grain. As has been emphasized before (201) , in feed- 
ing corn we must bear in mind these facts concerning its composition. 

"111. Bui. 87. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 153 

207. Corn meal; corn chop; corn feed-meal. — The term corn meal, as 
applied to feeding stuffs, is most correctly used to denote the entire 
ground corn grain, from which the bran and hidls have not been re- 
moved by bolting. In preparing corn for human food the grain is either 
ground to a rather coarse meal or cracked coarsely, the fine siftings and 
also the bran or hulls being removed. The milled product, which is like- 
wise called corn meal, has a more attractive appearance than the entire 
ground grain, but contains somewhat less protein and fat. Much of the 
commercial corn meal, particularly in the Mississippi valley, is made 
from the part of the kernel left after the manufacture of cracked corn 
or table meal. It is most correctly called corn feed-meal, and according 
to Smith and Beals of the Massachusetts Station, is equal in feeding 
value to corn meal made from the entire grain. Com chop is a name 
sometimes applied to ground corn, and also to mixtures of ground corn 
and corn by-products. Since it has often been found best not to grind 
corn for stock (423, 475, 735, 847, 921), the question whether this grain 
should be reduced to a coarse or a fine meal has lost much of the interest 
once taken in it. On grinding corn the oil it carries soon becomes rancid 
and gives the meal a stale taste. Hence this grain should never be ground 
far in advance of use. 

208. Corn-and-cob meal. — When ear corn is ground the product is 
called corn-and-cob meal. Because of the rubber-like consistency of the 
cobs, much power is required to reduce ear corn to meal. If the cob 
particles in corn-and-cob meal are coarse, the animal will not usually 
eat them, but when finely ground corn-and-cob meal proves satisfactory 
with most farm animals. (576, 941) Much evidently depends on the 
nature of the roughage fed with the meal. The Paris Omnibus Company 
found corn-and-cob meal more acceptable than pure corn meal to its 
thousands of horses (475), and stockmen generally report favorably on 
its use. It has been suggested that corn meal when fed alone lies too 
compactly in the stomach to be readily attacked by the digestive fluids, 
while corn-and-cob meal forms a loose mass more easy of digestion. 
Where there is an abundance of cheap roughage, it is best to omit the 
cobs in grinding unless there is ample power at low cost. 

209. Starch and glucose by-products. — In the manufacture of com- 
mercial starch and glucose from corn, the grain is first passed thru 
cleaning machinery. It is then soaked in warm water, slightly acidulated 
with sulfurous acid, which softens the grain and facilitates the separ- 
ation of the germ. Next the grain is coarsely ground and the mass passed 
into tanks containing ' ' starch liquor. ' ' Here the germs, which are lighter 
on account of the large amount of oil they carry, rise to the surface, and 
are removed. After washing, the residue is then finely ground, and the 
coarser part, the bran, separated by silk sieves. The remainder, called 
"starch liquor," which contains the starch, gluten, and fine particles of 
fiber, is then passed slowly thru shallow, slightly inclined troughs where 

"Mass. Bui. 146. 



154 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the starch settles like wet lime, while the lighter ingredients — the gluten, 
fiber, etc. — are carried off in the current of water. In this process there 
are thus obtained, (1) the germ, from which corn oil and germ oil meal 
or corn oil cake are secured, (2) the bran, consisting of the hulls, (3) 
the starch, and (4) the gluten. The bran, together with some light 
weight and broken germs, was formerly dried and sold as corn bran. 
Now, however, the bran and gluten are usually united while still wet, 
and then dried and ground, the product being sold as corn gluten feed, 
or com starch by-product with corn bran, as it is sometimes called. 7 The 
term corn gluten feed is used to distinguish this feed from ' ' Continental 
Gluten Feed," a proprietary name for certain dried distillers' grains. 
(282) 

210. Corn gluten feed. — Formerly, the steep water, which contains the 
soluble materials, such as soluble protein and phosphates, was allowed to 
run to w r aste. It is now often evaporated and the residue, called corn 
solubles, is added to the gluten feed. Gluten feed is rich in crude pro- 
tein and fat, contains a fair amount of carbohydrates and is bulkier 
than corn. The protein content varies from 18 to over 29 per ct., 
depending chiefly on how completely the starch has been removed. The 
ash content ranges from less than 1 per ct. when the corn solubles have 
not been added to 5 or 6 per ct. when this residue has been incorporated. 
Owing chiefly to the acid nature of some of the protein and phosphorus 
compounds naturally occurring in the corn solubles, gluten feed to which 
these have been added has an acid taste unless the acid has been neutral- 
ized in the process of manufacture. While the small amount of acid 
present is probably not injurious to live stock, the feed is more palat- 
able when the acidity is neutralized. 

In early years gluten feed was normally yellow, since it was usually 
made from yellow corn. When manufacturers began to use white corn 
the resulting product had an uninviting grayish-white color, and was 
sometimes refused by purchasers. The manufacturers thereupon added 
artificial coloring matter to maintain the standard color. Tho the little 
coloring matter used is probably not injurious, it certainly adds notbing 
of value to the feed. Fortunately purchasers are learning to be governed 
by the guarantee and the taste, rather than by the color, and some manu- 
facturers are hence discontinuing the coloring of this feed. Gluten 
feed is a most valuable concentrate, especially in the ration of the dairy 
cow. (590, 757, 856) 

211. Gluten meal. — This by-product, now sometimes called com by- 
product without corn bran, is one of the richest of concentrates in crude 
protein and fat, while fair in carbohydrates and low in mineral matter. 
It is a heavy feed, and, as mentioned before, is usually mixed with corn 
bran to form gluten feed. (491, 591, 981) 

212. Germ oil meal. — The corn germs removed in the manufacture of 
starch are dried, crushed, and much of the oil pressed out, leaving the 

'Wagner, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bui. 122, 1909; Lindsey, Mass. (Hatch) 
Bui. 78. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 155 

residue in cakes. This is exported as corn oil cake, or ground and sold 
in this country as germ oil meal or com germ meal. This feed contains 
somewhat less protein than the usual gluten feed, but carries a much 
larger amount of fat. (592) 

213. Hominy feed, meal, or chop. — This by-product, variously called 
hominy feed, homing meal, or hominy chop, is a mixture of the bran 
coating, the germ, and a part of the starchy portion of the corn kernel 
obtained in the manufacture of hominy grits for human consumption 
and of brewers' grits. It is a carbonaceous feed, similar in composition 
to corn, but somewhat bulkier. It is slightly lower in nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, higher in fiber, and contains much more fat. While slightly less 
digestible than corn meal, it is kiln-dried, almost invariably sweet, and 
keeps better in storage than does corn meal. As it is a bulkier feed than 
corn meal it is preferred for dairy cattle and has also proven superior 
to corn meal for fattening pigs. Cochel of the Kansas Station 8 reports 
that fattening calves would not eat as heavy an allowance of hominy feed 
as of corn meal, perhaps owing to the larger amount of oil in the hominy 
feed. (577, 749, 943) 

214. Corn bran. — But little corn bran now comes upon the market as 
such, for, as we have seen, it is usually mixed with other by-products. 
(209) Corn bran contains about three-fifths as much protein as wheat 
bran, is somewhat higher than that feed in nitrogen-free extract and fat, 
and contains slightly more fiber. 



II. Wheat and its By-products in Milling 

Since it costs more to produce wheat, Triticum sativum, tenax, than 
corn, and since our population is steadily increasing, it is reasonable to 
suppose that wheat will never again be used in any considerable amount 
for feeding stock in this country, as it was at one time. But the feeder 
should know both its absolute and relative value, for the low grades of 
wheat would better be fed to stock than sold. 

215. Wheat as a feed. — Compared with corn, wheat carries slightly 
more carbohydrates in the form of starch, more crude protein, and much 
less fat. Tho low in mineral matter, it contains somewhat more lime, 
phosphoric acid, and potash than corn. While the nutritive ratio of dent 
corn is 1 : 10.4, that of wheat is 1 : 7.7. Tho wheat thus carries a larger 
proportion of protein, this nutrient is unbalanced in composition, like 
that of corn. (118) Probably due to this, Hart, McCollum, and Fuller 9 
have found in trials at the Wisconsin Station that pigs fed on wheat as 
the sole source of protein for long periods are unable to make normal 
growth, even when an abundance of inineral matter is supplied. (105) 
Like corn, wheat should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein and 
lime. Fed in properly balanced rations wheat is about equal to corn 
for milk production or for fattening animals. (578, 739, 849, 945) Fed 

"Kansas Industrialist, 41, 1915. n Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, pp. 373-395. 



156 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

in large amounts to horses it has occasioned digestive disturbances and 
eruptions of the skin. (479) Because the kernels are small and hard, 
wheat should be ground for all farm animals except sheep. Wheat flour 
and meal fed alone are unsatisfactory because they form a pasty mass 
in the animal's mouth, a condition which can be remedied by adding 
some such material as bran or coarse corn meal. (423) 

As stated before (81), the composition of the wheat kernel is markedly 
influenced by climate, especially in protein content. Wheat from the 
northern plains region is highest in crude protein, while that from the 
Pacific coast districts is unusually low in this nutrient. When grown 
under the same climatic conditions spring wheat is usually slightly richer 
in crude protein than winter wheat. 10 Durum, or macaroni, wheat is 
extensively grown in parts of the plains states, especially the Dakotas, 
on account of its higher yield in these sections. This variety shows no 
appreciable difference in composition or feeding value from ordinary 
wheat grown under the same environment. 11 (849) 

Wheat growers should sell only the best grades, retaining for their 
animals all shrunken, frosted, or otherwise damaged grain, for while 
such wheat has low selling value, it is often equal to grain of good qual- 
ity for feeding. (739, 849, 945) As a rule such grain is richer in pro- 
tein than is wheat of good quality. 

Salvage grain, which has been slightly charred or injured by smoke 
and water in elevator fires, thus being unfitted for human food, may 
have its value for stock feeding but little impaired. 

216. Flour manufacture. — The wheat kernel is covered with three straw- 
like coats or skins. Beneath these comes the fourth, called the ' ' aleurone 
layer," rich in crude protein, and which in milling goes with the other 
coats to form bran. The germ, or embryo plant, in each kernel is rich 
in oil, crude protein, and mineral matter. The remainder of the kernel 
consists of thin-walled cells packed with starch grains. Among the starch 
grains are protein particles called "gluten," that give wheat-flour dough 
the tenacity so essential in bread making. In producing flour the miller 
aims to secure all the starch and gluten possible from the wheat grains, 
while avoiding the germ and bran. He leaves out the germs because they 
make a sticky dough and also soon turn dark and rancid, giving the flour 
a specked appearance. Nor does he use the aleurone layer, as it gives a 
brownish tint to the flour. 

In modern milling, flour is produced by passing the thoroly cleaned 
wheat thru a series of hardened steel rollers, each succeeding pair being 
set a little nearer together so that the kernels are gradually crushed into 
smaller and smaller particles. After passing thru each pair of rollers, 
or ' ' breaks, ' ' the flour is removed by sifting or passing the material over 
bolting cloth, and finally only the by-products remain. 

The terms employed to designate the various mill products differ some- 
what in various sections of the country, but those most commonly used 

"Bailey, Minn. Bui. 143. "Ladd and Bailey, N. D. Bui. 93. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 157 

are wheat bran, standard middlings or shorts, white or flour middlings, 
red dog flour and wheat mixed feed. 

In the manufacture of flour, from 25 to 33 per ct. of the weight of the 
wheat grain remains as bran, middlings, etc. Since the annual con- 
sumption of wheat in this country is about 4.5 bushels, or 270 lbs., for 
each person, the by-products of this grain amount to nearly 70 lbs. for 
each person, not including that resulting from the wheat milled for 
export. 

217. Feeding bread. — When available, the stale bread from bakeries is 
used for feeding animals, especially horses. Gay 12 states that a Phila- 
delphia teamster fed stale bread mixed with molasses, at a considerable 
saving and with entire success. An English writer 13 also reports good 
results from feeding bread to cab horses in London, the only trouble 
being that many loaves were consumed by the workmen. 

218. Wheat bran. — Bran, which consists of the coarse outer coatings 
of the wheat kernel, is comparatively rich in digestible crude protein, 
carries considerable digestible carbohydrates and fat, and is high in 
mineral matter, except lime. It is light and chaffy, containing much fiber 
for a concentrate. Bran from mills lacking machinery for perfect sep- 
aration of the starch from the bran coats is somewhat lower in crude 
protein and fiber and higher in carbohydrates than the bran from the 
large mills. Woll 14 concludes that the nutritive difference is usually, 
small, making it advisable to select whichever is cheaper. 

Hart and Patten of the New York (Geneva) Station 15 have shown that 
ordinary wheat bran contains from 6 to 7 per ct. of an organic compound 
containing phosphorus, magnesia, and potash. In the past the laxative 
effect of bran, one of its beneficial properties, was ascribed to the mild 
irritation produced by the chaffy bran particles on the lining of the in- 
testinal tract. These chemists have found, however, that the laxative 
effect of bran is due to this phosphorus compound. Phosphorus, an 
essential component of the bones and of milk, is abundant in bran, while 
lime, likewise needed in still larger amount, is but sparingly present. 
Horses heavily fed on wheat bran or middlings sometimes suffer from 
' ' bran disease, ' ' 16 which seriously affects their bones. To supply the lime 
which bran lacks, farm animals may be fed lime in inorganic form — wood 
ashes, ground limestone, burned lime, or ground rock phosphate (floats), 
or they may be supplied lime in organic form by feeding lime-laden 
plants, such as the legumes, which include alfalfa, clover, vetch, cowpea, 
etc. (98) The best grades of bran are of light weight, with large, clean 
flakes and no foreign matter. 

Knowing the properties of bran, one is in position to use this most 

12 Productive Horse Husbandry, p. 239. 
13 The Field, England, July 15, 1893. 
"Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, p. 180. 
15 N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 250. 
10 Law's Vet. Medicine, III, p. 572. 



158 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

valuable feed advantageously. As bran is ordinarily too expensive to 
be used as the sole concentrate for farm animals, it should be mixed 
with other concentrates to lighten the ration or add bulk while improving 
its nutritive qualities. "With its wealth of crude protein and phosphorus, 
it serves its highest purpose in giving virility to the animal and in help- 
ing build bone and muscle without tending to fatten, thus being especial- 
ly suited to young animals whose digestive capacities are sufficiently de- 
veloped for this bulky feed. (523, 681, 894) Both on account of its 
high content of crude protein and phosphorus and because of its laxative 
action, bran is of great value in putting the bodies of pregnant mares, 
cows, ewes, or sows in the best condition for bearing young. (514, 673-4, 
883, 1015; Supplied to horses once or twice a week in the form of a 
"mash" made with scalding water, bran proves a mild, beneficial laxa- 
tive. (486) When used continuously, the animal system becomes accus- 
tomed to it and the laxative property is less marked. Hard-worked 
horses have neither time nor energy to digest feeds of much bulk, and 
hence their allowance of bran should be limited. (457, 486) Being bulky, 
bran is often mixed with corn and other heavy concentrates for starting 
fattening cattle or sheep on feed. (756, 856) It is a most excellent feed 
for the dairy cow, being slightly laxative, giving bulk to the ration, and 
providing the crude protein and phosphorus so vital to the formation of 
.milk. (588) Tho too strawlike for young pigs, it is valuable for giving 
bulk and nutriment to the ration for breeding swine and stock hogs not 
getting legume pasture or hay. (972) 

Due to its widespread popularity, bran is often high in price compared 
with other nitrogenous concentrates which can be used with equally good 
results and many of which carry more protein than does bran. 

219. Red dog flour. — Red dog flour, or dark feeding flour, generally 
contains the wheat germs and is therefore rich in crude protein and fat. 
Such flour differs but little in composition and feeding value from the 
best flour middlings. (971) 

220. Wheat middlings. — Middlings vary in quality from red dog flour, 
which contains considerable flour, to standard middlings, or shorts, which 
may contain but little flour. To some extent standard or drown mid- 
dlings and shorts are interchangeable terms. Standard wheat middlings 
comprise the finer bran particles with considerable flour adhering. 
Shorts too often consist of ground-over bran and the sweepings and 
dirt of the mills, along with ground or unground weed seeds. Flour or 
white middlings are of somewhat higher grade than standard middlings ; 
containing considerable low-grade flour and carrying slightly more crude 
protein and less fiber. Middlings are highly useful with swine of all ages. 
They should not be fed alone, but always with more carbonaceous feeds, 
as corn or barley. (969-70) Mixed with the various ground grains, mid- 
dlings and shorts are helpful with dairy cows, since they add crude pro- 
tein and phosphorus to the ration. (589) Middlings and shorts alone 
should never be fed to horses, since they are too heavy and pasty in 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 159 

character and are liable to induce colic. (487) Like bran, both mid- 
dlings and shorts are low in lime, which should always be supplied by 
the other feeds in the ration. 

221. Wheat mixed feed. — Wheat mixed feed, or shipstuff, is, strictly 
speaking, the entire mill run of the residues of the wheat kernel left after 
separating the commercial flour. The term is also used for various mix- 
tures of bran and red dog flour or middlings. Smith and Beals of the 
Massachusetts Station 17 state that a good grade is superior to wheat bran, 
but that a difference of 10 per ct. in value is often noted in different 
samples, depending on the amount of flour contained. 

222. Screenings. — In cleaning and grading wheat at the elevators and 
mills, there remain great quantities of screenings, consisting of broken 
and shrunken wheat kernels having a high feeding value, mixed with 
weed seeds. Many of the latter are nutritious, while others are of little 
worth, and a few actually poisonous. Poisonous seeds, such as corn 
cockle, are rarely present in screenings in sufficient quantities to cause 
ill effects. Unground screenings will never be used by farmers who seek 
to keep their land free from noxious weeds, for many such seeds will 
pass thru the animals uninjured and be carried to the field in the ma- 
nure. Finely ground screenings are free from this objection. Screen- 
ings have their place and use, tho, because of their variable character, 
little of a definite nature can be said concerning them. (850, 954) Along 
with molasses and the by-products of the distilleries, breweries, flouring 
mills, oatmeal factories, etc., they are now largely absorbed in the manu- 
facture of proprietary feeding stuffs. (285) 

The feed control laws of various states require that when screenings 
are present in feeds the fact be indicated on the label and in some cases 
the percentage must be stated. Wheat bran with mill run screenings is 
a trade term for pure wheat bran plus the screenings which were sep- 
arated from the wheat whence the bran originated. Wheat bran with 
screenings not exceeding mill run may be either wheat bran with the 
whole mill run of screenings or with but a portion of the screenings 
output. 

III. Oats and their By-products 

Next to corn, oats, Avena sativa, are the most extensively grown cereal 
in America. In the southern portion of our country a bushel of oats 
often weighs only 20 lbs., while on the Pacific coast it may weigh 50 lbs. 
Southern oats have a larger kernel than the northern grain, but bear 
an inflated husk carrying an awn or beard, which causes the grains 
to lie loosely in the measure. In the North the kernel is encased in a 
compact hull, usually not awned. The hulls of oats constitute from 20 
to 45 per ct. of their total weight, the average being about 30 per ct. 
"Clipped oats" have had the hulls clipped at the pointed end, thereby 

"Mass. Bui. 146. 



!60 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

increasing the weight per bushel. A hulless oat, but little grown in this 
country, serves well for poultry and swine, while the varieties with hulls 
are preferable for other stock. The oat grain is higher in crude protein 
than is corn, and in fat it exceeds wheat and nearly equals corn. 

223. Oats as a feed. — Oats are the safest of all feeds for the horse, for 
the hull gives them such volume that the animal rarely suffers from gorg- 
ing; in this respect they are in strong contrast with corn. On account 
of the mettle so characteristic of the oat-fed horse, it was long held that 
there is a stimulating substance in the oat grain. All claims of the dis- 
covery of this compound have, however, melted away on careful exam- 
ination, and rations containing no oats have given results in every way 
as good as where oats were fed. (473-4) For dairy cows there is no better 
grain than oats, but their use is restricted by their high price. (579) 
Oats mixed with other concentrates are helpful in starting fattening 
cattle or sheep on feed. As fattening progresses more concentrated feeds 
should be substituted for all or most of the oats. (740, 851) Ground 
oats with the hulls sifted out provide a nourishing and wholesome feed 
for young calves and pigs. (946) For breeding swine, whole oats in 
limited quantity are always in place. As light weight oats contain more 
hull and less kernel than plump, heavy oats, their feeding value per 
pound will be correspondingly less. 

In recent years the bleaching of low-grade oats and barley with sul- 
furous acid fumes to whiten the grain and raise the market grade, has 
become common. Smith 18 estimates that in 6 months beginning October 
1, 1908, nearly 19,000,000 bushels of oats and barley were bleached at 
13 grain centers in 3 north-central states. No feeding trials have been 
reported in which bleached oats have been fed, but complaints from horse- 
men of injurious effects on the health of the animals fed such oats are 
not uncommon. Several states have laws regulating the sale of bleached 
grains. 

224. Oat by-products. — In the manufacture of oatmeal and other break- 
fast foods, after the light-weight grains are screened out to be sold as 
feed the hulls are removed from the remainder, a vast quantity result- 
ing. So completely are the kernels separated that the chaff-like hulls 
have but low feeding value. Oat hulls contain about 30 per ct. fiber, as 
Appendix Table I shows, and their feeding value is only little, if any, 
above that of oat straw. If fragments of the kernels adhere, their value 
is of course thereby improved. The oat hulls are sold in mixture with 
other feeds under various names. (285) The statement of feed manu- 
facturers that the addition of a limited amount of hulls to a heavy con- 
centrate mixture is beneficial seems reasonable in view of the excellent 
results secured with the natural unhulled oats. However, the appear- 
ance of such feeds is no guide to their value or the quantity of hulls 
present, and they hence should be purchased only on guarantee and on 
the basis of their actual composition compared with standard feeds. 

18 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus,, Cir. 74. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 161 

After the oats are hulled, they are freed from the minute hairs which 
adhere to the outer end of the kernel. Small as these hairs are, they form 
with fragments of the kernels a product of great volume, known as oat 
dust, which contains considerable protein and fat, with about 18 per et. 
fiber. This feed is usually sold in mixture with other concentrates, as 
its light, fluffy nature makes it unsuitable to feed alone. In feeding 
value this product ranks between oat hulls and oat middlings. Oat shorts 
or middlings, consisting of the outside skins of the kernels, closely re- 
semble wheat bran in composition, but carry more fat. Oat feeds are mix- 
tures, widely varying in composition, of ground oat hulls, oat middlings, 
and other by-products. Since the feeding value will depend on the 
amount of hulls present, these feeds should be purchased only on guar- 
antee of composition and from reputable dealers. The fiber content of 
any lot indicates the relative amount of hulls contained. Clipped oat 
by-product, or oat clippings, is the by-product obtained in the manu- 
facture of clipped oats. This material, which consists of chaffy material 
broken from the ends of the hulls, empty hulls, light immature oats, and 
dust, is used in various proprietary feeds. 

225. Ground corn and oats. — This feed, variously called ground corn 
and oats, ground feed, and provender, is extensively employed in the 
eastern and southern states for feeding dairy cows and especially horses. 
In composition it ranges from a straight mixture of good-grade corn 
and oats to one containing a large proportion of low-grade materials such 
as oat hulls, ground corn cobs, and other refuse. The best guide to the 
purity of this feed is the fiber content. As corn contains only 2.0 per ct. 
fiber and oats 10.9 per ct. ; when ground corn and oat feed contains over 
about 7 per ct. fiber, it has either been adulterated or was made from 
poor quality oats. Where more than 9 per ct. fiber is present adulter- 
ation is certain. 19 This feed should be purchased only on guarantee and 
from reliable dealers. 



IV. Barley and its By-products in Brewing 

Barley, Hordeum sativum, is the most widely cultivated of the cereals, 
growing as far north as 65° north latitude in Alaska and flourishing 
beside orange groves in California. Once the chief bread plant of many 
ancient nations, it is now used almost wholly for brewing, pearling, and 
stock feeding. Richardson 20 found that Dakota barley contained the 
highest percentage of crude protein, and Oregon barley the lowest. The 
adherent hull of the grain of ordinary brewing barley or of Scotch 
barley constitutes about 15 per ct. of its total weight. 

California feed barley, grown extensively in some sections of the West, 
nas more hull and weighs 45 lbs. or less per bushel; while the usual 
weight of common barley is 48 lbs. Bald, or hulless, barley also grown 
in the western states has hard kernels, contains less fiber owing to the 

,9 Woll and Strowd, Wis. Cir. 47. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Chem., Bui. 9. 



162 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

absence of the hull, and is as heavy as wheat. (848) Barley has less 
digestible crude protein than oats, and more than corn. The carbo- 
hydrates exceed those of oats and fall below those in corn, while the oil 
content is lower than in either of these grains. 

226. Barley as a feed. — On the Pacific slope, where corn or oats do 
not flourish in equal degree, barley is extensively used as a feed for ani- 
mals. The horses of California are quite generally fed on rolled barley, 
with wheat, oat, or barley hay for roughage. (494) Barley is the common 
feed for dairy cows in northern Europe. The Danes sow barley and oats 
together in the proportion of 1 part of barley to 2 of oats, the ground 
mixed grain from this crop being regarded as the best available feed for 
dairy cows and other stock. (580) Fed with legume hay to fattening 
steers and lambs, barley has given nearly as good returns as corn. (738, 
848) For horses barley is somewhat less valuable than oats. (478) At the 
Virginia Station 21 calves made excellent gains on barley and skim milk, 
but corn proved cheaper. (681) In Great Britain and northern Europe 
barley takes the place of corn for pig feeding, leading all grains in pro- 
ducing pork of fine quality, both as to hardness and flavor. In American 
trials somewhat more barley than corn has been required for 100 lbs. 
gain with fattening pigs. (944) Owing to its more chaffy nature Cali- 
fornia feed barley is somewhat lower in value than common barley. (848) 
Tho barley is somewhat higher than corn in crude protein, it is still 
decidedly carbonaceous in character, and should be fed with legume hay 
or with a nitrogenous concentrate for the best results. 

227. Malt. — In making malt the barley grains are first steeped in warm 
water until soft. The grain is then held at a warm temperature until 
it begins to sprout, in which process the amount of diastase, the en- 
zyme which converts starch into malt sugar, increases greatly, and some 
of the starch in the grain is acted on by the diastase. When sufficient 
diastase has been formed in the sprouting grain, it is quickly dried. The 
tiny, dry, shriveled sprouts are then separated from the grains, and put 
on the market as malt sprouts. The dried grains remaining form malt. In 
the manufacture of beer the malt, after being crushed by rolling, is moist- 
ened and usually mixed with cracked corn which has been previously 
cooked. The diastase in the malt now converts the starch in the corn 
and the malt itself into malt sugar. This, together with some of the 
nitrogenous and mineral matter is then extracted from the mass and 
fermented by yeast. The freshly extracted residue constitutes wet 
brewers' grains, which on drying in a vacuum are called dried brewers' 
grains or brewers' dried grains. 

It was formerly claimed that malting barley increased its value for 
stock feeding. Investigations by Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted 
Station, 22 England, show that a given weight of barley is of greater value 
for dairy cows and fattening animals than the amount of malt and malt 
sprouts that would be produced from it, This is due to the oxidizing 

21 Va. Bui. 172. -Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. IV. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 163 

or burning up of some of the stored nutrients in the grain during the 
sprouting process. Malt is, however, very palatable to stock, and useful 
as a conditioner and in fitting animals for exhibition or sale. 23 

228. Dried brewers' grains. — Dried brewers' grains, which are no more 
perishable than wheat bran, contain over 70 per ct. more digestible 
crude protein and twice as much fat as wheat bran, but are lower in 
carbohydrates, which are largely pentosans. 24 (9) 

Higher in fiber than wheat bran, they are a bulky feed, and there- 
fore not well suited to pigs. They are widely fed to dairy cows and 
serve well as part of the concentrate allowance for horses, especially for 
those at hard work, and needing an ample supply of protein. (488, 593, 
759, 856) 

229. Wet brewers' grains. — Owing to their volume, watery nature, and 
perishable character, wet brewers' grains are usually fed near the brew- 
ery. Containing about 75 per ct. water, they have slightly over one- 
fourth the feeding value of an equal weight of dried grains. In the 
hands of ignorant or greedy persons cows have often been crowded into 
dark, illy-ventilated sheds and fed almost exclusively upon wet brewers' 
grains. Sometimes the grains are partially rotted when fed, and the 
drippings getting under feed boxes and floors produce sickening odors. 
It is not surprising that boards of health have prohibited the sale of 
milk from such dairies. There is nothing in fresh brewers' grains which 
is necessarily deleterious to milk. Supplied in reasonable quantity, 20 
to 30 lbs. per head daily, and fed while fresh in clean, water-tight boxes 
and along with nutritious hay and other roughage, there is no better 
food for dairy cows than wet brewers' grains. So great is the temp- 
tation to abuse, however, that wet grains should never be fed to dairy 
cows unless under the supervision of competent officials. If this cannot 
be done, their use should be prohibited. In Europe the wet grains are 
considered excellent for fattening cattle and swine when used with dry 
feed and furnishing not over half the nutrients in the ration. On ac- 
count of their "washy" nature, they are not so useful for horses and 
sheep, tho horses may be fed 20 lbs. per head daily and fattening sheep 
1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight. 25 

230. Malt sprouts. — The tiny, shriveled sprouts which have been sep- 
arated from the dried malt grains form a bulky feed which is rather low 
in carbohydrates and fat, but carries about 20 per ct. digestible crude 
protein, one-third of which is amids. 26 At ruling prices they are an eco- 
nomical source of protein, but not being relished by stock should be given 
in limited quantity mixed with other concentrates. Malt sprouts are 
especially valuable for dairy cows, tho they will not usually eat over 2 or 
3 lbs. daily. (594) In Europe horses have been fed as high as 5 to 6 lbs. 

^Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 257. 
"Mass. (Hatch) Bui. 94. 

25 Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 233. 
20 Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 223. 



164 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

per head daily with good results, and sheep 0.5 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live 
weight. Since malt sprouts swell greatly when they absorb water, they 
may cause digestive disturbances if fed dry to stock in large amounts 
and should therefore be soaked for several hours before feeding. When 
not over 1 lb. per head is fed to cattle with other feed, soaking is un- 
necessary, but moistening to lay the dust is advisable. 27 

231. Barley feed. — This by-product from the manufacture of pearl 
barley or flour has about the same feeding value as wheat bran, being 
somewhat lower in protein and higher in nitrogen-free extract. 



V. Rye and its By-products 

Rye, Seeale cereale, the principal cereal of north Europe, is not ex- 
tensively grown in America. Tho it repays good treatment, this ' ' grain 
of poverty" thrives in cool regions on land that would not give profit- 
able returns with the other cereals. It furnishes about one-third of the 
people of Europe with bread, and when low in price or off-grade is com- 
monly fed to stock. 

232. Rye and its by-products. — Tho farm animals show no fondness for 
rye, they take it willingly when mixed with other feeds, as should always 
be done. Fed alone or in large amounts it is more apt to cause digestive 
disturbances than the other cereals. In northern Europe it is a common 
feed for horses and swine. (480, 948) Fed in large allowance to cows 
rye produces a hard, dry butter, but a limited amount mixed with other 
feeds has given good results. (581) 

The by-products in the manufacture of rye flour are rye bran and rye 
middlings, which are usually combined and sold as rye feed. All have 
about the same feeding value as the corresponding wheat feeds, each con- 
taining less fiber and being somewhat lower in protein and higher in 
nitrogen-free extract than the corresponding wheat feed. 

VI. Emmer 

Emmer, Triticum sat., var. dicoccum, often incorrectly called "spelt" 
or "speltz," was introduced into America from Germany and Russia. 
It is a member of the wheat family, altho in appearance the grain re- 
sembles barley. Being drought resisting, emmer is especially valuable 
in the semi-arid regions of America. In 1909, 12,700,000 bushels were 
grown, mostly in the northern plains states, the average yield per acre 
being 22 bushels of 40 lbs. each. The adherent hulls of emmer repre- 
sent about 21 per ct. and the kernels 79 per ct. of the grain. 

The following table shows the average yields of various spring grains 
grown without irrigation for 8 years at the North Dakota Station at 
Fargo 28 and for 5 years at the North Platte, Nebraska, Station : 29 

27 Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 226. 
23 N. D. Bui. 75. 20 Nebr. Bui. 135. 



LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 165 
Yield of emmer compared with other spring grains 



Graiu 



Emmer 

Barley 

Oats 

Wheat 

Durum wheat. 

* Av. of 7 years. 



North Dakota 


Nebraska 


Yield per acre 


Yield per acre 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1,945 


1,142 


1,877 


1,423 


1,969 


1,032 


1,711 




1,835* 


1,151 



Winter emmer, introduced more recently into the United States, is of 
considerable promise in states where it is hardy. 30 

233. Emmer as a feed. — In composition emmer closely resembles oats. 
Like that grain it is somewhat bulky to use as the sole concentrate for 
fattening animals, and gives better results when mixed with corn or 
barley. (743) Tho its value is usually somewhat lower than that of 
corn, with corn silage and linseed meal, ground emmer proved equal to 
corn, pound for pound, with fattening steers in a trial at the South Da- 
kota Station. (743) With dairy cows and fattening pigs its value is 
somewhat less than that of corn. (582, 947) Thru the introduction of 
emmer, kafir, milo, and certain millets, all relatively new plants with 
us, the possibilities of the great plains region of America for the main- 
tenance of farm animals and the production of meat have been enor- 
mously increased. 

'"U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 466. 



CHAPTER X 

MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS, 
AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 

I. Rice and its By-products 

The production of rice, Oryza sativa, is steadily increasing in Louisi- 
ana, Texas, and Arkansas, where it already forms an important industry. 
In 1914 about 22,589,000 bushels of rice, over 95 per ct. of the entire crop 
of the United States, was produced in these states. 1 Like wheat, this 
cereal is used almost entirely for human food, only the by-products 
from the manufacture of table, or polished, rice being fed to farm 
animals. 

234. Rice and its by-products. — In preparing rough rice, often called 
paddy, for human food, first the hulls and next the bran, or outer skin 
of the kernel, are removed. The kernels are then "polished," both to 
separate the creamy outside layer of cells, rich in crude protein and fat, 
and to produce an attractive, pearly luster. The resulting floury par- 
ticles constitute rice polish. According to Fraps 2 of the Texas Station, 
a sack of rough rice, weighing 162 lbs., will yield about 100 lbs. of pol- 
ished rice, 6.3 lbs. of rice polish, 20.2 lbs. of rice bran, and 32.1 lbs. of 
hulls, with a wastage of 3.4 lbs. 

Bice hulls are tasteless, tough, and woody. They are heavily charged 
with silica, or sand, and have sharp, roughened, flinty edges and needle- 
like points which, not softening in the digestive tract, prove irritating 
and dangerous to the walls of the stomach and intestines. Because of 
authentic reports of vomiting and death with cattle fed rice hulls, they 
should never be fed to farm animals. 3 Yet rice hulls have been extensively 
employed by unscrupulous dealers for adulterating commercial feeding 
stuffs, and are sometimes ground and sold as "husk meal" or "Star 
bran. ' ' 

Rice bran, when pure, is composed of the outer layer of the rice ker- 
nel proper, together with the germs, and a small amount of hulls not 
separated in the milling process. This feed, when adulterated with hulls, 
is called "commercial bran." Unadulterated bran, which does not con- 
tain over 12 per ct. fiber, is a highly nutritious feed, as not enough hulls 
are present to be injurious. It contains about 11 per ct. fat, and approx- 
imately as much protein as barley or wheat, but less nitrogen-free extract. 
As rice oil, or fat, soon becomes rancid, the bran is frequently distasteful 
to animals. The Louisiana Station employed rice bran successfully as 
half the concentrates for horses and mules, and it was found satisfactory 

1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914. 2 Tex. Bui. 73. 3 La. Bui. 77. 

166 



MINOR CEREALS 167 

for fattening steers at the Texas Station. (745) Fed to dairy cows and 
swine in large amounts, even when not rancid, it injures the quality of 
milk and produces soft pork. (980) 

Rice polish, which has a feeding value equal to corn, carries slightly 
more crude protein and considerably more fat, but correspondingly less 
nitrogen-free extract. Its use in the arts removes it largely from the list 
of farm feeding stuffs. (745, 980) 

Only low-grade rough rice and hulled rice are commonly fed to stock. 
Dodson of the Louisiana Station 4 values rough rice at 7 and hulled rice 
at 16 per ct. more than corn. Hulled rice is the richest of all cereals in 
carbohydrates, but relatively low in crude protein and fat. Since no ill 
effects from the hulls have been known to follow the feeding of rough 
rice, it may replace corn in the rations of farm animals. On account of 
the hardness of the kernels it gives better results when ground. The 
Texas Station 5 found that ground damaged rice had about half the value 
of cottonseed meal for fattening steers. Red rice, a pest in rice fields, 
equals the cultivated grain in feeding value. (745) 

II. Sorghums and Millets 

Numberless millions of people in India, China, and Africa rely on the 
sorghums and millets for their bread. Church 6 tells us that 33,000,000 
acres of land in India are annually devoted to growing the millets and 
the sorghums including the kafirs, milos, etc. — a greater area, he re- 
ports, than is devoted to wheat, rice, and Indian corn combined. Ball 7 
writes that thruout Africa — on the dry plains, in the oases of the Sahara, 
on high plateaus, in mountain valleys, and in tropical jungles — the sor- 
ghums are the one ever-present crop. Their forms are as diverse as the 
conditions under which they grow, the plants ranging in height from 3 
to 20 feet, with heads of different shapes varying from 5 to 25 inches in 
length. 

The sorghums, Andropogon sorghum or Sorghum vulgare, vars., may 
be divided into two classes — the saccharine sorghums, having stems filled 
with sweet juices, and the non-saccharine varieties, with more pithy stems 
and juice sour or only slightly sweet. The Indian corn plant never gives 
satisfactory returns if once its growth is checked. The sorghums may 
cease growing and their leaves shrivel during periods of excessive heat 
and drought; yet when these conditions pass and the soil becomes moist 
again, they quickly resume growth. This quality gives to this group of 
plants great worth and vast importance as grain crops for the southern 
portion of the semi-arid plains region. Their value in this section is 
well shown by the fact that between 1899 and 1909 the acreage in the 
United States of kafir and milo grown for grain increased from 266,000 
to 1,635,000 acres. 

4 La. Planter, 44, 6, p. 92. "Food Grains in India, 1901. 

5 Tex. Bui. 86. 7 Yearbook, XJ. S. Dept. Agr., 1913. 



168 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

235. Grain sorghums. — The non-saccharine, or grain, sorghums include 
kafir, durra, milo, feterita, kaoliang, and the less important shallu. The 
ha firs are stout-stemmed, broad-leaved plants, having slightly sweet juice 
and long, erect, cylindrical heads carrying small, egg-shaped seeds. The 
true durras were the first grain sorghums introduced into the United 
States. They were never grown to any great extent as they have coarse 
steins, relatively few leaves, lodge readily, and sucker badly. The grain 
shatters easily and the pendent, or "goose-necked," heads render har- 
vesting difficult. 

The milos, sometimes classed under the durras, have few leaves com- 
pared with the kafirs, and hence are not as valuable for forage. They 
usually have short, thick heads with large, flat seeds. The heads are 
mostly goose-necked, but some strains have recently been developed in 
which nearly all the heads are erect. Feterita, or Sudan durra, has 
slender stems carrying more leaves than milo, but less than kafir, and 
erect heads bearing flattened seeds. 

The kaoliangs, early maturing sorghums from northern China, are 
slender, dry-stemmed plants, with loose, open, erect heads. Shallu, or 
' ' Egyptian wheat, ' ' is slender-stemmed, with low, spreading heads which 
shatter badly. Reports from various experiment stations show that 
shallu is of little value compared with the other sorghums. 

Most of the grain sorghum produced in the United States is grown in 
the southern part of the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, extending from southwestern Nebraska to northwestern Texas. A 
limited amount is also grown in sections of Arizona, Utah, and Cali- 
fornia. By selection and crossing, varieties of sorghum are being de- 
veloped which are suited to the various districts, especially dwarf strains 
which have erect heads that are easily harvested with the grain header, 
and which are early maturing, thereby escaping late summer droughts. 
Thru the development of early types the sorghums are being carried fur- 
ther north. Over much of the drier western portion of the grain-sor- 
ghum belt these crops are more sure, and, even on good soil, return larger 
yields than corn. 

On poor, thin uplands in central and eastern Kansas and Okla- 
homa the sorghums are also superior to corn. Churchill and Wright 8 of 
the Oklahoma Station report that during the 5 years, from 1909 to 1913, 
on soil underlaid by hardpan where the average yield of corn was only 
1 bushel per acre, kafir averaged 34.9 bushels. Even on better land in 
such districts it is advisable to replace some of the corn acreage with 
grain sorghum as an insurance against severe drought. Piper 9 states 
that the grain sorghums commonly yield 25 bushels per acre with 
maximums of 75 bushels for kafir, 46 for milo, and 80 for feterita. 

The customary basis for selling the seed of the grain sorghums is by 
the 56-lb. bushel, but, according to Churchill and Wright 10 of the Okla- 
homa Station, the usual weight is about 54 lbs. Kafir heads contain 
about 77 per ct. of grain and those of milo about 84 per ct. ; accordingly 

s Okla. Bui. 102. "Forage Plants, p. 273. 10 Okla. Bui. 102. 



MINOR CEREALS 169 

73 lbs. of head kafir and G6 lbs. of head milo are required for a bushel 
(56 lbs.) of grain. Ball 11 states that altho the percentage of grain in 
the entire crop varies widely with the season and thickness of stand, 
under ordinary conditions from 35 to 40 per ct. of the air-dry weight 
of a crop of milo and kaoliang and 25 per ct. of kafir will be grain. 

When cut for grain the crop should not be harvested until the seeds 
are well matured. Because the hard-coated seeds when apparently dry 
may contain much water, the grain sorghums are especially apt to heat 
in the bin unless precautions are taken. 

236. Grain sorghums as feeds. — The different sorghums are similar in 
composition, carrying about as much crude protein and nitrogen-free ex- 
tract as corn, but about 1.5 per ct. less fat. Properly supplemented 
with protein-rich feeds, they are excellent for all classes of animals. Tho 
less palatable than corn, their nutritive value ranges from fully equal 
to this grain to 15 per ct. less. (741-2, 853, 949-51) For horses, fatten- 
ing cattle, dairy cows, and pigs the grain is usually ground, being then 
called "chop. ' ' Grinding for sheep is not essential. Often the unthreshed 
heads are fed, or the forage carrying the heads is supplied, especially 
to idle horses, colts, and young stock. (481) On grinding the entire heads 
the product is called "head chop," which resembles corn-and-cob meal 
in composition. 

237. Kafir. — The kafirs lead in both grain and forage production in 
eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. This type does not sucker or produce un- 
desirable side branches, has erect, compact heads, and neither lodges nor 
shatters its grain. The most common type in the more humid districts 
is the Blackhull while farther west the Dwarf Blackhull and the White 
are recommended as their earliness enables them the better to evade 
drought. 12 Grown in regions of deficient rainfall, the average yield of 
kafir is not large. In good seasons and on fertile soil yields of 50 bushels 
per acre, and occasionally 75 bushels, are secured. Kafir grain, being as- 
tringent and constipating, is suited for feeding with alfalfa, clover, and 
other somewhat laxative roughages. (481, 583, 681, 741, 853, 949) 

238. Milo. — Next to kafir, milo is the most important of this class of 
plants. Grown but little in the extreme east of the grain belt, it outyields 
kafir in the more arid districts as it is earlier. According to Ball, 13 milo 
is somewhat superior to the kafirs as a feeding grain, and unlike the ka- 
firs, has a beneficial laxative effect on the bowels. (481, 742, 853, 950) 

239. Feterita. — This type of durra ripens with milo, but when both are 
planted late matures sooner. It yields as much grain as kafir, tho less 
forage, and is a most promising sorghum for the eastern portion of the 
grain sorghum belt. Unfortunately it stools badly and lodges easily after 
maturity. 14 (870, 951) 

240. Kaoliang. — These early-maturing sorghums are of much promise 
for the northern plains section where the other types will not mature. 
The kaoliangs compare favorably in yield of grain with the milos, and 

n U. S. Farmers' Bui. 448. 13 U. S. Farmers' Bui. 322. 

,: Kan. Bui. 198. "Okla. Bui. 102. 



170 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



are even better in severe drought. Hume and Champlin report that in 
1911 at the Highniore, South Dakota, Branch Station 15 when all the small 
grain crops were a failure because of drought, kaoliang yielded from 6 
to 11 bushels per acre, small tho promising yields. The forage of the 
kaoliangs is scanty and of poor quality, the stalks being pithy and the 
leaves few. In sections where they mature, kafir, milo, or feterita are to 
be pre ferret!. (951) 

241. Sweet sorghums.— The sweet sorghums, or sorghos, are forage 
rather than grain producers, and are therefore discussed more fully in 
Chapter XII. (308-9) Early varieties will mature wherever corn 
ripens. At the Wisconsin Station 10 the senior author secured 32 bushels 
weighing 53 lbs. each of amber cane seed per acre. Cook of the New 
Jersey Station 17 found amber cane seed about 10 per ct. less valuable 
than Indian corn for dairy cows. (584) For grain production sweet sor- 
ghum is surpassed by corn in the humid regions and by the grain sor- 
ghums in the plains districts. 

242. Broom corn. — In harvesting broom corn the heads are cut before 
the seed has fully matured, and the seed is removed from the brush be- 
fore it is thoroly dry. This seed has feeding value and may be saved by 
drying or ensiling or, as Miles is showed, by preserving in an earth- 
covered heap. 

243. Millets. — The millets chiefly grown in this country are: (1) the 
foxtail millets, Sctaria Italica spp., all resembling common foxtail or 
pigeon grass in appearance; and, (2) the broom corn, proso, or hog mil- 
lets, Panicum miliaceum spp., which have spreading or panicled heads, 
wide hairy leaves, and large seed. Other types used only for forage are 
mentioned in Chapter XIII. In humid regions millets are chiefly sown 
in early summer as catch crops, owing to the short period required for 
growth. In the northern plains district, where the growing season is too 
short for the sorghums, they are of increasing importance for grain pro- 
duction. Zavitz of the Ontario Agricultural College. 10 from 10-year plot 
tests with various types of foxtail millets, reports average yields per acre 
ranging from 33.8 to 49.3 bushels weighing 51 to 54.5 lbs. each. Hume 
and Champlin obtained an average of 16.4 bushels per acre with vari- 
ous types of proso millets in trials covering 6-7 years at the Highmore, 
South Dakota, Station, 20 and of 20.7 bushels for foxtail millets in trials 
during 6 years. Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station- 1 pro- 
duced 30 bushels of hog, or Black Veronesh millet, Panicum miliaceum, 
per acre. The ground grain proved satisfactory for fattening swine, tho 
for a given gain one-fifth more millet was required than of wheat or bar- 
ley. The carcasses of the millet-fed pigs were clothed with a pure white 
fat of superior quality. At the same Station 22 in the production of baby 



15 S. D. Bui. 135. 

"'Wis. Sta., Rpt. on Amber Cane, 1881. 

17 N. J. Rpt. 18S5. 

"Country Gentleman. March 23. 1876. 



,0 Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. 
OT S. D. Bui. 135. 
21 S. D. Bui. 83. 
-S. D. Bui. 97. 



OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 171 

beef somewhal more millet than corn was required for a given gain (744 
854, 952) 

111. Buckwheat and its By-products 

Tho rarely used for feeding stock, buckwheat has a fair value for such 
purpose, its nutrients running somewhat lower than those in the lead- 
ing cereals. (953) 

244. Buckwheat by-products.— The black, woody hulls of the buck- 
wheat grain. Fagopyrum esculentum, have little feeding value and should 
be used to give bulk or volume to the ration only when it cannot be other- 
wise secured. On the other hand, buckwheat middlings, that part of the 
kernel immediately under the hull, which is separated from the flour on 
milling, contain 28 per ct. crude protein and 7 per ct. fat, with little fiber, 
and hence have a high feeding value. The miller, desiring to dispose of 
as much of the hulls as possible, mixes them with the middlings to form 
buckwheat bran or feed. Woll 28 concludes that buckwheat feed, not over 
half of which is hulls, is worth about 20 per ct. less than wheat bran. 
Such feed carries about 15.7 per ct. protein and 24 per ct. fiber. The 
intelligent purchaser avoids the worthless hulls so far as he can, choos- 
ing instead the rich, floury middlings. Buckwheat by-products are nearly 
always used for feeding cows, rightly having the reputation of produc- 
ing a large flow of milk, but may be successfully fed in limited quantities 
to other farm animals. (595) The charge that buckwheat by-products 
make a white, tallowy butter and pork of low quality fails if they are 
not given in excess. When stored in bulk, buckwheat by-products are 
liable to heat unless first mixed with some light feed, like wheat bran. 
(953) 

1 V. Oil-bearing Seeds and their By-products 

The annual crop of cotton, Gossypium hirsutum, in the United States 
now amounts to over 14,000,000 bales of 500 lbs. each with not less than 
7,000,000 tons of cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of 
fiber, or lint, there are 2 lbs. of seed. Previous to 1860 the seed of 
the cotton plant was largely wasted by the planters, who often allowed 
it to rot near the gin house, ignorant or careless of its worth, while meat 
and other animal products which might have been produced from it were 
purchased at high cost from northern farmers. The utilization of the 
cotton seed and its products as food for man and beast furnishes a strik- 
ing example of what science is accomplishing for agriculture. 

According to Burkett and Poe. 24 1 ton of cotton seed yields approxi- 
mately : 

Linters, or short fiber 27 pounds 

Hulls 841 pounds 

Cake, or meal 732 pounds 

Crude oil 280 pounds 

Loss, etc 120 p ounds 

Total 2000 pounds 

"Wis. Cir. 42. "Cotton, its Cultivation, etc. 



172 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

245. Cotton seed. — The cotton seed carries about 19 per ct. fat, or oil, 
and nearly 20 per ct. crude protein. Formerly much seed was fed in the 
South, especially to steers and dairy cattle. Now little is fed before the 
oil is extracted, both on account of the value of the oil and because cotton- 
seed meal usually gives better results. Burns of the Texas Station 25 found 
that 205 lbs. of cotton seed fed with cottonseed hulls and kafir grain was 
not equal to 100 lbs. of cottonseed meal for fattening steers, while Ben- 
nett 20 at the Arkansas Station found 44 lbs. of meal and 59 lbs. of hulls 
fed with cowpea hay fully equal to 100 lbs. of seed for steers. Owing 
to the high oil content, cotton seed sometimes has an unduly laxative 
effect. (752) Connell and Carson of the Texas Station 27 report that 
boiled or roasted seed produced larger gains and was more palatable 
and less laxative, but owing to the cost of preparation the gains were 
more expensive. "Wet, moldy cotton seed, or that which has heated, 
should never be fed. (598) 

246. Cottonseed cake and meal. — At the oil mills the leathery hulls of 
the cotton seed, which are covered with short lint, are cut by machinery, 
and the oily kernels set free. These kernels are crushed, heated, placed 
between cloths, and subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the oil. 
The residue is a hard, yellowish, board-like cake about 1 inch thick, 1 ft. 
wide, and 2 ft. long. For the trade in the eastern and central states the 
cake is generally ground to a fine meal, for the western trade it is often 
broken into pieces of pea or nut size for cattle and coarsely ground for 
sheep, while the export cake is commonly left whole. For feeding out of 
doors the broken cake is preferable to meal as it is not scattered by the 
wind. Unadulterated cottonseed meal of good quality should have a 
light yellow color and a sharp, nutty odor. A dark or dull color may be 
due to age, to adulteration with hulls, to overheating during the cook- 
ing process, or to fermentation — all of which impair its feeding value. 28 

Cottonseed meal is one of the richest of all feeds in protein and carries 
over 8 per ct. of fat. The protein and fiber content vary considerably, 
depending chiefly on how thoroly the hulls are removed from the meal. 
The value of fresh and wholesome meal depends on the percentage of 
protein it contains ; manufacturers and feed control officials have there- 
fore agreed oirthe following classification of products : 

Choice cottonseed meal must be perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, not brown 
or reddish, free from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41 per ct. of crude protein. 

Prime cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and must 
contain at least 38 .6 per ct. of crude protein. 

Good cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright m color, and must 
contain at least 36 per ct. of crude protein. ; 

Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, containing less 
than 36 per ct. crude protein. 

Owing to its wide variation in composition, cottonseed meal should be 
purchased on guarantee whenever possible. 

^Tex. Bui. 110. 26 Ark. Bui. 52. 27 Tex. Bui. 27. "Hills, Vt. Rpt. 1909. 



OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 173 

247. Cottonseed feed. — On northern markets cottonseed feed, which 
may consist largely of hulls, is often sold for but a few dollars per ton 
less than choice cottonseed meal. By appearance alone it is impossible 
to distinguish good cottonseed meal from finely ground cottonseed feed. 
Cottonseed feed may be an entirely legitimate product, for it is impos- 
sible to separate thoroly the hulls of certain kinds of cotton seed from 
the kernels. However, such feed should be bought at a price correspond- 
ing to its crude-protein content. 

In case of doubt as to purity, the following simple test will show the 
approximate amount of hulls present in cottonseed meal. 29 

Place a teaspoonful of the meal (do not use more) in a tumbler and pour over it 
from 1 .5 to 2 ounces of hot water. Stir the mass till it is thoroly wet and all the particles 
are floating. Allow it to settle for 5 to 10 seconds and pour off the liquid. If there has 
settled out in this time a large amount of fine, brown sediment which is noticeably 
darker than the fine yellow meal and which keeps settling out on repeated treatments 
with hot water, the product is low grade. All meals contain small quantities of hulls 
and will show dark specks when thus tested, but the results are striking when pure meal 
is compared with cottonseed feed. 

248. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — Cold-pressed cottonseed cake, or 
"caddo" cake, is produced by subjecting the entire uncrushed, unheated 
seed to great pressure. In the residual cake there is a larger proportion 
of hull to meal than in normal cake, with correspondingly lower feeding 
value. This product is usually sold in nut or pea size but is sometimes 
ground to a meal. The crude-protein content of cold-pressed cake is a 
reliable guide to its feeding value. (598, 751) 

249. The poison of cotton seed. — Practical experience and trials at the 
experiment stations unite in showing that cotton seed or cottonseed cake 
or meal is not always a safe feed. After a period of about 100 days 
steers closely confined and heavily fed on meal often show a staggering 
gait, some become blind, and death frequently ends their distress. The 
Iowa Station 30 reports the death of 3 steers, and blindness in others when 
2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was fed with a heavy allowance of corn-and- 
cob meal. Hunt of the Pennsylvania Station 31 cites the death of 2 calves 
out of 3, fed a ration of 1 lb. of cottonseed meal with 16 lbs. of skim milk. 
Emery of the North Carolina Station 32 states that 2 calves died follow- 
ing the use of 0.25 to 0.5 lb. of cottonseed meal daily with skim milk. 
Grips 33 reports the death of 3 out of 8 cattle from eating moldy cotton- 
seed cake. 

Cottonseed meal is often fatal to swine. Pigs getting as much as one- 
third of their concentrates in the form of cottonseed meal thrive at first, 
but after 5 or 6 weeks, sometimes earlier, they frequently show derange- 
ment and may die. Restricting the allowance of meal, keeping the ani- 
mals on pasture, supplying succulent feeds, or souring the feed may help, 
but no uniformly successful method of feeding cottonseed meal to swine 
has yet been found. 

"Vt. Bui. 101. 3f 'Iowa Bui. 66. :1 Penn. Bui. 17. 32 N. C. Bui. 109. 

33 Arch. Wis. u. Prakt. Thierheilk.. 14, 1886, p. 74. 



174 FEEDS AND FEEDINQ 

Numerous efforts have been made during the past 20 years to deter- 
mine the cause of the poisonous effect of cottonseed meal. The harm has 
been variously ascribed to the lint, the oil, the high protein content, to 
a poisonous albumin or alkaloid, to cholin and betaine, to resin present 
in the meal, to decomposition products, and to salts of pyrophosphoric 
acid. Further work shows that the poisonous effects are not due to any 
of these causes. Withers of the North Carolina Station 34 has recently 
attributed the poisonous quality to some substance which withdraws iron 
from the hemoglobin of the blood, thereby diminishing its power of 
carrying oxygen, which results in death. (88) He has therefore tried 
the effect of adding to the food a soluble iron salt (iron sulfate, or cop- 
peras) as an antidote. In some trials in this country feeding copperas 
has seemed to prevent poisoning, but in other instances pigs have died 
even when fed copperas with the cottonseed meal. 

250. Rational use of cottonseed meal and cake. — Cottonseed meal is 
one of the most valuable of feeds when rationally fed, often being the 
cheapest available source of protein, and thru it, of nitrogen for main- 
taining soil fertility. (435) The amounts which may be safely fed to 
each kind of stock are fully discussed in the respective chapters of Part 
III. The most extensive use of cottonseed meal is by dairymen, for com- 
paratively heavy allowances may be fed to milch cows without harm. 
(596) Fed in large amount, cotton seed or cottonseed meal produces 
hard, tallowy butter, light in color and poor in flavor. A limited quan- 
tity has little effect on the butter and is even helpful with cows whose 
milk produces a soft butter. 

For fattening steers and sheep cottonseed meal, in limited amount, 
is one of the most satisfactory of nitrogenous supplements. (750, 855) 
Great numbers of steers are fattened at the oil-mill factories, often on 
a ration of 6 to 8 lbs. of cottonseed meal with cottonseed hulls or corn 
silage for roughage. Harrington and Adriance at the Texas Station 35 
found that cotton seed produced harder fat than corn, the kidney, caul, 
and body fat of steers fed cotton seed having melting points 4.1°, 3.2°, 
and 8.7° C. higher, respectively, than the corresponding fats of corn- 
fed steers. The effect was even more marked in the case of sheep. In 
restricted amounts, mixed preferably with bulky feed, cottonseed meal 
has been fed to horses and mules with entire success. (490) Altho cotton- 
seed meal is especially poisonous to swine, some feeders, guided by ex- 
perience, use it in small amounts and for short periods with little loss. 
(974) Calves are easily affected by its poisonous properties. (681) 

Cottonseed meal having a dull color due to improper storage, and that 
from musty and fermented seed should never be used for feeding stock. 
Cottonseed meal does not have the beneficial laxative effect of linseed 
meal, but instead is somewhat constipating. Much more care must be 
used in feeding it than in using linseed meal, but when carefully fed in 
proper combination with other feeds as good results may be secured with 

34 N. C. Cir. 5; Jour. Biol. Chem. 14. 1913, pp. 53-58. ^Tex. Bui. 29. 



OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 175 

horses, dairy cows, and fattening cattle and sheep as when linseed meal 
is employed. This most nutritious feed, the richest in fertilizing con- 
stituents of all our common feeding stuffs of plant origin, is often spread 
directly on the land as a fertilizer. Obviously, its full value can be real- 
ized only when the meal is first fed to animals and the resulting manure 
applied to the soil. (438) With increasing knowledge of the usefulness 
of this feed, it is to be hoped that instead of annually exporting one- 
fourth the cottonseed cake and meal produced to other countries, as is 
now done, all will be fed on American farms. 

251. Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls, which contain somewhat less 
digestible nutrients than oat straw, are extensively employed in the South 
as roughage for cattle feeding. The hulls are low in crude protein, of 
which but a small part is digestible. With only 0.3 lb. of digestible crude 
protein in 100 lbs. the hulls have the extraordinarily wide nutritive ratio 
of 1 : 122, the widest of any common feeding stuff. Obviously they should 
be used with feeds which are rich in protein. Fed with cottonseed meal 
to steers by Willson at the Tennessee Station, 36 cottonseed hulls pro- 
duced somewhat lower gains than corn silage, 100 lbs. of hulls replacing 
170 lbs. of corn silage. (772) Because of their low palatability and di- 
gestibility cottonseed hulls are not well suited to dairy cows, corn stover 
having a higher feeding value. (628) 

Cottonseed hulls are usually fuzzy, due to short lint which remains on 
the seed. Sometimes this lint is removed from the seed at the oil-mills 
for paper making and other purposes and the hulls from such seed 
ground, being then called cottonseed hull bran. Tho finely ground, 
the value of the product is not appreciably greater than that of ordinary 
hulls. 

252. Flax seed. — The average production in the United States of seed 
from the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum, from 1909 to 1914 was about 
18,847,000 bushels of 56 lbs., over 95 per ct. of which was grown in Min- 
nesota, the Dakotas, and Montana. 37 The reserve building material is 
stored in the flax seed largely as oil and pentosans, instead of as starch, 
which most seeds carry, no starch grains being found in well-matured 
flax seeds. On account of the high commercial value of the oil it con- 
tains, flax seed is rarely used for feeding stock other than calves. (681, 
683) 

The oil of the flax seed is either extracted by the "old process," thru 
crushing and pressure as in the production of cottonseed oil, or it is 
dissolved out of the crushed seed Avith naphtha, the residue in either case 
being variously termed linseed oil meal, linseed meal, or simply oil meal. 
Pure linseed meal should contain no screenings. In the United States 
nearly all the linseed oil meal is made by the old process. 

According to Woll, 38 in the manufacture of new-process oil meal the 
crushed and heated seed is placed in large cylinders or percolators, and 
naphtha poured over the mass. On draining out at the bottom the naph- 

30 Tenn. Bui. 104. 37 U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1914. ^Wis. Rpt. 1895. 



176 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

tha carries with it the dissolved oil. After repeated extractions steam is 
let into the percolator, and the naphtha remaining is completely driven 
off as vapor, leaving no odor of naphtha on the residue, which is known 
as "new-process" linseed oil meal. Woll gives the following method of 
ascertaining whether oil meal is new- or old-process : ' ' Pulverize a small 
quantity of the meal and put a level tablespoonf ul of it into a tumbler : 
then add 10 tablespoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal, stir thoroly 
and leave to settle. If the meal is new-process, it will settle in the course 
of an hour and will leave half of the water clear on top." Old-process 
meal will remain jelly-like. Recent investigations have shown that in 
some instances flax seed may contain a compound which, when acted up- 
on by an enzyme in the seeds yields the poison, prussic acid. This enzyme 
is destroyed by the heat to which the ground flax seed is ordinarily sub- 
jected in both the old and the new process of oil extraction. In view of 
this and bearing in mind that linseed meal and cake have been fed on 
vast numbers of farms in this country and abroad with the best of re- 
sults, we may still consider these feeds among the safest and most bene- 
ficial of concentrates. In making gruel or mash from untreated flax seed, 
it is advisable to use boiling water and keep the mass hot an hour or 
two, to destroy any prussic-acid-forming enzyme in the seed. 

253. Old- and new-process oil meal. — Since the oil is extracted much 
more thoroly from the flax seed by the new process, new-process meal 
carries an average of 3.0 per ct. more crude protein than old-process 
meal, but only about 2.9 per ct. of oil or fat. By artificial digestion trials 
with old- and new-process oil meal Woll 30 found that 94 per ct. of the 
crude protein in the old-process and 84 per ct. of that in the new-process 
oil meal was digestible. The lower digestibility of the new-process meal 
is doubtless due to the use of steam for driving off the naphtha, since 
cooking lowers the digestibility of many crude protein-rich foods. (83) 
Owing to its higher total crude-protein content the new-process meal, 
however, contains somewhat more digestible crude protein. 

254. Linseed meal as a feed. — There is no more healthful feed for 
limited use with all farm animals than linseed oil cake or oil meal, with 
its rich store of crude protein, slightly laxative oil, and its mucilaginous, 
soothing properties. Its judicious use is soon apparent in the pliable 
skin, the sleek, oily coat, and the good handling quality of the flesh of 
animals receiving it. It is therefore most useful as a conditioner for 
run-down animals. A small amount of linseed meal is helpful in the 
rations for horses and dairy cows. (489) Opposite in effect to cottonseed 
meal, linseed meal tends to produce soft butter. (599) Fed to fattening 
cattle, sheep, or swine, the meal regulates the system and helps to ward off 
ill effects from the continued heavy use of concentrates. Rich in protein 
and all the necessary mineral elements, linseed meal is well suited to 
growing animals, ground flax seed or linseed meal being quite generally 
used for calves by progressive dairymen. Owing to its popularity lin- 
seed meal is often expensive compared with other protein-rich feeds and 

M Wis. Rpt. 1895. 



OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 177 

it is then not economical to employ it as the chief source of protein in 
the ration, but to restrict its use to amounts sufficient to produce the de- 
sired tonic and regulative effects. (753, 855, 973) 

Unfortunately the American farmer usually insists that oil cake be 
ground to a meal. Except where it is desirable to mix the meal thoroly 
with other concentrates, or feed it as a slop to pigs, he should adopt the 
wiser practice of European farmers, who buy oil cake in slab form and 
reduce it in cake mills to the size of hickory nuts or smaller just before 
feeding, or he should purchase the cake which has been ground to nut or 
pea size. In such form this feed is more palatable, and there is no chance 
for adulteration. 

255. Other flax by-products. — Flax feed consists of flax screenings and 
is sometimes sold as such, but more often is used as a component of mixed 
feeds. Its composition and character are uncertain, depending on the 
relative amounts of inferior flax seed, weed seeds, and other refuse, as 
stalks, pods, and leaves present. The material should be avoided unless 
so finely ground as to crush all foul seeds. Since it contains only half 
as much crude protein as linseed meal and often has a decidedly bitter 
taste, due to the weed seeds present, flax feed is rarely economical at 
the prices asked. 40 It is sometimes sold as flax flakes, or under the mis- 
leading name "linomeal. " 

Flax plant by-product, sometimes incorrectly called "flax bran," is 
that portion of the flax plant remaining after the seed has been sep- 
arated, together with much of the fiber of the stem. It consists of flax 
pods, broken and immature flax seeds, and the bark and other portions 
of the stems. It is seldom sold as such, but is used in certain proprietary 
feeds. Smith of the Massachusetts Station 41 concludes that such material 
is not worth to the Massachusetts farmer the cost of the freight from the 
states where it is produced. 

Unscreened flax oil-feed, or "laxo" cake meal, is the by-product ob- 
tained in extracting the oil from unscreened flax seed. The value is lower 
than that of linseed meal, depending on the proportion of screenings 
present. 

256. Soybean. — The soybean, Glycine hispida, is one of the most im- 
portant agricultural plants of northern China and Japan. So great is 
the production of this seed, or grain, in Manchuria that in 1908 over 
1,500,000 tons of soybeans were shipped from 3 ports, chiefly to Europe. 
The bean-like seeds of the soybean, which carry from 16 to 21 per ct. 
of oil, are used for human food and for feeding animals. The oil is used 
for human food and in the arts, and the resulting soybean meal, is em- 
ployed as a feed for animals and also for fertilizing the land, the same as 
cottonseed meal. This plant produces the largest yield of seed of any 
legume suited to temperate climates, but at the present time is grown in 
this country chiefly for forage. Soybeans are adapted to the same range 
of climate as corn, early varieties having been developed that ripen seed 
wherever corn will mature. On account of their resistance to drought 

40 Mass. Buls. 128, 132; Vt. Buls. 104, 133, 144. "Mass. Bui. 136. 



178 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

they are especially well suited to light, sandy soils. When grown for seed 
the yield commonly varies from 12 to 40 bushels per acre, equaling corn 
on poor soil in the Gulf states. 

The seeds of the soybean are the richest in crude protein of all the 
various seeds used for feed, besides being rich in oil. Being highly di- 
gestible, they contain nearly as much digestible crude protein and con- 
siderably more digestible fat than linseed meal. Because of the demands 
for seed, soybeans have not yet been extensively employed in this coun- 
try for feeding live stock. For dairy cows soybeans are slightly superior 
to cottonseed meal, but as they cause soft butter they should be fed spar- 
ingly. (600) For fattening cattle soybeans are only slightly inferior to 
cottonseed meal. (754-5) Rich in protein and mineral matter, they are 
well suited to growing animals, equal parts of soybeans and shelled corn 
proving superior for lambs to equal parts of oats and corn in a trial by 
Humphrey and Kleinheinz at the Wisconsin Station. 42 (856) Owing to 
their richness in protein, soybeans should always be used in combination 
with carbonaceous concentrates. The seed should be ground for horses 
and cattle, but this is unnecessary for sheep and pigs. In the South pigs 
are often grazed on soybeans when nearly mature, thus saving the har- 
vesting cost. (989) The merits of this plant for forage are discussed in 
Chapter XIV. (358) No other plant so little grown in the United States 
at this time promises so much to agriculture as the soybean, which not 
only yields protein-rich seed and forage but builds up the nitrogen con- 
tent of the soil. 

257. Soybean cake or meal. — The residue after the oil has been extracted 
from soybeans carries as much digestible protein as choice cottonseed 
meal, and but slightly less digestible carbohydrates and fat. During re- 
cent years a considerable amount has been imported to the Pacific Coast 
states from the Orient, for feeding poultry and dairy cattle. In Europe 
the unground cake is used and in this country the meal. Tho high in 
price, soybean meal is greatly esteemed by western dairymen and is often 
fed in large amounts to cows on official tests. (601) 

258. The Peanut and its by-products. — The peanut, or earth nut, Arachis 
hypogaea, called "pindar" or "goober" in the South, is of growing im- 
portance for stock feeding in the southern states. The underground seeds, 
or nuts, are commonly harvested by turning swine into the fields when 
the seeds are ripe, and allowing them to feed at will. While a heavy 
allowance of peanuts produces soft fat and inferior pork, entirely satis- 
factory ham and bacon are produced when pigs are fed partially on pea- 
nuts. (979) On exposure to the air, shelled peanuts soon become rancid. 
The vines with the nuts attached may be gathered and cured into a nu- 
tritious, palatable hay useful with all kinds of farm stock. The use of 
this plant for stock feeding should be vastly extended thruout the South. 
(362) 

Peanut meal or cake, the by-product resulting from the manufacture 
of oil from the peanut, is a common feed in Europe where it has given 
"Wis. Rpt. 1905. 



OIL-FREE LEGUMINOUS SEEDS 179 

good results with all classes of stock. 43 Meal from hulled peanuts con- 
tains over 47 per ct. crude protein, and is thus more valuable than choice 
cottonseed meal. But little peanut meal is sold in the United States and 
that which is sold is chiefly from unhulled nuts, containing about 28 per 
ct. crude protein and 23 per ct. fiber. 

Peanut hulls, which accumulate in great quantities at the factories, are 
sometimes ground and used for adulterating feeding stuffs. This ma- 
terial, sometimes wrongly called "peanut bran," is over half fiber and 
less valuable than common straw. 

259. Sunflower seed and oil cake, Helianthus annuus. — The sunflower 
is grown in Russia on a commercial scale, one variety with small seeds pro- 
ducing an oil which serves as a substitute for other vegetable oils. The 
large seeds of another variety are consumed as a dainty by the people. 
Tests of sunflowers in 5 sections of North Carolina 44 showed an average 
yield of 65 bushels of seed per acre, carrying about 21 per ct. oil. In 
plot tests covering 15 years at the Ontario Agricultural College, Zavitz 45 
obtained an average yield per acre of 72.8 bushels of sunflower seed, 
weighing 20 lbs. per bushel. Despite these large yields, corn produced 
about as much digestible crude protein and over twice as much total di- 
gestible nutrients per acre in grain alone, without considering the value 
of the stover. Sunflowers proved hardy and produced good returns when 
many other crops failed. 

Oil cake from sunflower seed has proved a satisfactory feed for all 
kinds of stock in Europe. Cake from well-hulled seed contains about 
as much crude protein as linseed meal, but has somewhat more fiber. 
(603) 

260. Cocoanut meal. — The residue in the manufacture of oil from the 
cocoanut, Cocos nucifera, known as cocoanut meal, is lower in crude pro- 
tein than the oil meals previously discussed but it contains somewhat 
more crude protein than wheat bran and much more fat and has a higher 
feeding value. It is used to some extent by dairymen in the Pacific Coast 
states and produces butter of good quality and firmness, therefore being 
well adapted for summer feeding. (602) European experience shows 
that cocoanut meal may be fed with success to horses, sheep, and swine. 
(491) On account of its tendency to turn rancid it can be kept but a 
few weeks in warm weather. 



V. Oil-free Leguminous Seeds 

261. The Canada field pea, Pisum sativum. — The common field or Can- 
ada pea succeeds best where the spring and summer heat is moderate, as 
in Canada, the northern states, and in several of the larger Rocky Moun- 
tain valleys. No other widely known grain plant of equal possibilities 
has been so generally neglected by the farmers of the northern United 
States. Zavitz 46 of the Ontario Agricultural College reports an average 

"Pott, Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, pp. 82-96. <5 Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. 

"N. C. Bui. 90b. 40 Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. 



180 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

yield of 30 bushels per acre for 8 varieties of field peas in plot tests cov- 
ering 14 years. 

The field pea grain contains twice as much crude protein as the ce- 
reals and is high in phosphorus and potash. Combined with corn, peas 
may form as much as one-half the concentrates for dairy cows. They are 
relished by horses, and are eminently suitable for sheep and lamb feed- 
ing, their culture forming the basis for an important sheep-feeding 
industry in Colorado. (856) Peas, wheat bran, and corn form an excel- 
lent ration for brood sows and growing swine, proving especially useful 
in building the body framework and preparing the animals for fatten- 
ing. (975, 1013) 

262. Cowpea, Vigna catjang. — The cowpea, a bean-like plant from 
India and China, now holds an important place in southern agricul- 
ture because of its large yield of forage. The early varieties grow well 
as far north as New Jersey and Illinois. The seed pods of the cowpea 
ripen unevenly, necessitating hand gathering. For this reason the crop 
is mostly used for hay, silage, and grazing. (357) In composition the 
cowpea seed is similar to the field pea, with only about 4 per ct. fiber. Suc- 
cessful trials are reported in which cowpeas formed a part of the ration 
for horses, fattening steers, and pigs. (755, 978) In the South cowpea 
vines carrying ripe seed furnish one of the best grazing crops for pigs. 

263. The common field bean, Phascolus vulgaris. — Many varieties of the 
common field bean are grown in this country for human food. Beans 
damaged by wet are used for animal feeding. Shaw and Anderson of the 
Michigan Station 47 estimate the cull beans of Michigan at about 100,000 
bushels annually. Cull beans are fed whole in large quantities to 
sheep, producing a solid flesh of good quality. For swine, beans should 
be cooked in salted water and fed in combination with corn, barley, etc. ; 
fed alone they produce soft pork and lard with a low melting point. 
(976) 

264. Horse bean, Vicia faba. — The horse bean is used in England for 
feeding stock, especially horses. This legume grows fairly well in some 
parts of Canada, but has never proved a success in the United States. 
(485) 

"Mich. Bui. 243. 



CHAPTER XI 

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES— FEEDING STUFFS CON- 
TROL— CONDIMENTAL FOODS 

I. Cow's Milk and its By-products 

As we have seen (115), milk contains an adequate supply of all the 
nutrients necessary to sustain the life of young animals. Milk and dairy 
by-products are almost wholly digestible and thus have high feeding 
value, considering the amount of dry matter they contain. Furthermore, 
the proteins of milk, which are well balanced in composition, have a 
greater efficiency for growth than those of any of the grains. (118) 

265. Whole milk. — On account of the value of whole cow's milk, it is 
rarely fed to stock, except to calves for the first 4 to 6 weeks after birth. 
(679) One should not hesitate to employ whole milk when needed in 
rearing an orphan foal or lamb (521, 891), and young stock being pre- 
pared for exhibition can be forced ahead rapidly by its judicious use. 

Whole milk usually contains from 2 to 3 per ct. of casein, 0.4 to 0.9 
per ct. albumin and traces of other proteins. It carries from 4 to 5 
per ct. of milk sugar, which is only slightly sweet, is much less soluble 
than cane sugar, and has about the same feeding value as starch. When 
milk sours, some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid, which curdles the 
casein. This fermentation ceases when about 0.8 per ct. of acid has de- 
veloped, so that in sour milk usually most of the sugar is still unchanged. 
As is shown later (551-5), the percentage of fat varies widely depending 
on individuality, breed, and the portion of the milk drawn, the strippings 
often containing 10 times as much fat as the first-drawn milk. 

266. Skim milk. — Because of the protein and ash it carries, skim milk 
is of high value for building the muscles and bony framework of young 
animals. Skim milk from centrifugal separators contains about 3.8 per 
ct. crude protein, 5.2 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, which in sweet milk 
is practically all milk sugar, and 0.1 to 0.2 per ct. fat. It is thus a highly 
nitrogenous feed, having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 1.5, and should hence be 
supplemented by carbonaceous concentrates. Skim milk is of the great- 
est use for feeding young animals when it comes sweet and yet warm 
from the farm separator. 

The experiments of Beach, already described (117), show that with 
calves, lambs, and pigs, skim milk is more valuable per pound of dry 
matter than is whole milk rich in fat. Dairymen have found that with 
care and judgment they can raise just as thrifty calves when whole milk 
is gradually replaced by skim milk during the first 4 to 5 weeks, only 
skim milk being given thereafter, as when the supply of expensive whole 

181 



182 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

milk is continued longer. (678-94) For swine of all ages, and especially 
for young pigs, skim milk is unsurpassed as a supplement to the car- 
bonaceous grains. (957-60) For these animals, from 500 to 600 lbs. of 
skim milk, properly combined with concentrates, has a value equal to 
100 lbs. of grain. This dairy by-product is also excellent for foals which 
do not secure enough milk from their mothers, and for poultry. (521) 
When other animals are not available to consume all the milk it may be 
profitably fed to horses. (607) 

267. Buttermilk. — This by-product differs little from skim milk in 
composition, tho usually somewhat richer in fat. Trials have shown 
that it has substantially the same value as skim milk for pigs. (962) 
Some feeders use buttermilk successfully in rearing calves, especially 
after they are well started in growth. The effort will probably end in 
failure, however, unless the calves are gradually accustomed to it, and 
extreme cleanliness is practiced. (695) In eastern Prussia and in Hol- 
stein-Friesia suckling foals are fed buttermilk. 1 Creameries often dilute 
buttermilk with water, thereby reducing its value. If allowed to fer- 
ment in dirty tanks it is a dangerous feed. 

268. Whey. — In the manufacture of cheese practically all the casein 
and most of the fat go into the cheese, leaving in the whey the milk 
sugar, the albumin, and a large part of the ash. Whey is more watery 
in composition than skim milk, containing only about 6.6 per ct. dry 
matter. It contains about 4.8 per ct. milk sugar and 0.3 per ct. fat, 
with only 0.8 per ct. protein, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 6.8, much wider 
than that of skim milk. Unlike skim milk and buttermilk, whey should 
therefore be fed with protein-rich feeds. Skimmed whey will have its 
value correspondingly reduced. Whey is usually fed to pigs, for which 
it has about half the value of skim milk. (963) At the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College, 2 Day secured as good results with whey, somewhat 
soured, as with sweet whey. The feeder should not conclude from this 
that decomposing whey held in filthy vessels is a suitable feed for stock. 
Whey at best is a poor feed for calves and can be successfully used only 
with the utmost care and when fed as fresh as possible. (587) 

269. Spreading disease thru dairy by-products. — Since milk from differ- 
ent farms is mixed at the creamery and cheese factory, the germs' of 
bovine tuberculosis and other diseases may be widely spread from a dis- 
eased herd in the skim milk, buttermilk, or whey. The readiness with 
which such infection may occur is shown by a trial of Kennedy, Robbins, 
and Bouska at the Iowa Station. 3 Forty pigs, believed to be free from 
tuberculosis, were divided into 4 lots. Two lots were kept on separate 
pastures and 2 in dry yards. Corn and creamery skim milk which had 
been pasteurized to destroy all disease germs were fed to all alike. The 
milk of one lot on pasture and one lot in the yard was, before feeding, 
infected with the germs of tuberculosis. When the pigs were slaughtered 
at the end of 196 days it was found that all that had been fed on infected 

'Pott, Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 475. 3 Iowa Bui. 92. 

-Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1896. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 183 

milk, 20 in number, were tuberculous. Of those not given infected milk, 
2 proved tuberculous and 18 were free from the disease. 

Since the germs of tuberculosis are killed by pasteurizing the milk at 
a temperature of ISO F., this simple precaution will remove danger 
from this source. The pasteurized product also keeps better and is less 
likely to produce scours. This practice is likewise advantageous to the 
factories, for the milk cans may be more readily kept in good condition 
and the quality of the milk delivered at the factory will thereby be im- 
proved. Careful farmers should insist that skim milk, buttermilk, and 
whey be thoroly pasteurized at the factory, a practice required by law in 
Denmark and followed by many creameries in this country. (957) 



II. Packing House By-products 

The packing houses now furnish to the feeder great quantities of by- 
products, including tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap, dried blood, and 
meat-and-bone meal. These are usually extremely rich in protein which 
is well balanced in composition and highly digestible. Most of them are 
also rich in lime and phosphoric acid, since they contain more or less 
bone. When fed in proper combination with other feeds, animals rarely 
object to these by-products. Owing to the high prices which these con- 
centrated feeds command, the feeder should understand their nature and 
how they must be fed to secure the best returns. 

270. Tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap. — At the packing plants the 
fresh meat scraps, fat trimmings, and scrap bones are thoroly cooked in 
steel tanks by steam under pressure, which separates the fat. After the 
steam has been turned off and the mass has settled, the fat, which is yet 
liquid, is drawn off. The residue is then dried, being agitated mean- 
while, and after cooling is ground to a fine meal. The resultant product, 
sold as tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap, contains from 40 to 60 per 
ct. or more of crude protein and from 1 to 10 per ct. of fat. The vari- 
ation in content of crude protein is due principally to differences in the 
amount .of bone present. Owing to the wide range in crude protein, and 
fat content, these feeds should always be purchased on guarantee of com- 
position. Commonly the value will depend on the percentage of pro- 
tein, for in case an additional supply of lime and phosphoric acid is 
needed, it may be furnished cheaply in ground rock phosphate. (100) 

Since tankage and meat meal are in part produced from the carcasses of 
diseased animals, the question arises whether they may not carry disease 
to animals fed on them. Mohler and "Washburn, 4 who have studied the 
matter, write: "As tankage is thoroly steam-cooked under pressure it 
comes out a sterilized product, and owing to its dryness there is little dan- 
ger of infection. ' ' None of the many stations that have fed tankage have 
reported any trouble of such nature. These by-products are generally fed 
to swine and poultry, ranking next to skim milk and buttermilk as nitrog- 
enous supplements for these animals. (964-7) Mixed with other feeds, 

4 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Cir. 144. 



184 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

they may be fed to horses, cattle, or sheep. (491, 608, 856) "When tank- 
age, or meat meal, contains a large amount of bone it should be termed 
meat-and-bone meal. This product is used chiefly for feeding poultry. 

271. Blood meal. — Blood meal, also called blood flour or dried blood, 
is the richest in protein of all the packing house by-products, usually 
carrying over 80 per ct. crude protein. As it contains no bone it is low- 
in ash compared with tankage. Dried blood is particularly useful with 
young pigs and calves, as a skim milk substitute or for sickly animals. 
(968, 684) Its usual high price stands in the way of its common use 
for other animals. Lindsey 6 of the Massachusetts Station found that 1 
to 2 lbs. of dried blood per head daily mixed with other concentrates 
was satisfactory for dairy cows. (608) It has also been fed with success 
to horses and sheep. (491, 856) 

272. Dried fish ; fish meal. — Along the coasts of Europe the waste parts 
of fish, as well as entire fishes not used for human food, are fed in dried 
form to animals. Speir of Scotland reports no bad influence on milk 
when reasonable quantities of dried fish are fed to dairy cows. Nilson 7 
found that 80 parts of herring cake could replace 100 parts of linseed 
cake for cow r s. The better grades of dried fish meal, which resemble 
meat meal in composition, should be used for feeding farm animals. (608) 

273. Bone meal. — Where rations are deficient in lime and phosphoric 
acid, needed in especially large amounts by growing animals and those 
producing milk (119, 150), these mineral constituents may be supplied 
in the form of bone meal, also called ground bone. Ground rock phos- 
phate is, however, usually a cheaper and probably just as effective a 
mineral supplement. 

III. Sugae Factory By-products 

In the manufacture of beet sugar, which constitutes over 70 per ct. of 
the sugar now manufactured in this country, the sugar beets are first 
washed and then cut into long V-shaped strips. The juice is extracted 
from these strips by means of warm water, leaving the by-product 
known as wet beet pulp. The juice is next purified by means of lime 
and in some cases also by sulphur dioxid, and evaporated under reduced 
pressure until the sugar crystallizes. The grains of sugar are then sep- 
arated from the residual molasses by centrifugal force. 

274. Wet beet pulp. — The watery pulp after being pressed until it con- 
tains about 10 per ct. of solids, is fed fresh or is ensiled. Care must be 
taken in feeding fresh pulp, as it spoils rapidly on exposure to the air. 
Most of the pulp is therefore fed as soured or ensiled pulp. When fed 
near the factories the pulp is dumped into large, shallow, well-drained 
pits or trenches, or into huge tank-like silos built chiefly above ground. 

5 Mass. Rpt. 1909, Part II, p. 157. 

"Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc, 1888, pp. 112-128. 

7 Kgl. Landtbr.-Akad. Handl., 1889, p. 257. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 185 

A rr. ful method i "he pulp in large heaps, when the out- 
side layer on rotting will j. r from the air. On fanr 

pulp may he stored in ordir placed in pits, either with or 

without alternate rdch may extend 

eral feet _■ round, being with straw and earth to keep out 

frost. Maereker* found that rather more than one-fourth of th-; to- 
tal nutrients in the fermentations which take place 
when it is ensiled. Such heavy losses teach that, where possible, the pulp 
should be dried. 

Tho carrying only 1 to 2 of sugar, wet beet pulp contains 

siderable of other easily digested carbohydrates, and per pound of 
matter is equal to roots in feeding value. Like roots, thi ma- 

terial should be fed with dry Most of the mineral matt 

extracted from the beets along with the sugar, and hence the pulp is 
low in these constitn allowance p are i 

is th ; that the animals are supplied with sufficient lime 

and phosphoric acid. Pulp is also low in erode in, but fortunately 

it is common ly : h legume 1 high in both protein and 

... .-:'.'-/:. 

c.nnually fattened by thousands and sheep by ten-thousands 
on wet. soured, beet pulp at rrn beet-sugar fa rlyle 

and Griffith of the Colorado Station* found It t j ilp equal 

620 lbs. of alfalfa hay for fattening 746 

Griffin of the same station reports that 1 ton of pulp has about the same 
vain _ lbs. of corn for fattening lambs. 871 t pulp is 

relished by d :. fed in not too large amount, produces a good 

flav. (643 » be fed to idle horses. 512 

275. Dried beet pulp. — Owing to the hio; and 

the : h dried beet pulp has been r toekmen, 

many factor: been equipped with facilities for thus preserving 

the pulp. Shaw of the Michigan Station 10 found that dried beet pulp 
compared f&~ a meal for fattening sheer; and steers. It 

produced larger gains with growing animals, while corn meal put on 
more rapid gain- ing animals nearing the finishing period. 

"47 854 In the £ iinavian feed-ur. the val .: dried 

pulp for da: : :orn or barl- £85 

. at deal of water, when a 
anc-e is : moisten . _ sight of 

r before feeding. 11 Tho moistened dried beet pulp may be employed 
as a substitute foi . the usual prices the latter is the more 

•mical form of succulence for the- jiost of their 

ek recommend dr: beet pulp for 
- ncentrate allowances 

l T. S Dept Agr„ Bnr. Chem., BuL 52 
.r>. Bra. 102 k. Bras. 22 241 

Line I ' ::-.., 



186 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

as it has a tendency to keep the bowels open and is not apt to cause di- 
gestive disturbances. 12 

276. Beet molasses. — The molasses from beet sugar factories is a valu- 
able carbonaceous feed when properly fed, as it contains about 66 per 
ct. of nitrogen-free extract, which is nearly all sugar. The crude pro- 
tein of both beet and cane molasses consists largely of compounds having 
little nutritive value. 

"When fed in too large amounts it is very laxative on account of its 
high content of alkaline salts and of their purgative substances. In the 
beet sugar districts the molasses is usually a cheap source of carbohy- 
drates, its value per ton being rated at three-fourths that of corn. Due 
to its sticky nature, the molasses, either undiluted or thinned with water, 
is usually distributed over hay or straw, while large feeders use machines 
for mixing the molasses with cut roughage. Animals should gradually 
become accustomed to the molasses and care must be taken not to feed 
too large an allowance. 

The maximum amounts of molasses advised by various authorities for 
animals accustomed to the feed are as follows, per 1,000 lbs. live weight : 
Driving horses, 2.5 lbs., and up to 4 lbs. or even more for draft horses ; 
dairy cows, 2.5 to 3 lbs. ; fattening cattle, 4 to 8 lbs. ; fattening sheep, 3 
to 5 lbs. ; and fattening swine, 5 to 10 lbs. (483, 748, 854) Breeding ani- 
mals should be given smaller allowances than those being fattened, and 
the amount should be materially reduced 6 weeks before delivery. Beet 
molasses is extensively used in various mixed feeds, described later. (280) 

277. Molasses-beet pulp. — Beet molasses is sometimes combined with 
beet pulp and dried, forming dried molasses-beet pulp. This feed is 
somewhat more palatable and digestible than the ordinary dried pulp 
and has equal or slightly higher feeding value. (586, 854) 

278. Beet tops. — At harvest an acre of sugar beets will usually yield 
about 4 tons of fresh leaves and 1 ton of the severed upper portion of 
the roots. The leaves have about half the feeding value of the roots. 
These tops, freed from soil as much as possible by shaking, may be fed 
fresh or ensiled. As fresh or ensiled leaves tend to purge the animals, 
they should always be fed in a limited way with such dried roughages as 
corn stover, straw, or hay. "When large allowances of leaves are fed, 
Kellner advises giving about 3 ounces of chalk or ground limestone to 
every 100 lbs. of leaves, to counteract the effect of the oxalic acid which 
the leaves contain, and which may otherwise be injurious. 13 The tops 
may be ensiled in pits or silos in alternate layers with straw or may be 
mixed with cut dry corn fodder or stover. (409) German farmers add 
7 lbs. of salt to each ton of leaves as they are ensiled. 14 

279. Cane molasses. — Cane molasses, or blackstrap, the by-product of 
the manufacture of cane sugar, is palatable and much relished by farm 
animals. "When fed in large amounts it does not have the purgative 

"Smith and Beals, Mass. Bui. 146. v 

"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 307. 

"Ware, Cattle Feeding with Sugar Beets, Sugar, and Molasses, etc. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 187 

effect of beet molasses, but tends to be costive in its action. It contains 
about the same amount of nitrogen-free extract as beet molasses. Tho 
the nitrogen-free extract of both cane and beet molasses is really all di- 
gestible, when molasses is fed with other feeding stuffs a depression of 
the digestibility of the basal ration occurs, as has been explained before 
(84), due to the large amount of soluble carbohydrates (sugars) it con- 
tains. Taking this into consideration, the digestibility of the nitrogen- 
free extract of cane molasses is reckoned at 90 per ct. 

In the southern states cane molasses is often a cheap source of carbo- 
hydrates and is fed extensively on the sugar plantations to horses, mules, 
and other animals. (482) On account of the high price at which molasses 
is usually sold in the North, Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station con- 
cludes, after several years study, that no advantage is to be gained by 
northern farmers from the use of molasses in place of corn meal and 
similar feeds. For facilitating the disposal of unpalatable and inferior 
roughage, as a tonic for horses and cows out of condition, and as a colic 
preventive for horses (482), from 2 to 3 lbs. of molasses per head daily 
is helpful. He states that a daily allowance of 3 lbs. of molasses per 
head may be advantageously fed to fattening steers, especially during 
the finishing period, when the appetite is fickle. (748) Like beet mo- 
lasses, blackstrap is commonly mixed with other feeds. 

280. Molasses feeds. — Cane and beet molasses are now extensively used 
in the manufacture of the many molasses feeds, which consist of mo- 
lasses combined with a wide range of products, all the way from high- 
protein concentrates, such as cottonseed meal, to milling offal, such as 
screenings, oat hulls, rice hulls, peanut hulls, etc. Many of the early 
molasses feeds contained a multitude of live weed seeds, were poor in 
mechanical condition, and did not keep well on account of excessive 
moisture. Often entirely unwarranted statements were made in adver- 
tising these feeds. The conditions have now improved, and where screen- 
ings are present they usually have been finely ground to destroy all 
weed seeds. Because of the widely differing materials used in these feeds 
their value varies greatly. If sold at prices which are reasonable com- 
pared with the cost of equal amounts of nutriment in the straight con- 
centrates, nothing can be said against the use of the reliable feeds of this 
class, for they are well liked by stock. (483) However, deception is easy 
in these feeds, because the molasses masks the other ingredients so that 
inspection does not always show of what the feed consists. Molasses feeds 
should hence be purchased only from reliable dealers and on definite 
guarantees of composition and of freedom from live weed seeds. The 
state feed-control officials should be consulted in case of doubt as to the 
value of any molasses feed. 

Molassine meal, which has been manufactured for several years in 

Europe and has recently come upon the markets in the United States. 

consists of molasses absorbed by sphagnum moss or peat. Kellner and 

Pfeiffer have shown 15 that peat has no nutritive value for farm animals. 

15 Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 369. 



188 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and the undecomposed moss can likewise have but small worth, tho arc- 
tic life subsists on it to some extent. Practically the only nutriment 
in this feed is in the molasses it contains, and at the prices usually asked, 
molasses can be purchased much cheaper alone than in molassine meal. 
Hills 1 " found the molasses in a ton of this meal worth only $25, while 
the feed sold for $39 per ton. Lindsey and Smith 17 of the Massachusetts 
Station found molassine meal decidedly inferior to corn meal for cows. 

281. Sugar. — Tho the nutritive value of sugar is no greater than that 
of an equal weight of starch, the great fondness for it shown by farm 
animals makes it helpful in some cases for stimulating the appetite. (484) 
A small allowance is often used in fitting animals for shows. Owing to 
heavy internal taxes laid upon sugar for human consumption in France 
and Germany, it is sometimes denatured by mixing with it vermouth 
powder, lamp black, salt, peat, etc., after which it is used for feeding 
to animals. 

282. Dried distillers' grains. — In the manufacture of alcohol and dis- 
tilled liquors from cereals, the corn, rye, etc., after being ground, are 
treated with a solution of malt to convert the starch into sugar, which 
is next converted into alcohol by the action of yeast. This is distilled 
off, leaving a watery residue, known as distillers' slops, or slump. For- 
merly the slump was fed to fattening steers at the distillery; now the 
solid matter is usually strained out and dried in vacuum, forming dried 
distillers' grains, or distillers' dried grains, which are sold as such or 
under various proprietary names. This by-product consists of the por- 
tions of the grains not acted upon during the fermentation process, i.e., 
the crude protein, fiber, fat, and the more insoluble part of the nitrogen- / 
free extract. Distillers' grains from corn contain from 28 to 32 per ct.* 
crude protein and are about equal to gluten feed in feeding value. Dried 
grains chiefly from rye are of considerably lower value, carrying only 
about 23 per ct. protein. Not being especially palatable, distillers' grains 
should be mixed with other concentrates. This rather bulky feed is one 
of the best high-protein concentrates for dairy cows, from 2 to 4 lbs. 
per head daily being usually fed. (605) Distillers' grains may also 
be used with good results as part of the ration for fattening steers and 
sheep. (758, 856) A large allowance of the grains is usually not rel- 
ished by horses, but they may constitute one-fourth the concentrate 
allowance for these animals. (491) On account of their bulkiness they 
should not be fed in large amounts to pigs. (981) 

283. Acorns. — In some portions of the South and in California, acorns, 
the fruit, or nut, of the oak, Quercus spp., are of importance in swine 
feeding, the pigs usually being allowed to forage upon the scattered nuts. 
Carver of the Tuskegee, Alabama, Station 18 reports the successful feed- 
ing of acorns and kitchen slop to 400 pigs, allowing about 5 lbs. of acorns 
to each pig daily. Carver states that acorns produced a soft, spongy 
flesh and an oily lard, but this was doubtless due fully as much to the 

10 Vt. Bui. 171. "Mass. Bui. 158. "Ala. (Tuskegee) Bui. 1. 



MISCELLANEOUS CON< IHNTUATES 189 

slop fed, as German investigators report that acorns produce pork of 
good quality. Acorns may be used in limited amounts for other stock. 
( lases of poisoning have been reported where animals ate damaged acorns 
or consumed an undue amount. 

284. Cocoa shells. — Tliis by-product of the manufacture of cocoa and 
chocolate consists of the hard outside coating, or bran, of the cocoa bean. 
These shells, which are dark brown and brittle, are used in a few pro- 
prietary feeds. Only 15 to 18 per ct. of the crude protein in this material 
is digestible. According to Kellner 18 cocoa shells have no more feeding 
value than straw. Lindsey and Smith found a lot tested at the Massa- 
chusetts Station 20 somewhat more digestible, but do not consider the 
shells worth more than half as much as corn meal. 

285. Proprietary and mixed feeds. — There are now on the market a 
host of mixed feeds, chiefly sold under proprietary names. Widely 
different ingredients enter into the composition of these articles. In 
some only such high-grade concentrates as cottonseed meal, wheat bran, 
malt sprouts, gluten feed, dried distillers' grains, etc., are combined. 
Others contain varying amounts of screenings, or light grains of wheat, 
barley, or oats, which will in general have a lower value than good qual- 
ity grain from the same cereals. The larger number contain more or 
less of such low-grade by-products as oat hulls, ground corn cobs, flax 
plant by-product, etc. Several states now require that the ingredients 
in any feed be stated on the sack or package. Tho the manufacturers 
of most of these feeds maintain the amount of crude protein, fat, and 
fiber in each brand at about the same figures from month to month, but 
few guarantee the amount of the separate ingredients, such as malt 
sprouts, or screenings, that the feed contains. Owing to this inability 
to know that a sample of the feed secured today will represent the feed 
put on the market next year under the same name, the experiment sta- 
tions have conducted practically no trials to determine the values of 
these mixtures. For this reason and because of the great number of 
these feeds, the composition of proprietary mixed feeds is not shown in 
Appendix Tables I and III. 

Many mixed feeds are the result of honest and intelligent effort to 
furnish a ready-mixed "balanced" concentrate mixture for dairy cows, 
horses, or cattle, as the case may be, and have won good reputations 
among intelligent feeders. Others are merely attempts to delude the 
purchaser into paying as high a price for a feed bearing a "fancy" 
name but consisting largely of low-grade materials as he would pay for 
high-class concentrates. Mixed feeds should therefore be purchased only 
when they are the product of reliable manufacturers, and especial atten- 
tion should be paid to the guarantee of crude protein, fat, and fiber. On 
comparing the fiber guarantee with the fiber content of well-known un- 
mixed concentrates, as given in Appendix Table I, the purchaser will 
be able to judge to what extent such low-grade by-products as oat hulls 
"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 214. ^'Mass. Bui. 158. 



190 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and corn cobs have been added. As has been pointed out (203, 224), 
such bulky materials, high in fiber, furnish but little nutriment, tho they 
may be helpful in adding bulk to the mixture. Before buying, the wise 
feeder will compare the amount of nutrients he can secure for a given 
sum in different mixed feeds and in the unmixed standard by-products. 



IV. Commercial Feeding Stuffs Control 

As has been pointed out in the previous chapters, it is often impossible 
for the feeder to tell from the appearance of a commercial feeding stuff 
whether it is of standard quality or has been adulterated. The enact- 
ment of laws has therefore been necessary to protect honest manufactur- 
ers and dealers, as well as the users of commercial feeds. 

286. State and national regulation. — Laws have now been passed by 
the Federal Government and by many of the states which in general 
require that each package of concentrated feed bear a label, tag, or state- 
ment giving the percentages of crude protein and fat the feed contains. 
An increasing number of states are wisely requiring that the maximum 
percentage of fiber be also guaranteed. In others, each ingredient in all 
mixed feeds must be stated. From time to time the officials en- 
trusted with feed supervision issue bulletins setting forth the results 
of examinations, analyses, etc. Those interested should consult the bulle- 
tins, and aid and support the officers in the administration of the laws. 

Users of purchased feeds in large quantity are generally experienced 
and buy only the better grades of standard feeding stuffs at close prices, 
or secure such materials as screenings, etc., at low prices, fully under- 
standing their composition and relative value. The small buyer, often 
feeling the pinch of poverty, too frequently is looking for something 
that sells for less than is demanded for standard goods, and so is the 
more easily caught by the low-grade, trashy articles often bearing 
catchy, high-sounding names. Low-grade feeding stuffs, no matter what 
their names, are almost sure to bring hardship to the animals that are 
fed on them, and to the owners of such animals as well. Such feeds are 
really more like roughages than concentrates and roughage can be pro- 
duced on most farms far more economically than it can be purchased 
in bags from the feed dealer. Whenever one is in doubt as to what to 
buy, he should consult the feed control officials of his state or purchase 
only the pure unmixed grains, straight milling or factory by-products, 
or proprietary feeds of high grade that have won a good reputation. 

287. Examples of feed adulteration. — Since the feed-control work has 
been carried on the instances of adulterated and misbranded feeds are 
becoming less frequent. The following will illustrate the fraud some- 
times still attempted by unscrupulous manufacturers and dealers. In 
Tennessee the United States Department of Agriculture 21 seized a ship- 
ment labeled "Mixed Wheat Middlings, from Pure Wheat Bran and 

^Notices of Judgment, 66, 67 — Food and Drugs Act. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 191 

Ground Corn," which consisted of bran and ground corn cobs. Woll 
and Olson of the Wisconsin Station, 22 examining a carload of so-called 
wheat bran shipped into Wisconsin, found that each pound of the whole 
carload contained on an average 28,000 pigeon-grass seeds, 16,000 wild 
buckwheat seeds, 5,000 pigweed seeds, and many seeds of other kinds. 
Beach of the Vermont Station, 23 examining 18 brands of molasses and 
flax feeds offered for sale in his state, found from 1,150 to 131,000 weed 
seeds in each pound of such feeds. In one case it was estimated that 
there were 129 million weed seeds, weighing 400 lbs., in a ton of one of 
these feeds. Beach found that 2 to 13 per ct. of these seeds would grow 
after having passed thru the cow. 

288. A guide in purchasing commercial feeds. — In purchasing com- 
mercial feeding stuffs the guaranteed composition should be ascertained 
and compared with the average composition given for the same feed 
in Appendix Table I. If the feed is markedly lower in crude protein 
or fat, or is noticeably higher in crude fiber than there shown, it should 
be viewed with suspicion. Care should also be taken that the feed is 
fresh, free from mold and rancidity, and that it corresponds in appear- 
ance with the descriptions given in the preceding chapters. 

V. CONDIMENTAL OR STOCK FOODS 

Proprietary articles styled "stock foods," "seed meals," "condition 
powders," etc., costing from 10 to 30 cents or more per pound, are ex- 
tensively advertised and sold to American farmers. Woll of the Wis- 
consin Station, 24 after ascertaining the amount of stock foods sold in 
1906 in three counties in Wisconsin, estimated that the farmers of that 
state paid annually about $300,000 for 1,500 tons of such material. 
Michel and Buckman of the Iowa Station 25 estimate that Iowa farmers 
paid $190,000 for stock foods in 1904. 

289. Composition of stock foods. — The better class of stock foods have 
for their basis such substances as linseed meal or wheat middlings, while 
the cheaper ones contain ground screenings, low-grade milling offal, the 
ground bark of trees, etc. To this "filling" is added a small percentage 
of such materials as common salt, charcoal, copperas, fenugreek, gentian, 
pepper, epsom salts, etc., with or without tumeric, iron oxid, etc., for 
coloring. The stockman is told that a tablespoonful of the compound 
with each feed will cause his stock to grow faster, fatten quicker, give 
richer milk, etc., etc. Yet this amount will supply only an insignificant 
part of the dose of these drugs which is prescribed for animals by com- 
petent veterinarians. Tests of many of these stock foods by the experi- 
ment stations support the view of Sir John Lawes, the world's greatest 
investigator in scientific and practical agriculture, who, after carefully 
testing the stock foods then being sold in England wrote: 26 "In con- 

C2 Wis. Bui. 97. "Vt Buls. 131, 133, 138. = 4 Wis. Bui. 151. ^Iowa Bui. 87. 
^Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. II. 



192 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

elusion, I feel bound to say that I require much clearer evidence than 
any that has hitherto been adduced, to satisfy me that the balance-sheet 
of my farm would present a more satisfactory result at the end of the 
year, were I to give each horse, ox, sheep, and pig, a daily allowance of 
one of these costly foods." (928) 

Farm animals managed with reasonable care have appetites which do 
not need stimulating. Sick animals or those out of condition should 
receive specific treatment rather than be given some cure-all. A good 
manager of live stock has no use for high-priced stock foods or con- 
dition powders, and a poor manager will never have fine stock by em- 
ploying them. In rare cases the available feeding stuffs may be of such 
poor quality that some condiment may cause the animal to eat more 
heartily, and where animals are in low condition and without appetite 
some spice may prove helpful. To cover such rare cases the formula? 
for three "stock foods" or "spices" are presented. 

First formula Lbs. Second formula Lbs. Third formula Lbs. 

Fenugreek 2 Powdered gentian. . 8 Ground gentian 4 

Allspice 2 Ginger 8 Powdered saltpeter. . . 1 

Gentian 4 Fenugreek 8 Ground ginger 1 

Salt 5 Powdered sulfur. . . 8 Powdered copperas.. . 1 

Saltpeter 5 Potassium nitrate.. 8 

Epsom salts 10 Resin 8 

Linseed meal 100 Cayenne pepper. . . 4 

Linseed meal 44 

Powdered charcoal . 20 

Common salt 20 

Wheat bran 100 

The above materials are easily obtainable and there is no difficulty 
in compounding them. Oil meal or middlings is not necessary if one 
will thoroly mix together the other ingredients and give the proper 
amount along with some rich concentrate, like oil meal, wheat middlings, 
or ground oats. At ordinary prices for the materials, either the first 
or second formula can be made up for about 5 cents per pound, or about 
one-fourth what is usually charged for something no better. A table- 
spoonful in each feed will supply more drugs of possible value than the 
same measure of most of the advertised stock foods. The third formula, 
which is more concentrated, may be given at the rate of 1 tablespoonful 
daily mixed with the feed for 10 days, the dose omitted for 3 days, and 
then the tonic given for 10 days more. The flattering testimonials which 
the stock-food companies advertise are explained without granting any 
special virtue to their ' ' food. ' ' The stock foods are usually accompanied 
by directions which advocate liberal feeding and good care for the ani- 
mals to be fed in order to ' ' secure the benefits from the tonic. ' ' Under 
this guidance the farmer feeds and cares for his stock better than ever 
before and secures better results, due not to the stock food but to follow- 
ing the directions which accompanied it. Rather than purchase advice 
with costly condimental foods the wise feeder will secure it in standard 
agricultural papers and books, or from the experiment stations and the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XII 

INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 

I. Indian Corn 

Indian corn, maize, is the imperial agricultural plant of America. 
This giant annual grass reaches a height of from 7 to 15 feet in 4 or 
5 months' growth, producing under favorable conditions from 10 to 25 
tons of green forage per acre, containing from 4,000 to 10,000 lbs. of 
dry matter. "When grown in a dense mass but little seed forms, and we 
have a rank grass which cures into a bright, nutritious, coarse hay. If 
the plants grow some distance apart, a large yield of grain results, with 
excellent forage as a secondary product. 

Were a seedsman to advertise Indian corn by a new name, recounting 
its actual merits while ingeniously concealing its identity, either his 
claims would be discredited or he would have an unlimited demand for 
the seed of this supposed novelty. The possibilities of American farms 
in the live stock they may carry and the animal products they may turn 
off are restricted only by the quantity of corn and of clover or other 
legumes which the land will produce, and this, under good management, 
seems almost unlimited. 

In Chapter I the studies on the composition of the growing Indian 
corn plant are given at length to illustrate and fix in mind the manner 
in which plants grow and elaborate food for animals. The student 
should turn to that most helpful presentation and carefully review 
what it teaches. This done he is in position to proceed with the further 
study of the maize plant here set forth. (The importance of corn as a 
cereal has already been discussed in Chapter IX. ) 

290. Corn as a forage plant. — The entire fresh green corn plant may 
be fed as a soiling crop, it may be ensiled, the crop may be cut and cured 
as fodder corn, or the grain may be removed and the remaining stover 
used for feed. As later shown (300), ensiling is by far the most 
satisfactory means of preserving the entire crop as forage. 

The term fodder corn or corn fodder is applied to stalks of corn, 
green or dry, which have been grown primarily for forage, and from 
which the ears or ' ' nubbins, ' ' if they carry any, have not been removed. 
Shock com and bundle corn are terms applied to fodder corn which 
carries much grain, but which is fed without husking. Stover or corn 
stover denotes the dried stalks of corn from which the ears have been 
removed. Fodder corn or corn fodder, then, is the fresh or cured corn 
plant which has been grown for forage, with all the ears, if any, origi- 
nally produced. Stover is cured shock corn minus the ears. Similarly, 

193 



194 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



the terms kafir fodder, kafir stover, etc., are employed in speaking of 
sorghum forage. 

291. Thickness of planting. — In a study of thick and thin seeding for 
3 seasons at the Illinois Station, 1 Morrow and Hunt secured the results 
summarized below. In these trials the kernels were planted from 3 to 
24 inches apart in the row, all rows being 3 feet 8 inches apart. 

Results of planting com kernels various distances apart in rows 



Thickness of planting 


Yield per acre 


Digestible substance 
per acre 


Stover 
per 
acre 


Stover 
tor 


Distance between 
kernels in row 


Kernels 
per acre 


Good 

ears 


Poor 
ears 


Stover 


Grain 


Total 


each 
lb. of 
corn 


3 inches 

6 inches 

9 inches 

12 inches 

15 inches 

24 inches 


47,520 
23,760 
15,840 
11,880 
9,504 
5,940 


Bu. 
13 
37 
55 
73 
63 
49 


Bu. 
46 
39 
22 
16 
11 
6 


Lbs. 
3,968 

3,058 
2,562 
2,480 
2,398 
2,066 


Lbs. 
2,250 
2,922 
2,977 
3,113 
2,782 
2,141 


Lbs. 

6,218 
5,980 
5,539 
5,593 
5,180 
4.207 


Tons 
4.8 
3.7 
3.1 

3.0 
2.9 
2.5 


Lbs. 

3.6 
1 9 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 



With the kernels but 3 inches apart in the row there were 46 bushels 
of "nubbins," or poor ears, and only 13 bushels of sound ears per acre. 
However, this thick planting gave the largest returns in digestible nutri- 
ents — over 6,000 lbs. per acre. With this close planting there were 3.6 
lbs. of stover for each pound of grain. The largest yield of sound ear 
corn was secured by planting the kernels 12 inches apart in the row, 
or about 12,000 kernels per acre, which should produce 10,000 good 
stalks an acre. From this the returns were 73 bushels of sound and 
16 bushels of poor ears per acre, with only 600 lbs. less digestible matter 
than from planting the kernels 4 times as thick. These trials, confirmed 
by the work of other stations, teach that when the stockman is seeking 
the greatest amount of nutrients possible from the corn crop he will 
plant the seed so thickly as to choke the ears to about half their natural 
size. If he aims to produce grain, with stover secondary, he will plant 
the kernels at such distance apart as will allow each individual plant to 
produce full-sized ears. No general rule can be given as to the amount 
of seed to be planted per acre. This varies greatly and is determined 
by local conditions. One must know accurately the capacity of his 
land for corn, and seed accordingly, bearing in mind that thick seeding 
gives the most total nutrients, largely as roughage, while thinner seeding 
gives the most sound grain. 

292. Nutrients in the corn crop. — Even when grown for the grain, 
the stover contains a considerable part of the total nutrients of the 
crop, as is shown by the following table, arranged from a summary by 
Armsby 2 of trials at 4 northern stations. 



Mil. Bui. 13. 



2 Penn. Rpt. 1887. 



INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 195 
Distribution of nutrients in the corn crop grown for grain 

Average Distribution of digestible nutrients Distribution 

yield per Crude Total digestible of net 

acre protein nutrients nutrients 

Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Ears 4,415 75 63 76 

Stover 3,838 25 37 24 

The table shows that iu the northern states somewhat more than half 
the total weight of the corn crop grown for grain is found in the ears. 
About 75 per ct. of the digestible crude protein is in the ears and 25 
per ct. in the stover. The ears furnish about 63 and the stover 37 per 
ct. of the total digestible nutrients. For animals at light work, those 
fattening slowly or giving only a small quantity of milk, and for main- 
taining animals in winter when much heat for warming the body is 
required, the value of the stover will be approximately measured by 
the total digestible nutrients it contains, or 37 per ct. of the crop. For 
fattening animals and those giving much milk or at hard work the 
stover will have a lower value, on account of the large amount of fiber 
it contains. For such animals a more accurate measure of the relative 
value of the ears and stover is furnished by the last column, which shows 
that the ears supply 76 and the stover 24 per ct. of the net nutrients. 
(78-80) The ratio of grain to stalk, and hence the distribution of the 
nutrients, will vary with the variety and with the section of the country. 
The rank growing southern corn will have less of the total nutrients in 
the ear and more in the stalks. These data show clearly the great loss 
of animal food which occurs each year when unnumbered acres of stover 
are allowed to decay in the fields. 

Like the corn grain, corn forage is low in crude protein compared 
with its carbohydrate and fat content. As shown in Appendix Table III 
the nutritive ratio of corn silage is 1 : 15.1, and that of fodder corn 
1 : 15.7 to 1 : 17.1, while corn stover has the extremely wide nutritive ratio 
of 1 : 21.0 or over. Hence these roughages should be supplemented by 
feeds rich in crude protein. Corn forage is fair in phosphorus and high 
in lime, compared with corn and the other cereal grains. 

293. Preserving corn fodder or stover. — Losses of nutrients in corn 
fodder after it has been gathered into shocks (stooks) are known to 
occur thru weathering but there are also large losses which are unex- 
plained. During 4 years' study at the Wisconsin Station, Woll 3 deter- 
mined the dry matter and crude protein in a crop of corn at the time of 
cutting and again after the shocks had been exposed to the weather 
for several months. It was found that under Wisconsin conditions well- 
made shocks of corn which stand in the field for a few months lose 
about 24 per ct. of their dry matter, the crude protein content suffering 
to the same extent. Cooke showed that in the dry climate of Colorado 4 
heavy losses likewise occur in shock corn. In the South the corn forage, 

3 A Book on Silage. 4 Colo. Bui. 30. 



196 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

maturing early, melts away to almost nothing in a comparatively short 
time. The substances first lost thru such wasting are crude protein, 
sugar, starch, etc. — the most valuable portions of the plant. Nor is it 
possible to entirely prevent these losses by placing the cured fodder 
under cover or in stacks. Losses of this nature are probably due to 
fermentations which slowly but steadily waste the substance of the for- 
age. Sanborn 5 writes: "Many trials with fodder. . .make it certain 
that 15 per ct. is the minimum loss to be expected with dry storage, 
while the loss may rise to 20 per ct. or even more in ordinary 
practice. ' ' 

The losses due to weathering can be lessened by making large shocks. 
Since the stalks stand almost vertical in the shocks, as the leaves wilt 
there is ample room for tbe upward passage of air currents, which 
rapidly dry the interior and cheek molds and fermentations. When 
shock corn is pronounced dry by the farmer, it often still carries more 
water and consequently less dry matter than hay, a fact which should not 
be overlooked when feeding this forage. Care must be taken that corn 
fodder or stover is well-cured before it is stacked, and especially before 
it is stored in the mow, for musty, moldy forage is not only unpalatable 
but even dangerous. In southern states where it is exceedingly difficult 
to cure corn stalks so that they may be stacked, the silo is particularly 
useful. 

294. Dry fodder corn. — Corn grown and cured as forage constitutes 
a coarse hay of high feeding value, since only a portion of the nutrients 
has gone into the ear. Dry fodder corn is more palatable and nutritious 
than stover, which has transmitted much of its substance to the grain. 
Thickly seeded corn bears small, palatable ears which are easily masti- 
cated. "When grown for coarse hay and carrying some grain, corn 
possesses a feeding value not as yet appreciated by most stockmen. 
Overlooking its splendid qualities as a hay plant, we have become 
accustomed to growing this grass for the grain it yields, and using the 
stover as a sort of straw to be eaten or wasted as accident determines. 
(500, 620-1, 771, 862) 

295. Shock corn. — Rather than husk corn and feed the grain and 
stover separately, it is often more profitable to feed shock corn and 
allow the animals to do their own husking. This is especially true for 
animals which need only a small grain allowance, such as cattle being 
carried thru the Avinter or idle horses. Shock corn may also be success- 
fully fed to fattening cattle and sheep, particularly at the beginning 
of the fattening period, and to a less extent it may be employed with 
the dairy cow. It is true that when fed unhusked some corn passes 
thru the animal unbroken, but feeding trials show that, despite such 
waste, there is often little or no profit in husking the ear and reducing 
it to meal. A little study will determine the amount of grain the shocks 
carry, so that the feeder can properly adjust the ratio of grain to rough- 

5 Cyc. Am. Agr., Vol. II, p. 569. 



INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 197 

age by supplying either ear corn or corn stover as the animals may 
require. (735, 771) 

296. Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing the ears 
from shock corn has a higher feeding value than is usually conceded. 
Stover produced in the northern portion of the corn belt is superior in 
nutriment and palatability to that grown in the South. As soon as 
fairly well cured and freed from external moisture stover should be 
placed under cover or stacked, rather than left to deteriorate in the 
held. Waters of the Missouri Station found as the average of experi- 
ments covering 4 years that moderately thin yearling steers lost only 33 
lbs. each when wintered on corn stover alone. This shows that corn 
stover fed long or uncut will nearly furnish a maintenance ration for 
such animals. (502, 622, 771, 862) 

297. Shredded or cut stover and fodder. — When shock corn is husked 
by machinery the stover is usually cut or shredded at the same oper- 
ation. Corn fodder is also often passed thru a feed cutter before 
feeding. At the Wisconsin Station 7 the senior author conducted 3 trials 
in which cows were fed either shredded or unshredded corn stover or 
fodder corn, all receiving the same allowance of grain and hay. While 
on the average 18 per ct. of the long forage w T as refused, the shredded 
fodder was all consumed. In these trials 100 lbs. of shredded stover 
or fodder produced slightly more milk than 132 lbs. of long forage. 
At the Kansas Station 55 Shelton, in experiments covering 3 seasons, fed 
stover cut into lengths varying from 0.25 to 2 inches to cows, and found 
an average waste of 31 per ct. of the cut stover, with no greater milk 
returns than from the uncut stover. The finer the stover was cut the 
larger was the waste, and the conclusion was that the only advantage 
from cutting stover lay in the greater convenience of handling it in the 
stable. Likewise at the Missouri Station 9 Waters found shredded stover 
slightly inferior to whole stover for steer feeding. In accounting for 
these differences it may be said that the stalks of corn grown in the 
middle and lower portions of the corn belt are larger, coarser, more 
woody, and doubtless less nutritious than the smaller, softer stalks of the 
northern states. It is also possible that in the Kansas trial the sharp 
edges of the cut stalks made the mouths of the cattle sore. This can be 
avoided by changing the length of the cut or by shredding. Cutting or 
shredding corn forage makes it easier to handle, and the waste is in 
better shape for bedding and manure. As this finer material is not more 
digestible than long stover, the only other possible advantage comes in 
getting the animals to eat more, or to eat those parts which would other- 
wise be wasted. 

298. Pulling fodder. — In the South the tops of the ripening corn stalks 
are quite commonly cut off just above the ears, leaving the tall butts, 
each with an unhusked ear at its top. Next, the leaves are stripped from 
the butts, and these together with the severed tops are cured into a 

6 Mo. Bui. 75. 7 Wis. Rpt. 1886. 8 Kan. Rpt. 1889. 9 Mo. Bui. 75. 



L98 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

nutritions, palatable fodder, which is extensively employed for feeding 
liorses and other stock. The previous study of the development of the 
nutrients in the corn plant shows the Holly oi' this practice. During 
the last stages of its life the corn plant is busiest in gathering crude 
materials from air and soil and elaborating them into nutritious food. 
Removing the top and leaves, at once stops all this work oi' (<hh\ making. 
Stubbs oi' the Louisiana Station 10 found that pulling fodder caused a 
shrinkage oi' from 15 to 20 per ct. in the yield of grain. {23) 

299. The new corn product. — The pith of the cured corn stalk is used 
as a packing between the walls oi' vessels to prevent the entrance of 
water should the hull be pierced, as well as being employed in various 
industries. It lias been found that for each pound of pith there are 15 
Ihs. o\' blades, husks, ami pails of stalks which remain as a by-product. 
This waste, ground to a powder, has been named "the new corn 
product." At the Maryland Station" Patterson found the now corn 
product somewhat more digestible than whole stover in feeding trials 
with steers and equal to hay for horses. 

As this material is used as a filler in some mixed feeds, it is well to bear 

in mind that grinding the by-product does not increase its content of 

nutrients. 

300. Indian corn for silage. — Indian corn is pre-eminently a silage 
plant. The solid, succulent stems and broad leaves, when cut into short 
lengths, pack closely and form a solid mass which not only keeps well 
hut furnishes a product that is greatly relished by stock, and consumed 
with little waste. Altho with enlarging experience the use oi' other 
crops for silage is increasing rapidly, by tar the greater portion oi' all 
the forage stored in silos in this country is corn. The importance of 
silage on American farms is discussed further in Chapter X V 1 and in 
the respective chapters of Part 111. 

301. Losses by ensiling 1 and field-curing. — After studying the losses of 
forage preserved in wooden silos during 4 seasons at the Wisconsin sta- 
tion."' King concludes that, omitting the top and bottom waste, which is 
the same for deep or shallow silos, the losses of dry matter in corn 
silage need not exceed 10 per ct. Considerable oi' the protein in ensiled 
fodder is changed to amids (Ilk and some oi' the starch and sugar is 
destroyed, while the fiber is not diminished; thus the losses fall on 
the best portions oi' the ensiled material. Numerous trials at the stations 
show practically no difference between the digestibility oi' corn silage 
and dry corn fodder, hid both are somewhat less digestible than the 
green forage. This is shown in the average digestion coefficients given 
in Appendix Table 1 1. 

The following table summarizes the comparative losses in preserving 
corn forage by ensiling and field-curing as shown by 10 trials at 4 sta- 
t ions : 

10 La. Bul. --• (Old Series.) "Mil. Buls. 43, 51. "'Wis. Bui. 59. 



INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE L99 
Relative losses of field-curing and ensiling the corn crop 

( !orn iSlage ( lorn fodder in shod i 

Dry Crude Dry Crude 

tion and referenei matter protein matter protein 

Pi i ot. Per ot. Per et. Per ot. 

Vermont, av. A vrs., Rpts. L889 94 18.2 12. 0* 17.7 12.7* 

New Jersey, Bui. 19 18 ,0 17 3 

Pennsylvania, Rpt. 1889 10.8 4 A 21.0 11.6 

Wisconsin, ;iv. A yrs., Rpt, L891 15 .6 16 .8 28 ,8 24 ,3 

Average at 4 stations 15.7 II I 20.0 16 .2 

•Average "i 3 years. 

The table shows thai more dry matter and crude protein were Lost by 
drying corn forage in shocks than by ensiling. 

302. Corn silage vs. corn fodder. — Wo have seen that the losses of 
nutrients by ensiling and drying com forage are not materially different, 
(ho somewhat favoring silage, and that ensiling a crop lends to decrease 
rather than increase the digestibility. (83) On the other hand, actual 
feeding trials with dairy cows and steers, reported in Part III, show 
that silage gives better results than a corresponding amount of dry 
fodder. (630, 781 ) The difference in favor of silage is doubtless due in 
part to the fact that cattle usually reject the dry butts of the corn 
stalks even when cut line, while in silage they are eaten. Owing to the 
palatability of this succulence silage-fed animals consume a larger ration 
mid more nutriment is hence available for milk or flesh production after 
supplying the wants of the body. Like other succulent feeds silage has 
a beneficial laxative effect and is a valuable aid In keeping farm animals 
in thrifty condition. 

303. The corn for silage. — In the earlier years corn was usually ensiled 
before the kernels were in the glazing stage. Experience hasshown that 
much sweeter silage is produced when corn is not ensiled until the ker 
jiels have hardened and glazed (with the dent varieties when they are 

well dented). The crop should, however, be cut for silage while most 

of the leaves are yet green and succulent. The rapid storage of high- 
quality nutrients which takes place in the later stages of the development 
of the corn plant is a most Important reason for waiting until the crop 
is practically mature. (23) Several stations have determined the yields 
per acre of green forage and digestible nutrients from southern varieties 

of corn, which usually do not roach maturity in the North, and from the 
smaller northern varieties, with the results shown below: 

Yield of com forage al the North from northern and southern seed 



Maine, 5 years (Rpt. 1893) 
Perm., 3 years (Rpt. 1892). 
N. Y. (Cornell), (Bui. 16). 

Wis. (Rpt. 1888) 

Minn. (Bui. 40) 



Green 


per acre 

Northern 


Digestibli 


nut hi i i per acre 


Southern 


Southern 


Northern 


corn 


corn 


corn 


corn 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lb0. 


I.I/:. 


34,701 


22,260 


3,251 


3,076 


32,321 


18,000 


5,042 


4, HO 


34,060 


10,080 


4,758 


2 953 


47,040 


24,800 


5,414 


5,220 


43,000 


10,500 


3,887 


2,911 



200 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In each instance the southern corn gave larger yields of green corn 
per acre. Tho southern corn, Which carries a small proportion of grain, 
is about 8 per ct. less digestible than northern corn, it nevertheless pro- 
duced more digestible nutrients per acre. 13 However, southern corn 
should not generally be used for either silage or dry forage except where 
the climatic conditions permit the ears to develop kernels which reach the 
glazing stage at time of harvest. When there is an urgent demand for 
the largest amount of palatable roughage from a given area, the southern 
varieties have a place in the northern states, in spite of the fact that 
these types, which will not reach maturity, produce sourer silage. On 
the other hand, the northern stockman who has hay, straw, or stover at 
command will aim to fill his silo with a richer feed than southern corn 
yields, and therefore will use northern dent or flint varieties, which 
mature. He will plant the crop somewhat more thickly than when grown 
for grain, but yet so as to secure a relatively large proportion of grain to 
roughage, and will thus secure a rich silage that materially reduces the 
amount of concentrates required for his stock. 

304. Silage from frozen or drought-stricken corn. — When corn is killed 
by frost or stricken by drought the silo is the best instrument for pre- 
serving all possible nutriment in the crop. When the plants have 
dried out unduly, water should be added as the silo is being filled to 
insure the necessary fermentations that preserve the silage. 

Hills of the Vermont Station 14 found that silage from frozen corn is 
not necessarily poorer because of having been frosted, is not dangerous 
to cows, and does not injuriously affect the milk. He concludes that it 
is often advisable to allow a crop of immature, watery corn to stand 
one or two weeks longer than usual, thereby gaining from 6 to 15 per ct. 
in dry matter should no frost come. Frosted corn should be quickly 
ensiled, for the storm which usually follows the first fall frosts will wash 
out much nutriment from the frosted forage, and the winds soon whip 
off the dried, brittle leaves. 

305. Corn fodder or stover silage. — It has been found that cured corn 
forage, when cut into the silo, thoroly moistened, and well-packed will 
undergo fermentation similar to that which occurs with green material 
and may be preserved in a satisfactory manner. 15 Tho usually less 
palatable than silage from green corn this product has an aromatic 
silage odor and is readily consumed by stock, with less waste than is dry 
fodder or stover. This method is now followed by many farmers, 
especially in the plains region, some even filling their silos 3 times a 
y ear — i n the fall with green corn or sorghum, and later with the cured 
forage. The essential points in the process are to add enough water so 
that the material will pack well and then to tramp it down with especial 
thoroness ; otherwise the mass will spoil. Tho the water may be applied 
to the cut material in the silo, more even moisture distribution is possible 
and hence better silage is produced when a stream of water is run into 

"Jordan, Me. Rpt. 1893. "Vt. Rpt. 1906. ,5 Del. Rpt. 1903; Vt. Bui. 170. 



INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOB FORAGE 201 

the blower, ther *>ng the cut : 

es of the Missouri Stark mly about one-third of the 

total amount of water needed will be taken up by the dry | 

.ru the blower. The remainder should be sprinkled over the 
fodder in the silo as it is filled Due to the g -tent 

of field-cured corn forage it is imposed ate definitely the amount 

of water to be added in such cases. 6 ornmend adding abort 

equal weight of water to the fora^ add just enough so that - 

may be squeezed out of the cut material. 

306. Removing the ears before ensiling — . go it was recom- 
mended that, instead of ensiling the entire corn plant. 

removed and cur nly the stalks 

into silage. This grain-free silage would then be fed along with mo. 
less of the grain separat e This matter was test U at 

the' ad Bills at the Vermon i with ad 

results. Hills found that 1 aei E green r. including 

reduced to silage was equal in feeding value to 1.2 
stalks stripped of their ears and : with the meal made by grinding 
jar corn which was prod"; the erop. 

307. Corn for soilage — rn ranks high as a soiling erop Tint 
of its palatability. the high yield of nutrients,, and the fact that it 
remains in good condition for feeding for a much longer period than 
mar grown for soils ^ farms lacking summ- 
feeding corn forage in the green _ g ould become generaL 
for during the late summer and early fall p&stur •■-.■ -::. toe scant 
to enable animal-. :heir best. In the case of dai s such a 
shortage of feed will can- ease in milk flow, which often can not 
be r subsequent liberal feedir ig 642 663 An a 
ripening corn fed in early fall may thus retur as much profit as 
if it were held over until winter. For early feeding sweet corn may 
often be advantageously used. 

II. The .v..v,-:r. 

In the dry-farming districts, from Nebraska to Texas and . 
the sorghums, both the saccharine and the non-sacchar: 

• are of great and increasing importance as for^ g ause 

are far more drought resistant than corn and the I nain 

g m late in autumr 235-41) In 1913 Kansas alor . ! 
acres of grain sorghum for grain and forage, and 738.000 acres of so: s 
these crops having a total value of c : - " _ The sorghums, 

chiefly the sorghos, are valuable crops in the southern states for hay 
soilage, or silage, and are also grown in the northern states, 
soilage. 

:ording to Piper 16 3 tons of air-dry fodder may be a 

good and 6 tons a large return from the sorghums, whih 

*Mo. Cir. 71 - ?.-•■ II H - - Rpt 1SS2. "Ftorage F 



efly for 



202 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

yields may reach 10 tons of dry fodder or 40 tons of green material. 
Reed of the Kansas Station 20 states that under Kansas conditions the 
sorghums will produce one-third to one-half more forage per acre than 
corn. 

308. Sorghum fodder and stover. — Thruout regions of scanty rainfall 
the sorghums are most commonly grown in drilled rows of sufficient 
width to allow horse cultivation, by which the moisture is conserved 
and larger yields obtained. When grown in drills, not too thickly, 
much seed is produced and the stalks are somewhat coarse. Sorghum 
forage is more palatable when cut before fully matured, but the seed 
should be allowed to reach the early dough stage, for if cut earlier the 
plants are watery and contain little nutriment. The crop is cured in 
shocks, the same as Indian corn, but in the case of the juicy-stemmed 
sorghos, which cure with difficulty, the shocks should be small. If left 
in the field in humid regions for 3 months or longer sorgho fodder is 
apt to sour, due to fermentation of the sugar in the stalks. 21 In sections 
with ample rainfall the seed is often broadcasted, and the fine-stemmed 
plants cut with a mower and cured in cocks, the same as the meadow 
grasses. In the South where the rainfall is ample or on irrigated lands 
2 to 3 cuttings of sorghum may be secured in a season if the crop is 
cut before it matures; in the dry-farming districts the crop is usually 
cut but once. 

The various types of grain sorghums have been previously described. 
(235-40) Of this group the kafirs give the largest yields of the most 
valuable forage, for they are leafy and the stems are more succulent 
than those of milo, feterita, or kaoliang. Kafir fodder and stover com- 
pare favorably in composition and feeding value with that from corn. 
Feterita ranks next to kafir for forage, while milo, kaoliang, and shallu 
have less foliage and more pithy stems. (772, 861) The dwarf types of 
the grain sorghums are often harvested with a grain header, and stock 
grazed on the standing stalks. 

The sorghos with their juicy stalks rich in sugar are grown chiefly 
for forage. Early varieties, such as Amber cane, ripen earlier than 
kafir or milo and may be grown wherever corn will mature. Zavitz of 
the Ontario Agricultural College 22 reports an average plot yield of 16.3 
tons per acre from 3 varieties of sorgho tested for 15 years. Snyder of 
the North Platte, Nebraska, Sub-Station 23 regards sorgho as the best 
forage plant for the more arid sections of the plains district, where 
alfalfa can not be grown, being fully equal to good prairie hay in 
feeding value. Early sorghos have proved the best forage crops on dry 
farms in northwestern Texas and in Arizona, as they evade drought 
better than late maturing types. 24 Where rainfall is more abundant the 
later varieties give a larger yield of forage. The palatable leaves, sweet 

20 Kan. Cir. 28. s Ont. Agr. College. Rpt. 1913. 

21 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 275. "'Nebr. Bui. 135. 
"Conner, Tex. Bui. 103: Clothier, Ariz. Rpt, 1912, 



INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 203 

stalks and freedom from dust make sorgho forage a desirable roughage 
for stock, especially horses. (499, 861) 

309. The sorghums for grazing, soilage, and silage. — Especially in the 
southern states, the sorghums, mainly the sorghos, are widely used as 
summer pasture for horses, cattle, and swine, as they are available at a 
time when other crops are exhausted or immature. Owing to the 
danger from prussic acid poisoning, extreme care must be taken in pas- 
turing second growth or stunted sorghum. (395) By feeding the green 
crop as soilage it is the more completely utilized. Tho sorghum may be 
cut at any time after it reaches a height of 2 to 3 feet, a greater yield of 
nutrients will be secured when it is allowed to head. The early varieties 
of sorghos are admirable soiling crops for the northern states. (421) 

The sorghums formerly had the reputation of producing much sourer 
silage than corn. Numerous experiments have now shown, however, that 
when sufficiently matured, both the sorghos and the grain sorghums 
make excellent silage. Reed of the Kansas Station 25 reports from 2-year 
trials that silage from kafir or sorgho, ensiled when the seeds were hard, 
contained less acid than corn silage and was practically equal to corn 
silage in feeding value. (632, 782, 870) He states that the best way to 
determine when cane or kafir is ready to ensile is to twist the stalk with 
the hands. "When it is so mature that just a very little juice will run 
out the proper stage has been reached. As with corn, it is preferable to 
let the crop of cane or kafir stand till after frost rather than ensile it 
too green. (303) The bagasse, or waste of the sorghum syrup factories, 
should not be wasted, but may be satisfactorily ensiled, as well as the 
leaves removed before running the stalks thru the mill. 

25 Kan. Cir. 28; and information to the authors. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 

I. The Smaller Grasses 

The great grain-bearing plants — Indian corn, wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
rice, and the sorghums — are all members of the grass family, tho they 
are annuals and require careful cultivation. The smaller grasses are 
nearly all perennials, thriving without cultivation and producing rough- 
age of high grade. In the humid regions Nature everywhere spreads a 
carpet of soft, green grass that beautifies the landscape and furnishes 
an abundance of palatable food for animals. Even in the desert the 
grasses struggle for existence and yield rich nutriment, tho in meager 
amount. For recuperating the soil and binding it together and for 
furnishing food to the domestic animals, the smaller grasses are of 
supreme importance. In summertime in those regions where grasses 
flourish, the animals of the farm largely feed themselves, and meat, milk, 
and wool are produced at the minimum cost for labor. 

The smaller grasses may be divided into the sod-formers and non-sod- 
formers. The sod-formers spread by creeping stems below or above 
ground. This group includes our most valuable pasture and lawn 
grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass and Bermuda grass. The non-sod- 
formers grow in tufts or bunches, and tho they may increase in size by 
stooling, do not otherwise spread except by seed. Orchard grass is an 
example of this class. Certain grasses of the group, as timothy, increase 
to a limited extent by development and division of bulbs at the base 
of the stems. 

310. Nutrients in grasses at different stages. — Hay from grasses cut at 
the usual stages of maturity is relatively low in digestible crude protein 
compared with carbohydrates and fats, and hence should be used with 
feeds rich in protein. When immature, before the great development of 
carbohydrates has occurred, the grasses contain a much larger proportion 
of crude protein. At the Michigan Station 1 Crozier cut growing timothy 
grass 8 times from one plat, while on another it was cut and cured into 
hay after making full growth. The hay from the frequently-cut grass 
was nearly 3 times as rich in crude protein as that from the nearly 
mature grass cut once. Good of- the Kentucky Station 2 found that 
Kentucky bluegrass, rye, wheat, and oats, cut when only 5 to 8 inches 
high, contains as high a percentage of crude protein as does alfalfa or 
the clovers. This shows that immature grasses, such as are gathered by 
grazing animals, are protein-rich feeds, and explains the favorable 

1 Mich. Bui. 141. 2 Ky. Rpt. 1911-13, p. 9. 

204 



THE SMALLER GEASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 205 

results attained when corn, a highly carbonaceous feed, is fed alone to 
fattening animals at pasture. Crozier secured nearly 4 times as much 
total dry matter per acre, and also the greatest total yield of crude pro- 
tein, when the grass was nearly mature. Hence, when grass is cut for 
hay at the usual stages, the aggregate yield of nutrients is greater than 
when the same area is kept grazed by animals. 

311. Bluegrass, Poa pratensis. — Kentucky bluegrass, or June grass, is 
the common carpet grass of the northeastern United States, easily rank- 
ing first for lawn and pasture. By its persistence it often drives red 
clover, timothy, and other grasses from the meadows and pastures. 
tenaciously holding its own against all claimants. Appendix Table III 
shows this grass to be one of the richest in both digestible crude protein 
and fat, which helps explain the fondness for it shown by stock. 
Differing from most grasses of the humid regions, mature dried blue- 
grass is quite readily grazed by animals, thus resembling some of the 
grasses of the western ranges. With the coming of spring bluegrass 
pushes forward so vigorously that early in May the fields display a 
thick, nutritious carpet of green, and a little later the seed heads show. 
With seed bearing late in May, the plant's energies become exhausted. 
and bluegrass enters a period of rest which lasts several weeks. During 
this time there is little growth, and if a midsummer drought occurs the 
plants turn brown and appear to be dying. They quickly revive with 
the coming of the fall rains, and again the pastures are green and grow- 
ing. They have had their rest, and each plant is once more busy 
gathering nourishment for the coming season's seed bearing. The ob- 
servant stockman soon learns that it is unwise to rely on bluegrass 
pasture for a steady and uniform feed supply for his cattle thruout 
the season. Accordingly he understocks the pasture in spring so that 
the excess of herbage during May and June may remain to be drawn 
upon during the midsummer dormant period, or he fully stocks it and 
makes up the later shortage by supplying silage or soilage. In some 
districts it has been found profitable to graze bluegrass pastures lightly 
or not at all in summer, and allow the self-cured herbage to stand for 
winter grazing. Because of its low, carpet-like growth, Kentucky blue- 
grass is primarily a pasture grass and should be so regarded. f419j 

312. Timothy, Phleum pratense. — The total acreage in the United 
States of timothy, called "herd's grass" in Xew England, is nearly as 
great as that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, including 
clover and alfalfa. Timothy is a cool-weather grass, and of vast impor- 
tance in the northeastern states, where it furnishes probably three- 
fourths of the hay marketed in the cities. The following points make 
timothy a favorite with the farmer: Timothy seeds, large and easily 
recognized, are produced in abundance and long retain their vitality. A 
field of timothy is quickly established and usually holds out well. The 
grass seldom lodges, is easily cured into hay, and may be harvested over a 
longer period than most grasses. Hay from nearly-ripened grass is 



206 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

usually bright, quite free from dust, and satisfies the city buyer, as it is 
well liked by driving horses, which get most of their nourishment from 
oats or other grain. (493) 

Timothy hay is not desirable as the sole forage crop on well-managed 
farms, because the yield is not large, there is little aftermath, the hay is 
low in protein, and there are other and better plants which may take its 
place. On most farms where timothy is now extensively grown, greater 
use should be made of the legumes, which not only furnish more nutri- 
tious hay, rich in protein, but at the same time increase the fertility of 
the soil. For cattle and sheep legume hay is far preferable to timothy 
(623, 764, 861), and even for horses the legumes may entirely or largely 
replace it. Fodder corn, hay from the cereals — oats, wheat, rye, or 
barley — or mixed clover and timothy hay are also desirable substitutes 
in many cases. 

Red or alsike clover should always be sown with timothy, for the 
combination furnishes more and superior hay, even for horses. Grown 
together, the hay of the first season will consist largely of clover. With 
the close of the second season most of the clover disappears and the de- 
caying clover roots will nourish the timothy which .remains, so that a 
much larger yield of that grass is thereby obtained. Such indirect 
fertilization of the soil should also increase the nutritive value of the 
hay, for at the Minnesota Station 3 timothy grown on manured soil con- 
tained one-fourth more crude protein than that from the same soil with- 
out manure. 

313. When to cut timothy. — The most extensive data on the time to cut 
timothy for hay are those of Waters and Schweitzer at the Missouri Sta- 
tion. 4 During 3 seasons they determined the yield of dry matter in hay 
from timothy cut at different stages, and also the yield of digestible 
nutrients, as found by digestion trials with steers, with the results aver- 
aged in the table : 

Yield of timothy cut at different stages 

Digestible nutrients per acre 

Dry matter Crude Carbo- Total dig. 

per acre protein hydrates Fat matter 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Coming into blossom.. 3,411 135 1,676 43 1,908 

Full bloom 3,964 147 1,867 44 2,113 

Seed formed 4,089 113 1,802 51 2,030 

Seed in dough 4,038 98 1,695 54 1,914 

Seed ripe 3,747 92 1,576 38 1,754 

Cutting the crop when the seed had just formed gave the largest yield 
of dry matter per acre, closely followed by the cutting made when the 
seed was in the dough, and this in turn by the cutting made when the 
plants were in full bloom. In view of the large storage of nutrients 
which continues in the corn plant until the grain is mature (23), it at 
first seems surprising that the last cutting of timothy, made when the 

3 Minn. Bui. 101. 4 Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1910, pp. 71-98. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 207 

seeds were ripe but before they had shattered, yielded 342 lbs. less dry 
matter than the third cutting. This was due to the partial loss of the 
lower leaves as the plant matures, to leaching by rain, and to the stor- 
age of nutrients in the bulbs at the base of the stems. More important 
than the total yield of dry matter is the content of digestible nutrients. 
Owing to decreased digestibility of the later cuttings, at full bloom the 
crop contained noticeably the most digestible crude protein, carbohy- 
drates, and total digestible matter. While the digestible crude protein 
had decreased 23 per ct. by the time the seed was formed, there was 
little or no decrease in the other nutrients up to this stage. Later the 
yield of both digestible crude protein and carbohydrates fell off marked- 
ly. The decrease in total digestible nutrients as the crop matured — a 
condition opposite to that in the corn crop — is explained both by the 
reasons mentioned above and by the fact that the maturing corn plant is 
continuously storing nutrients in the highly digestible grain. Hills of 
the Vermont Station 5 points out that with the smaller grasses the nutri- 
ents stored in the seeds are largely lost to the animal, for the seeds are 
well protected against mastication and digestion by their small size and 
hard seed coats. 

During 2 years Waters determined the preference of stock for the 
several cuttings, steers, dairy cows, and sheep being allowed free access 
to feed racks containing each cutting. Yearling steers with no other 
feed showed a decided preference for the first cutting over the second 
and for the second over the third, discriminating sharply against tne 
fourth and especially the fifth. They ate all of the first 3 cuttings be- 
fore they really began on the fourth or fifth. Those fed liberally on 
grain and silage did not show such marked preferences for the earlier 
cut hay. Dairy cows getting grain and silage did not discriminate be- 
tween the first 3 cuttings, but avoided the later ones. Wethers fed all 
the corn they would eat showed no preference. 

Based on yield of digestible nutrients alone, full bloom appears the 
best time to cut timothy for hay, but other factors must be considered. 
In the corn belt, the cutting must often be delayed because the cultiva- 
tion of corn is then imperative. Immature grass is difficult to cure, the 
weather early in the season is usually more unsettled, and the ground 
cooler. When the crop is cut before the large storage of nutrients in the 
bulbs has occurred, the stand of grass will be impaired, according to 
Waters. The question is thus complex and must be determined from 
local conditions. In general we may conclude that for dairy cows, 
young stock, and sheep, timothy should be cut early, since these animals 
do not relish hay that is woody and lacks aroma, as does most late-cut 
hay. For horses and fattening cattle late cutting is favored. These 
animals subsist mostly on concentrates, and the hay they eat serves more 
for "filling," as horsemen say. In any case the harvest should not be 
too long delayed lest the grass become tough and stringy and the seeds 

5 Vt. Bui. 152. 



208 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

shatter. In trials with early-arid late-cut timothy for fattening steers, 
Sanborn 6 found that late-cut hay gave better returns. The senior author, 
in an unpublished duplicate experiment conducted many years ago, 
reached the same conclusion. 

314. Red top, Agrostis alba or vulgaris. — This grass, of several species, 
is probably suited to a wider range of climatic and soil conditions than 
any other cultivated grass. A couple of years are required to establish 
strong plants from seed, but it then forms a close, well-knit, smooth 
turf, ranking next to bluegrass in this regard. Red top is often indi- 
genous to northern meadows and should be more generally grown. 
Tracy of the Mississippi Station 7 found no better grass than red top for 
marshy lands and seepy hillsides. It is especially valuable on damp 
lands from Canada to the Gulf States and thrives on soil too acid for 
most other cultivated grasses. At the same time it will withstand con- 
siderable drought and endures on poor uplands. Tho not so well liked 
as bluegrass, red top furnishes good pasture, and yields a palatable hay 
with fine stems and numerous leaves. 

315. Orchard grass, Dactylis glomerata. — Tho it does well in full sun- 
light, this grass thrives better than most others in partial shade. It 
endures hot weather better than timothy and is well suited to the south- 
ern border of the timothy belt. As it starts early in the spring it fur- 
nishes valuable pasturage, tho stock prefer bluegrass. It grows in tufts, 
forming an uneven sod, and hence should be sown with other grasses or 
clovers, both for hay and pasture. Ripening 2 weeks before timothy, it 
fits in well with red clover. While late-cut orchard grass makes harsh, 
woody hay, lacking in aroma, that cut in early bloom is equal to the best 
of the hay grasses, carrying considerably more crude protein than tim- 
othy. This grass is usually persistent, deep rooted, withstands summer 
droughts well, and continues growth late in the autumn, producing 
much aftermath. 

316. Brome grass, Bromus inermis. — For the eastern edge of the north- 
ern plains region, stretching from South Dakota to Saskatchewan, brome 
is the most important cultivated grass, flourishing there as do timothy 
and bluegrass farther east. 

This grass furnishes good crops of hay, equal to timothy in feeding 
value, for 3 or 4 years after seeding, by which time it usually becomes 
sod bound and should be renovated by harrowing or shallow plowing. 
Brome is one of the most palatable of pasture grasses and endures heavy 
grazing. Tho this grass is one of the most drought-resistant of the culti- 
vated grasses, Snyder 8 found brome unsatisfactory as a hay crop on dry 
farms in western Nebraska and less productive than the native prairie 
grasses for pasture, except in seasons with heavier rainfall than usual 
in that section. Ladd and Shepperd of the North Dakota Station 9 found 
brome the best grass for permanent pasture, yielding twice as much pro- 
mpt. N. H. Board of Agr., 1880. 8 Nebr. Bui. 135. 
7 Miss. Bui. 20. °N. D. Bui. 47. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 209 

tein and no more fiber than timothy. During a 5-year test, brome grass 
yielded an average of 2 tons of hay at the Manitoba and 1.25 tons at the 
Saskatchewan Station. 10 (496) 

317. The millets. — The millets are rapid growing hot- weather annuals 
of many races and varieties. Of these, the foxtail millets, previously 
described (243), are the type most grown for forage in the United States. 
In this group are common millet, the earliest, most drought-resistant, 
and, according to Piper, 11 the most widely grown variety; the less 
drought-resistant Hungarian millet, shorter stemmed and with seeds 
mostly purplish; and German millet, late maturing and with nodding 
heads, which yields more hay, but not of quite such good quality. The 
foxtail millets are especially valuable as hay crops on dry-farms in the 
northern plains region. In the more humid regions they are grown 
chiefly as catch crops, thriving remarkably in hot and even dry weather 
and reaching the harvest period late in August or September. For 
millet hay of fine quality heavy seeding should be practiced. Millet 
grass designed for hay should be cut as soon as the blossoms appear, to 
prevent the formation of the hard, indigestible seeds. Thickly-seeded, 
early-cured millet hay is useful for cattle and sheep feeding. (798, 861) 
Since millet hay is sometimes injurious to horses, it should be fed spar- 
ingly and under close supervision. (498) 

Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) , a close relative 
of the common barnyard grass, has often been advertised as "billion 
dollar grass. ' ' This plant is much coarser than the foxtail millets and 
under favorable conditions yields large crops of coarse forage. Lindsey 
of the Massachusetts Station 12 found this millet less satisfactory than 
corn for soilage because it is more woody and less drought resistant. 
For hay it is inferior to the foxtail millets. The broom-corn millets, 
previously described (243), are grown chiefly for seed production, as the 
yield of forage is low and the stems woody. Pearl millet (Pennisetum 
glaucum), also called pencillaria or cat-tail millet, is adapted to the same 
conditions as the sorghums, which have largely displaced it in both the 
semi-arid regions and the South. As a soiling crop this tall growing 
grass has value in the southern states, yielding 3 or more cuttings in a 
season. It should be cut when 3 to 4 feet high, before the stems become 
hard. 

Teosinte (Euchlaena Mexicana) , a giant millet resembling sorghum, 
requires a rich, moist soil and is too tropical to have value north of the 
southern portion of the Gulf States. The culture of this grass is de- 
creasing in the United States, because on moderately fertile soils it 
yields less than sorghum, and on rich land less than Japanese cane. 13 

318. The small grains for forage. — Oats, barley, wheat, rye, and emmer 
may all be successfully used for the production of hay, soilage, and 
pasturage. In 1909 over 4,300,000 acres of small grains were cut for hay 

10 Canada Expt. Farms, Rpts. 1902-6. "Mass. Bui. 133. 

u Forage Plants, p. 288. 13 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 303. 



210 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

in the United States, nearly as large an acreage as was devoted to alfalfa, 
and about 4 times that of the millets. 14 Over half this area was in the 
Pacific coast states, wheat and barley being grown in Washington and 
chiefly barley in California. More than 40 per ct. of all the hay grown 
in the southeastern coast states, from North Carolina to Louisiana, is 
from the small grains. When intended for hay, the cereal grasses should 
be cut while the grains are in the early milk stage, at which time the 
stems and leaves may be cured into a bright, dust-free hay of good 
quality. Bearded wheat, barley, and rye should be cut before the awns 
harden. Cereal crops which have lodged badly because of overrich soil 
or excessive rainfall may often be advantageously converted into hay. 
(494) 

In the North, fall-sown rye or wheat furnish excellent late fall and 
early spring pasture and soilage, while spring-sown oats and barley pro- 
vide green forage in early summer. Barley is the best cereal grass for 
late summer seeding, since the young plants do not rust so readily as do 
other cereals. In the southern states fall-sown grains, including winter 
oats, may be pastured thru the winter, and if not cropped too closely or 
too late will still yield considerable hay or grain. At the Alabama 
(Canebrake) Station 15 a fall-seeded barley field yielded over 11 tons of 
green forage per acre by the following March. In southern Kansas it 
was found that fall-sown wheat pastured by cows during mild weather 
in winter gave a grass flavor to winter butter. The bad flavor which 
green rye imparts to milk may usually be avoided by grazing the cows 
thereon for but 2 or 3 hours immediately after milking. In the northern 
states the cereal grain plants are not as extensively used for hay and 
pasture as they should be. 

A field sown to rye, wheat, oats, or barley for temporary pasture ma,y 
be changed to a permanent one by sowing clover and grass seed thereon 
early in spring in the usual manner. The grass and clover plants will 
then begin growth under shelter of the young grain plants. Stock may 
be turned into such pastures to graze on the cereal plants regardless of 
the young grasses and clovers, but should be kept off the field immediate- 
ly after rain while the ground is soft. The cattle will tramp out some 
of the tiny grass plants, but will do no permanent harm. The young 
grass and clover plants will grow rapidly, and as the cereal plants die 
will spread until they form a dense, permanent sod. Such double 
seeding gives the earliest possible summer pasture of rye, wheat, barley, 
or oats, followed by the more permanent one of mixed grasses and clovers. 

If ensiled when the kernels are just past the milk stage or slightly 
earlier, the cereals make silage of fair to good quality. The crop should 
be run thru a silage cutter and unusual care taken in tramping down the 
mass to force as much air as possible out of the hollow stems. Hooper of 
the Kentucky Station 10 found rye silage relished by cows and not in- 
jurious to the flavor of the milk if fed several hours before milking. (636) 

14 U. S. Census, 1910. 15 Ala. Bui. 9. 16 Ky. Exten. Cir. 31. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 211 

319. Minor northern grasses. — Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa) will 
yield fair pasturage or small crops of hay on poor or thin soil where 
Kentucky bluegrass fails. It withstands close grazing and is considered 
excellent for fattening cattle. This grass is important in Ontario and 
New York and is also abundant in Pennsylvania, the Virginias, and 
Maryland. 

Fowl meadow grass (Poa flava), a close relative of Kentucky blue- 
grass, thrives in the northeastern states on wet land subject to overflow 
where even red top and alsike clover are killed out. Hills of the Ver- 
mont Station 17 reports yields on such wet meadows of 1.2 to 2.5 tons per 
acre of hay which is as well relished as upland hay. 

Meadow fescue (Festuca elatior), a tufted, long-lived perennial grass, 
is adapted to practically the same area as timothy, which excels it for 
hay. Tho it thrives best on rich moist land, the largest acreage is grown 
in eastern Kansas. 18 It is best as a pasture grass, starting growth early 
in the season and continuing till late in the fall. As the seed is high- 
priced, it is usually sown in mixture with other grasses for permanent 
pastures. 

Italian rye grass (Lolium multiflorum) and English rye grass (Lolium 
pcrenne) are short-lived, rapid growing perennials. Tho of great im- 
portance in Europe they are little grown in this country, except in the 
humid region of western Washington and Oregon, where they are among 
the best pasture grasses. 

Slender wheat grass (Agropyron tenerum), known in Canada as west- 
ern rye grass, the only native North American grass which has proved 
valuable under cultivation, is giving satisfaction in the northern plains 
district. 19 

320. Bermuda grass, Cynodon Dactylon. — This low growing, creeping 
grass is to the cotton belt what Kentucky bluegrass and timothy combined 
are to the northeastern United States. Bermuda grass forms a dense, 
soil binding sod, which covers the southern fields with a carpet of green 
from April to October as pleasing to the eye of the stockman as it is to 
the animals grazing thereon. It serves best when closely grazed, as 
otherwise it becomes tough and wiry. Because of its aggressiveness, it 
drives most other grasses out in summer, but lespedeza or white clover 
will flourish in spots among this grass and improve the pasture. For 
winter pasture, when Bermuda fails, the Bermuda sod may be seeded to 
bur clover, hairy vetch, or Italian rye grass. (354, 359, 319) Piper 20 
states that good Bermuda pasture will carry 1 cow to the acre and the 
best mixed Bermuda and lespedeza pasture will graze 2 animals per acre 
during the summer. The Louisiana Station 21 grazed 30 head of cattle 
of all ages on 17 acres of Bermuda grass pasture, mixed with other 
grasses and some lespedeza, with no other feed from March to November. 
Killebrew 22 states that on the best alluvial soils 1 acre of Bermuda 

17 Vt. Bui. 137. 10 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 219. 21 La. Bui. 72. 

15 Ten Eyck, Kan. Bui. 175. 20 Forage Plants, p. 243. "La. Bui. 72. 



212 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

pasture will graze 10 sheep for 8 months. Bermuda pastures are best 
utilized by subdividing them and turning the stock from one lot to the 
other. Tho primarily a pasture grass, on rich soil Bermuda gives good 
yields of hay. While 3 to 4 tons of hay per acre have been secured in 
2 to 3 cuttings, according to Piper 23 the average yield does not exceed 
a ton per acre. (497, 625) The stout rootstocks when plowed up are 
readily eaten by hogs, and in the tropics, when the top growth is scanty, 
are often pulled up and fed to horses. 

321. Johnson grass, Andropogon halepensis. — In the South this rela- 
tive of the sorghums is the worst weed of the cotton planter and at the 
same time the best meadow grass for many sections. 24 Spreading by 
seed and vigorous creeping rootstocks, it can be eradicated only with 
great difficulty, and hence it is not as a rule sown on clean fields. On 
rich soil in the southern states 3 cuttings of good quality hay may be 
secured, if cut before maturity. Six tons of Johnson-grass hay per 
acre are reported, tho the annual return usually ranges from 2 to 3 
tons. (497, 626) As the grass soon becomes sod bound, it should be 
plowed every 2 or 3 years. While this coarse grass is not well suited 
for pasture, it may be cut once each month for soilage during the sum- 
mer season. The rootstocks of Johnson grass are readily eaten by stock, 
especially hogs, fields sometimes being plowed in Texas to furnish 
winter feed. 25 

322. Sudan grass; Tunis grass. — Sudan grass (Andropogon sorghum, 
var.), a close relative of the sorghums, is a tall annual grass introduced 
into this country by the United States Department of Agriculture in 
1909. It closely resembles Johnson grass, but has broader and more 
numerous leaves and fortunately has no creeping rootstocks, so that it 
cannot become a pest. Sudan grass grows 6 to 10 feet high in cultivated 
rows, and 4 to 5 feet when sown broadcast. For so rank a grass the 
stems are fine, being seldom larger than a lead pencil. The hay is 
equal or even superior to millet and can be fed to all classes of stock 
without injury, and the plant is also well suited for soilage. 26 In com- 
position it closely resembles timothy and Johnson grass. Thruout the 
northern states it yields only one cutting, but farther south it may be 
cut twice or even more. Sudan grass is adapted to the same conditions 
as the sorghums, and being drought resistant will doubtless prove one of 
the most valuable forage crops for the western portion of the plains 
region, from central South Dakota to Texas. According to Vinall, 27 in 
1913, with unusually severe drought, yields ranging from 1.25 to 5.0 tons 
were secured in this section without irrigation. As Sudan grass is a 
warm-weather grass it does not flourish at high altitudes or in the ex- 

23 Forage Plants, p. 242. 

- 4 Wing, Meadows and Pastures, pp. 355, 401. 

25 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 246. 

M Piper, Forage Plants, p. 281. 

27 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 605. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 213 

treme northern states. In the corn belt and in the east central states 
where alfalfa, clover, and timothy nourish, its chief value will be as 
a catch crop in place of millet. Under irrigation in the Southwest 
yields of 7.8 to 9.8 tons have been secured, which indicates its value as a 
forage to feed with alfalfa. 1 ' 8 Along the humid Gulf Coast, Sudan grass 
does not thrive. Since this grass crosses readily with the sorghums and 
bears seed closely resembling those of Johnson grass, unusual care is 
necessary to ensure its purity. 

Tunis grass, another variety of Andropogon sorghum which has been 
recently introduced into this country, is less leafy and vigorous than 
Sudan grass, which so far has surpassed it in value for all sections. 29 

323. Japanese cane ; sugar cane. — Because of its heavy yields, Japanese 
cane, a slender stemmed variety of the common sugar cane, Saccharum 
officinarum, is one of the cheapest forage crops that can be grown in the 
Gulf states, and possibly in southern California. Scott 30 reports that in 
Florida it furnishes good pasture for cattle and hogs from November to 
March but is killed by grazing after growth starts in the spring. Stock 
first eat the green blades and then the stalks, leaving only the short 
stubble. The crop may be cured as dry fodder and makes good silage. 
Scott 31 states that yields of 25 to 30 tons of green forage per acre are 
not unusual. 

The tops and leaves of common sugar cane, removed on harvesting 
the cane, also make satisfactory forage for live stock. Dodson and Staples 
of the Louisiana Station 32 state that cattle ate silage from sugar-cane 
tops well. They point out the great loss which occurs when this by- 
product is not utilized by feeding it to stock. 

324. Other southern grasses. — Crab grass (Digitaria sanguinalis), an 
annual, weedy, volunteer grass, furnishes more forage in the Gulf states 
than any other grass. Springing up after early crops, it furnishes fair 
hay or good fall pasture. 33 Carpet grass (Axonopus Compressus), a 
perennial with creeping rootstocks, probably ranks next to Bermuda as 
a pasture grass for the southern half of the cotton-belt, being especially 
useful on damp lowlands. 

Para grass (Panicum barbinode) is a coarse, tropical grass with stout 
runners which may reach 15 to 40 feet, taking root at intervals. It pro- 
duces several cuttings annually, yielding as much as 4 tons of hay per 
acre at a single cutting. 34 Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), a peren- 
nial with short creeping rootstocks, furnishes 4 to 6 cuttings in the 
Gulf region. Tracy 35 states that 1 acre of this grass will carry 4 head of 
cattle thru the season by soilage, or 3 head by grazing. Rescue grass 
(Bromus unioloides), a short-lived perennial, is probably the best grass 
for temporary winter pastures on rich land in the South. On such soil 

N U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 605. ^ La. Bui. 143. 

- :, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 605. ™ Hunt, Forage and Fiber Crops, p. 117. 

so Fla. Bui. 105. 34 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 254. 

31 Wing, Meadows and Pastures, p. 360. K U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 300. 



214 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

it grows large enough to be cut for hay. 30 Natal grass (Tricholaena 
rosea), when once seeded in the Gulf section, volunteers from year to 
year, coming after early crops and producing excellent fall and winter 
grazing and good hay. 37 

325. Wild and marsh grasses. — Along certain sections of the Atlantic 
coast are extensive salt marshes, the best of which are cut for hay at low 
tide, yielding 0.5 to 1 ton per acre. Lindsey 38 of the Massachusetts 
Station found such hay from 10 to 18 per ct. less valuable than average 
mixed hay from the cultivated grasses for dairy cows. (627) In all 
humid regions of the country are large fresh water marshes, some of 
which are covered with the more nutritious true grasses, while in others 
the rushes and sedges predominate. Such marsh hay as blue joint, 
Calamagrostis Canadensis, cut before maturity, nearly equals timothy 
in value. 

The prairies of the Great Plains and the grazing ranges of the West 
support numerous native grasses that furnish excellent pasturage and 
hay equal to timothy when the growth is rank enough to be cut. (495, 
624, 761, 861) The sedges and rushes of the mountain states are richer 
in nutrients than those of the eastern states. 39 

326. Mixed grasses. — No matter how valuable, no single variety of 
grass should be grown in permanent meadows or pastures, but always a 
mixture of several kinds in combination with the clovers. In the North 
a combination of red top, timothy, and orchard grass, together with alsike 
and medium red clover, will yield a larger tonnage of aromatic, palat- 
able hay than is possible from any single variety. The variety and 
proportion of grasses and clovers to be included in such a mixture will 
depend on climate and soil, and can not be discussed in this work. In 
case of doubt as to the mixture to sow the stockman should consult the 
experiment station of his state, which understands the local conditions, 
and should also observe the growth of the different varieties on his own 
and adjacent farms. It must be remembered that the presence or absence 
of sufficient plant food — nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime — 
determines and regulates not only the yield of forage, but also, in large 
degree, the particular species or varieties of grasses and legumes which 
do or may grow in any given field. 

327. The abuse of pasturage. — Stockmen rely too blindly upon pastures 
for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year. But a few 
centuries ago the inhabitants of Great Britain trusted to the growth of 
natural herbage for the support of their stock not only in summer but 
thruout the entire year. If their animals, foraging for themselves as 
best they could, survived the winter, all was well; if they died from 
starvation, it was an "act of God." We have abandoned the crude 
practices of our ancestors, and now carefully store in barns an abundance 
of feed for flocks and herds during winter's rigor. We are amazed that 

30 Piper, Forage Plants, p. 257. w Mass. Bui. 50. 

31 Wing, Meadows and Pastures, p. 366. 30 Wyo. Bui. 78. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 215 

our ancestors were so improvident as to gather no winter feed for their 
cattle. By turning cattle to pasture in spring and letting them forage 
as best they may until winter we show that all the barbaric blood has 
not yet been eliminated from our veins. If the summer rains are timely 
and abundant the cattle are well nourished on these pastures ; if drought 
prevails they suffer for food as surely, and often as severely, as did the 
live stock of England in winter, ages ago. To suffering from scant feed 
there is added the heat of "dog days" and the ever-present annoyance 
of blood-sucking flies. Our stockmen will never be worthy of their call- 
ing, nor their flocks and herds yield their best returns, until ample pro- 
vision is made against drought-ruined pastures in summer. 

The decline in yield of permanent pastures is often attributed to over 
grazing. This is undoubtedly a most important cause of the depletion 
of some of the western ranges, but heavy grazing is not necessarily in- 
jurious to pastures in humid regions. Carrier and Oakley of the Virginia 
Station 40 found in a 5-year test that bluegrass pastures heavily grazed 
were more productive than those lightly grazed, as weeds were prevented 
from encroaching. Testing the effect of the often-recommended system 
of alternate grazing of pastures, they found insufficient increase in yield, 
measured by the gains made by the steers, to justify the extra expense. 
In America we have not begun to utilize our pastures as is done in 
Europe, where stock is still grazed on land worth several hundred dollars 
an acre. By proper fertilization, reseeding with suitable mixtures of 
grasses and clovers, and keeping down brush and weeds the productivity 
of pastures may be both greatly and profitably increased. 

Because of over-stocking and over-grazing under the system of free 
and unrestricted grazing, the carrying capacity of many of the western 
ranges has been seriously reduced. The day of the "all-year-round" 
open range is now almost past, and in its place has come a system under 
which, by the use of supplemental feed for periods of summer dronghl 
winter storm, the natural forage is utilized much more wisely than be- 
fore. With ranges thus handled the enormous losses of cattle and sheep 
from starvation, which were all too common in the old range days, are 
prevented. The improvement under a rational system of grazing has 
been demonstrated on the grazing areas under the control of the L'nited 
States Forest Service 41 and by the studies of Thornber and Griffith at 
the Arizonia Station. 42 Fencing or otherwise restricting the range, the 
development of convenient water supplies, the conservation of the range 
during periods of seed ripening and germination, and the prevention of 
soil erosion have greatly increased the carrying capacity of such areas. 
Thornber cites an instance where, 6 years after fencing, a range of over 
25 square miles carried nearly twice as many cattle as before fencing. 
The animals also kept in excellent condition thruout the year, while 
formerly they lost weight rapidly during the winter and occasionally 
some died from shortage of feed. 

*'- Va. Bui. 204. " Barnes, Western Grazing Grounds. a Ariz. Bui. 65. 



216 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

II. Straw and Chaff 

As the cereals and other plants mature, the nutrients which have been 
built up in the green portions of the plants are in large part stored in 
the ripening seed, thus exhausting the stems and leaves of easily digested 
nutrients and leaving in them the resistant woody fiber, or cellulose. All 
straws are therefore much lower in nutritive value than the same plants 
cut for hay before maturity. The feeding value of each class of straw 
may differ widely, depending on the stage at which the crop was cut, 
the care with which it was cured, and the amount of the more nutritious 
grasses and weeds present. 

328. Straw and chaff of the cereals. — Straw is poor in crude protein 
and fat, and high in woody fiber, or cellulose, a carbohydrate that re- 
quires much energy for its digestion and disposal. (80) Accordingly, 
it should be fed but sparingly to animals at hard work, fattening rapidly, 
or giving a large flow of milk. For animals at light work, fattening 
slowly, or giving only a little milk some straw can often be advantageous- 
ly used. Straw is particularly useful in winter with horses that are idle 
and cattle that are being carried over without materially gaining in 
weight. Heat is one of the requirements of such animals, and the large 
amount of energy expended in masticating, digesting, and passing straw 
thru the body finally appears as heat which helps warm the body. (501, 
502) The stockman who understands the nature and properties of straw 
will usually be able to make large use of it. In Canada and Europe 
pulped roots and meal are often mixed with straw, which is cut or 
"chaffed," and the moist mass allowed to soften and even to ferment 
slightly. It is then readily consumed in large quantities by cattle and 
sheep with satisfactory results. In many districts of Europe horses are 
fed cut straw mixed with their concentrate allowance. In trials at the 
Indiana Station, Skinner and King found that oat straw was as satisfac- 
tory as clover hay for satisfying the desire for dry roughage of steers 
otherwise fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and corn silage. When fed 
with corn silage, oat straw is equal to corn stover for fattening lambs. 
(778, 862) 

Oat straw with its soft, pliable stems is the most nutritious, followed 
by barley straw. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is not so readily 
eaten by cattle, tho spring-wheat straw is of more value than that from 
winter wheat. Rye straw, harsh and woody, is better suited for bedding 
than for feed. The chaff of wheat and oats contains more crude protein 
than does straw, and forms a useful roughage when not unduly con- 
taminated with dust, rust, or mold. 

329. Straw from the legumes and other plants. — Straw from the le- 
gumes contains considerably more crude protein and less fiber than 
that from the cereals and is more digestible. In a trial by H. W. Mum- 
ford at the Michigan Station 43 field-bean straw proved superior to oat 
straw for fattening lambs. Carmichael of the Ohio Station 44 found that 

"Mich. Bui. 136. " Ohio Bui. 245. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 217 

lambs fed corn aud linseed meal made better gains on soybean straw than 
on corn stover, tho refusing 41 per ct. of the soybean straw. Field-pea 
straw, with its finer stems and often still carrying some seed has a high- 
er value than the coarser straw from field beans or soybeans. While 
not especially desirable, flax straw may be fed in the absence of better 
roughage. The statement that the stringy fiber of flax forms indigestible 
balls in the stomachs of farm animals is unwarranted, since it is digested 
the same as other fibrous matter, such as the lint of cotton and the pith 
of corn stalks. Green colored straw from immature flax plants should 
be fed with extreme caution, as it may contain large amounts of prussic 
acid. Ince of the North Dakota Station 45 found the amount of this 
poison in straw or chaff from ripe flax plants so small that it could not 
cause trouble if fed in moderate amounts. Straw containing considerable 
flaxseed or weed seeds has increased value. Wilson of the South Dakota 
Station 40 advises against feeding flax straw to pregnant animals. 

Buckwheat straw is of low value and may cause digestive disturbances 
if fed in large amount. 47 Nelson of the Arkansas Station 48 states that 
properly cured rice straw is excellent for stock. 



III. Hay-making 

Thruout the temperate regions hay from the grasses and legumes 
serves as the common roughage for all the larger animals that produce 
food or perform labor for man. The conversion of green forage into 
hay must have been the first great step in changing the nomad herdsman 
into the farmer-stockman. In the United States for the year 1914, over 
49,145,000 acres of land produced 70,071,000 tons of hay worth on the 
farm $779,068,000. 49 

330. Nutritive value of dried grass. — To determine the effect upon its 
feeding value of drying young grass Armsby 50 conducted a trial at the 
Wisconsin Station and a later test at the Pennsylvania Station. In the 
Wisconsin experiment the grass was cut when 9 to 10 inches high, and 
in the Pennsylvania trial short grass was cut with a lawn mower. In 
each case half the grass was fed fresh to a cow, and the other half later 
fed to the same cow after being carefully dried in the sun on canvas 
in the first trial, and in the second, over a steam boiler. There was no 
difference in the amount either of milk or butter fat produced on the 
dried and the fresh grass, showing that perfectly dried grass yields as 
much nutriment as when fed in the fresh condition. In actual hay mak- 
ing, however, more or less of the finer portions of the plant is always lost. 

Exposure to the sun reduces the palatability by bleaching and causes 
a loss of aromatic compounds, dew works injury, and rain carries away 
the more soluble portions. (56) Thus, while the dried grass may theo- 
retically equal the fresh forage, in practice it falls short. 

45 N. D. Bui. 106. « Ark. Bui. 98. 

"•Breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 19. 4D U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1914. 

47 Pott, Erna.hr. u. Futter.. II, p. 329. M Penn. Rpt. 1888. 



218 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Stockkard 51 cured one sample of meadow hay in 3 days and left 
another in the field for 13 days in alternate wet and dry weather. 
Analysis showed that the weathered hay had lost 12.5 per ct. of its total 
dry substance, representing one-fourth of its original nutritive value. 
Marcker 52 found the loss in meadow hay exposed to prolonged rain to 
be 18.4 per ct. of the dry substance. Even greater losses occur when 
legume hay is exposed to rain. According to Wolff 53 40 per ct. of the 
dry matter of clover hay may be extracted by cold water. Headden at 
the Colorado Station 54 analyzed alfalfa hay before and after exposure to 
3 rains, aggregating 1.8 inches, with the following results: 

Composition of alfalfa hay before and after exposure to rain 





Crude protein 


Fiber 


N-free extract 


Fat 


Ash 




Per ct. 


Per et. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


not rained on ... . 


18.7 


26.5 


38.7 


3.9 


12.2 


damaged by rain . 


11.0 


38.8 


33.6 


3.8 


12.7 



It will be noted that the damaged hay contained much less crude 
protein, considerably less nitrogen-free extract, and much more fiber. 
Of the original nutrients 60 per ct. of the crude protein, 41.0 per ct. of 
the nitrogen-free extract, and 33.3 per ct. of the fat, — or 31.7 per ct. 
of the total dry matter was lost. The actual damage was even greater, 
for the nutrients lost were those most soluble and hence most easily 
digested. 

331. Hay-making. — The widely varying character of grass and legume 
crops, the dryness and the temperature of the soil of the meadows, the 
humidity of the atmosphere, and the intensity and continuity of sun- 
light and heat, are all modifying factors that combine to make the cur- 
ing of forage crops into hay one of those arts which cannot be very help- 
fully discussed in books. However, it is highly important to understand 
the principles underlying hay-making and have in mind the procedures 
under the leading systems. Each can then adapt his practice to his own 
conditions. 

In curing hay under ideal conditions, 3 different processes take place 
which are well summarized by Piper: 55 (1) A reduction in water 
content to about 15 per ct. (ranging from 7 per ct. to 25 per ct.), (2) 
fermentations of the hay produced by enzymes, which usually develop 
a characteristic aroma, (3) more or less bleaching, due to destruction of 
the green chlorophyll by sunlight, the bleaching being increased by the 
action of the dew. 

The ends sought in making hay are to secure bright green color, good 
aroma, retention of the leaves and other finer parts (especially in 
legumes), and freedom from dust and mold. 

When it is desired to secure prime hay without regard to expense, it 
is mown as soon as the dew is off in the morning, allowed to lie in the 

"Wolff, Farm Foods, Eng. ed., p. 155. M Colo. Bui. 111. 

r ' 2 Loc. cit. rJi Forage Plants, p. 24. 

08 Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 160. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 219 

swath until dry on the surface, then turned, if heavy, by hand or by 
hay tedder, or raked into loose windrows. Before the dew falls, it is 
bunched into well-made cocks and, if sufficiently cured so that it will 
not mold, is allowed to remain until it has passed thru a sweating pro- 
cess. With legume hay it is well to protect the cocks from rain by hay 
caps. After sweating, it is usually necessary to open the cocks carefully 
and in large flakes to avoid shattering the leaves. These flakes rapid- 
ly give off their moisture, which by this time has spread evenly to all 
parts, and the hay is soon ready for the barn. Where the hay was green 
or damp with rain when cocked, it may be necessary to open the cocks 
the next morning, recocking before nightfall if still not dry enough. 
By this system the hay is exposed but little to the bleaching action of 
the sun and dew, and there is no marked loss of aroma, which, tho un- 
weighable, has real value in rendering hay palatable. Before the partly 
dried plants are piled into cocks, the leaves will have dried out more 
than the stems. As the leaves and stems remain alive for some time 
after having been severed by the mower, if the hay is cocked before the 
leaves are entirely dried out and thereby killed, they will continue to 
draw water from the stems. This process is especially important with 
the legumes, which have thick stems that are usually quite succulent, 
while the leaves dry rapidly and become brittle and shatter badly. Hay 
cocked in the afternoon entraps much warm air, and the mass remains 
in a condition favorable to the transpiration, or giving off, of moisture 
during the night. The heat yielded by the plant while still carrying 
on its life functions and the warm air entrapped by grass gathered in 
the afternoon should not be confused with the heat which may develop 
in partially cured or damp hay thru fermentation, caused by molds 
and bacteria. 

Hay put into the barn when so dry that it will not pack well, is not 
in first class condition. It should be mowed away with just that amount 
of moisture which allows it to settle compactly when treaded down. Salt 
and lime scattered over hay when put into the mow tend to prevent 
fermentation and check the growth of molds. Salt also renders it more 
palatable. These materials are not essential, but are helpful, especially 
when storing partially cured hay during bad weather. Damp hay ma} 7 
be improved by placing it in alternate layers with dry straw. The straw 
absorbs moisture as well as aroma from the hay, so that cattle the more 
readily eat both straw and hay. Hay from second-growth grass, or 
aftermath, is rich in nutrients, but it is made at a time when the ground 
is often damp and cool, the days short, and the heat of the sun weak. 
This combination renders the curing of aftermath difficult, and the prod- 
uct is apt to be of less value than first-crop hay. Cured under favor- 
able conditions, aftermath hay is excellent. 

New-made hay is laxative and should not be fed to horses, since it 
makes soft flesh and may cause colic. Not until the sweating process has 
been completed in the mow and the mass cooled off can new-crop hay 
be fed with entire safety. 



220 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

332. Making- hay under favorable conditions. — On farms where large 
acreages of hay are made, it is often unprofitable to cure the crop in 
cocks, owing to the labor involved, even tho better hay is thus secured. 
Under a system often followed the hay is mown in the morning and by 
frequent tedding and turning is housed before the dew falls at night. 
When the weather is very dry, even clover and alfalfa, if dry on the sur- 
face of the swath, are often raked directly into small windrows by a 
side-delivery or other rake, without previous tedding. After curing 
here for a few hours the hay is loaded from the swath by the hay loader, 
or, in the West, is hauled to the stack with a sweep rake. 

Another method is to cut the crop late in the afternoon so that the 
dew will not materially affect the plants during the night, because they 
are but little wilted. Even should rain come it will cause far less in- 
jury than if the plants were partially cured. The following day, by aid 
of tedder or rake, the drying is hastened as much as possible, and the 
hay placed under cover or in the stack before night. 

When these methods are followed with the legumes, it is impossible 
to avoid much loss of the leaves, for when curing in the swath or windrow 
the leaves become dry and brittle long before the stems are dry enougli 
to allow the hay to be stored. Headden of the Colorado Station 50 found 
that 40 to 60 per ct. of the weight of the alfalfa plant is in its leaves, 
which carry four-fifths of the crude protein and over half of the nitrogen- 
free extract and fat. Three-fourths of the fiber, or woody portion, of 
alfalfa is in the stems. He further found that in the dry climate of 
Colorado, with all conditions favorable, for every ton of alfalfa hay taken 
off the field not less than 350 lbs. of leaves and stems was wasted, and 
with unfavorable conditions and careless handling there was a loss of as 
much as 3,000 lbs. In other words, it is possible for more hay to be 
lost than is garnered. 

In dry climates, to avoid undue loss of leaves and yet save the labor 
involved in cocking the hay by hand, especially with alfalfa and clover, 
the hay is not allowed to cure long in the swath, but is raked into wind- 
rows in the afternoon and allowed to remain there over night. The 
next morning after the dew is off the hay is bunched with a rake and 
should be ready to haul by afternoon. 57 

333. Aids in curing hay.— Besides hay caps to protect the cocks of cur- 
ing hay from rain, especially with such crops as cowpeas and peanuts 
which are thick stemmed and succulent, devices are often used, under 
unfavorable weather conditions, to allow the air to penetrate the cocks. 58 
The simplest is the perch, which is a stake about 6 feet high with cross 
arms 2 to 3 feet long. This is driven into the ground so that the cross 
arms do not touch the earth, and the green or partly-cured plants are 
then piled on the frame so as to make a tall, slender cock. A somewhat 

'"Colo. Bui. 110. 

57 Jardin and Call, Kan. Bui. 197. 

M Adapted from Piper, Forage Plants, pp. 26-28. 



THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 221 

more elaborate device, the pyramid, consists of 3 or 4 legs joined at the 
top and sometimes shaped so they can be driven firmly into the ground. 
This permits of making a larger cock with an air space in the interior. 
Other frames combine the characteristics of the perch and the pyramid. 
Often such crops as cowpeas are stacked before thoro curing, rails 
supported at the ends being used to separate the stack into layers with 
air spaces between. 

In Mississippi when the heavy rainfall menaces some of the alfalfa 
cuttings Gurler 58 constructs sleds of boards and scantlings, about 5 by 
5 feet, on which the alfalfa, cured as much as possible, is cocked and 
covered with muslin caps. These large cocks usually remain untouched, 
or when the alfalfa is very green when cocked they may be opened out in 
flakes to dry the more quickly. When cured, the cocks, still on the sleds, 
are drawn direct to the barn or baler. 

334. Brown hay. — Where weather conditions render it impossible to 
make good hay by the usual methods, the crop may be preserved as 
"brown hay." The fresh-cut material may be made into cocks at once, 
each layer being thoroly compacted by tramping. The curing is brought 
about by the fermentation which takes place in the moist mass. After 
the cocks have stood for 48 to 60 hours they are opened out for a time to 
allow the vapor to escape, and the brown hay may then be safely housed. 
More commonly the crop is somewhat cured in the air and then piled in 
compact stacks where it remains until fed. The crop must not be too 
dry when stacked or it can not be packed firmly enough, and the undue 
amount of air present permits the fermentation to produce sufficient 
heat to char the mass. If the crop is too green, it will not cure, but be 
converted into stack silage. Pott G0 recommends stacking when about 
one-fourth of the water has been lost by curing. At this stage it will 
not be possible to wring any water from a wisp of the grass stems. The 
crop should not be stacked when wet with rain or dew. 

The product will vary in color from dark brown to nearly black, 
depending on the extent of the fermentation. The darker the color the 
lower wall be the feeding value. Brown hay of good quality has an 
aromatic odor and is well liked by stock. However, as the losses of 
nutrients are greater than when the crop is cured into hay by the usual 
methods, the process can be recommended only when the weather is 
unusually unfavorable. 

335. Spontaneous combustion. — It is now generally conceded that 
spontaneous combustion may occur in partly dried clover or grass. Hoff- 
mann" 1 states that when hay heats, oxygen is taken from the air, and 
organic matter is transformed into carbon dioxid and water. The water 
thus formed further moistens the hay, which then ferments, owing to 
the presence of bacteria. The first fermentation may cause a tempera- 
ture of 133° F., and this leads to a higher one of about 194° F. When 

r,n Information to the authors. "'Expt. Sta. Rec, 10, p. 880. 

'■■"Ernahr. u. Futter., I, 1904, p. 211. 



222 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

this temperature is reached, the hay heats still more and charring goes 
on rapidly. All these processes together destroy at least half of the 
material present. According to tests, clover hay will ignite at 302° to 
392° F. The temperature may become sufficiently high for sponta- 
neous combustion, which is indicated by the hay becoming darker in color 
and finally black, by sooty odors, and by smoke. It is probable, tho not 
certain, that spontaneous combustion does not occur in partially dried 
clover or grass even if quite damp, provided it carries only its own 
natural moisture. Spontaneous combustion generally, and possibly 
always, occurs in stored or stacked hay that carries external moisture in 
the form of dew or rain. The trouble is best avoided by never placing 
hay material in stack or barn when it carries excessive moisture or is 
wet with dew or rain. When curing hay heats dangerously high it 
should be compacted and covered with other material and all other 
possible means taken to shut out the air. 

336. Measurement and shrinkage. — Woll 62 states that 420 cubic feet 
of timothy or 500 of clover hay in the mow equals 1 ton. Wheeler and 
Adams of the Rhode Island Station 63 found that field-cured, mixed red 
top and timothy hay, containing from 25 to 29 per ct. water when placed 
in the barn, showed a shrinkage of from 15 to 20 per ct. of the original 
weight when later removed. Jordan of the Pennsylvania Station 04 found 
that timothy hay stored in the mow shrank on the average 22 per ct. and 
red clover 37 per ct. Wilson of the Arizona Station 65 found the shrinkage 
of stacked alfalfa hay to range from 11 to 23 per ct. Sanborn of the 
Missouri Station 66 estimates that a hay stack 12 ft. in diameter has 33 
per ct. of its contents in the surface foot where it is more or less exposed 
to the weather. A stack of second-crop clover lost 30 per ct. in weight 
between early August and the following March, 17 per ct. of this loss 
being water and 13 per ct. dry matter. 

152 Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen. 

03 R. I. Bui. 82. "'Penn. Bui. 5. " 5 Ariz. Rpt. 1907. ,iS Mo. Bui. 25, 1st series. 



CHAPTER XIV 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 

The cereal grains and the grasses are all rich in carbohydrates com- 
pared with crude protein, and thus serve primarily as sources of energy 
and fat in nourishing animals. The legumes comprise the great group 
of food-bearing plants characterized by their high content of crude pro- 
tein, and therefore serve especially for building the muscles and the other 
protein tissues of the body. (92-4) Their great value is due not only 
to this but also to their richness in lime (97-8), which is required in 
large amounts by growing animals and those which are pregnant or 
giving milk. (See Appendix Tables I and VI.) 

The leguminous roughages are therefore admirable supplements to 
the cereal grains, and stand in marked contrast to forage from corn, the 
sorghums, and the smaller grasses, all of which, if cut when nearly 
mature, furnish forage low in crude protein and only poor to fair in 
lime. Thru the proper utilization of roughage from the legumes the 
amount of concentrates needed to provide balanced rations for farm 
animals may be greatly reduced. Indeed, for many classes of animals 
merely legume hay and grain from the cereals furnish a most satisfac- 
tory combination. When to these vitally important facts we add the 
great basic one, that the generous and continuous growing of legumes 
is absolutely essential to the economical maintenance of soil fertility, 
then, and only then, do we begin to appreciate the importance of this 
beneficent group of plants in husbandry. In considering the legumes 
it must be kept in mind that these crops flourish and build up the nitro- 
gen content of the soil only when the proper nodule-forming bacteria 
are present in the soil. Where these nitrogen-fixing germs are lacking, 
it is essential that the soil be inoculated by some means. 

I. Alfalfa 

337. Alfalfa, Medicago sativa. — The alfalfa plant is at its best in the 
great semi-arid plains region covering the western half of the United 
States, where the alkaline soil is usually rich and deep, with perfect 
drainage. When amply watered by irrigation and energized by the 
tropical sun of summer, alfalfa here furnishes from 2 to 5 cuttings each 
season, yielding a total of from 2 to 5 tons of nutritious hay per acre. 
In the hot irrigated districts of the Southwest as many as 9 to 12 cut- 
tings have been secured in a single season. Within the humid region, 
experience is fast locating districts scattered from Louisiana to. Maine 

223 



224 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

where this plant, which requires a deep, well-drained soil, rich in lime, 
may be profitably grown. Alfalfa thrives under irrigation in hot semi- 
arid climates, bu1 languishes when high temperature is combined with 
a humid climate, excepl when- soil conditions are unusually favorable. 
Marked success is obtained with alfalfa on certain soils in the lower 
Mississippi valley where the annual rainfall exceeds 50 inches, but in 
genera] a rainfall of over 40 inches is unfavorable to the crop. 1 Where 
soil and climate are suitable, this long-time perennial returns good crops 
for many years withoul reseeding. 

The acreage of alfalfa in the United States doubled during the de- 
cade L899 to L909, and in the states east of the Mississippi River it in- 
creased over eight-fold. The reason For this surprising advance is re- 
vealed in the following table, which gives the average yield per 1 acre 
in 1909 thruout the United States from alfalfa, clover, timothy, and 
corn : 

Returns per acre of alfalfa and other crops 

Dig, earbo- 

YieJ.I Dry Dig. crude hydrates Net 

per acre matter protein and fal energy 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. Therms 

Alfalfa hay 5,040 4,632 529 2,143 1 ,734 

( 'lover hay 2,580 2,185 L83 1 ,0X0 896 

Timothy hay 2,440 2,118 OS 1,100 819 

Corn (ears and stover) . , 3,440 2,604 140 L,824 1,702 

The table, computed from the average returns For the whole country, 
shows that alfalfa produced by Far the largest yield of dry matter per 
acre of all forage crops generally available, even 80 per ct. more than 
corn, the king of forage plants. More striking still is the fact that 
alfalfa produced almost 3 times as much protein as clover and nearly 
I times as much as corn, ft excelled com in yield of digestible carbo- 
hydrates and fat (fat being multiplied by 2.25), tho owing to the high 
net energy value of the corn grain, the corn plant surpassed alfalfa 
in yield of net energy. 

Even in the eastern states, Larger' returns are possible from alfalfa 
than those given above. Voorhees of the New Jersey Station- reports 
a yield of 26.6 tons of green alfalfa forage per acre From 5 cuttings. 
This contained 11,785 lbs. of dry matter and 2,328 lbs. of crude protein, 
or as much as is contained in 7.3 tons of wheal bran. 

338. Alfalfa for hay. — The recommendation often made, that alfalfa 
be cut For hay when about one-tenth in bloom, is not a safe rule, especially 
in the eastern stales, where this plant often has but few blossoms. A 
better guide is to cut for hay as soon as new shoots are well started at 
the crown of the plant. Cutting late reduces the next crop, for many 
of these shoots will have grown so long as to be clipped by the mower. 
By harvesting the crop at this early stage the maximum yield is usually 
obtained, and the hay is more leafy and palatable, with no undue amounl 

1 Piper, Forage Plants and (heir Culture, p. 310. * Forage Crops. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 225 

of fiber. Such hay is suitable for all farm animals except horses, for 
which late-cut hay is preferable, since, tho less nutritious, it is less 
••washy." (506) 

Alfalfa hay is richer than red clover hay in digestible crude protein, 
but is lower in fat and contains slightly less digestible carbohydrates. 
Respiration experiments tend to show that clover hay furnishes slightly 
more net nutrients than alfalfa hay. Appendix Tables I, II, and III 
show that early-cut alfalfa hay is higher in crude protein and lower in 
fiber and more digestible than that from more mature plants. In making 
alfalfa hay it is especially important to guard against the loss of the 
leaves, which are the most valuable portion of the crop. (332) Widtsoe 
at the Utah Station 3 shows that while the leaves and flowers of alfalfa 
cut in early bloom make up only about 43 per ct. of the hay, they con- 
tain over two-thirds of all the crude protein and nearly three-fourths 
of all the fat in the crop. 

The relative value of the different cuttings of hay will depend on the 
climatic conditions. Except for horses the finer stemmed, more leafy 
hay is to be preferred to that which is coarser. Carroll of the Utah 
Station 4 found no marked difference in the value of first, second, and 
third crop alfalfa for milk production. (610) In certain sections of 
the West, wild foxtail, or squirrel tail grass, Hordeum jubatum, injures 
the quality of the first cutting on account of its objectionable beards. 
As this grass makes palatable hay when cut early, the crop may be 
harvested then or may be ensiled, which will soften the beards. 

339. Feeding alfalfa hay. — Owing to the fondness of horses for alfalfa 
hay their allowance should be restricted lest they gorge themselves 
thereon. Fed in proper amount alfalfa hay has given satisfaction as 
the sole roughage even with horses at rapid work. (506) The fattening 
of cattle and sheep in the western states has been revolutionized by the 
use of alfalfa hay, due to the large and economical gains secured when 
this nitrogenous roughage is combined with the carbonaceous grains 
and perhaps silage or wet beet pulp. (766-8, 857-9) From the few direct 
comparisons that have been made of the relative value of alfalfa and 
red clover hay for fattening animals, we may conclude that these rough- 
ages have about equal value for that purpose, and that the real 
superiority of alfalfa lies not in the greater nutritive value of the hay, 
but rather in the larger yields. Breeding and stock cattle wintered on 
this nutritious hay, preferably with corn silage in addition, will more 
than maintain their weight. Cottrell of the Kansas Station 5 reports 
that heifers wintered on alfalfa hay alone made an average gain of 1.2 
lbs. per head daily, returning 104 lbs. increase for each ton of hay fed. 
(797-8) For breeding ewes alfalfa hay is equally satisfactory. (884) 

For the dairy cow alfalfa hay is a most excellent feed, since it is 
rich not only in crude protein but also in mineral matter, especially 
lime, which is required in large amount in milk production. (610) Tt 

s Utah Bui. 48. * Utah Bui. 126. G Kan. Bui. 114. 



226 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

also has a beneficial laxative effect. The statement is sometimes made 
that alfalfa hay is fully equal to wheat bran for the milch cow. A 
comparison of the digestible nutrients and net-energy value of these 
feeds will show that the hay contains only about nine-tenths as much 
digestible crude protein as bran, and over 3 times as much fiber. (218) 
Because of this alfalfa hay furnishes only about 70 per ct. as much net 
energy as bran. It is therefore not surprising that in trials at the New 
Jersey Station 6 alfalfa hay could not entirely replace bran, cottonseed 
meal, etc., with cows giving a large flow of milk. The coats of cows fed 
alfalfa hay in place of all the concentrates were less smooth and glossy 
than those getting some meal as a part of their ration. When alfalfa 
furnished as much as 60 per ct. of the crude protein usually supplied 
in the form of bran, cottonseed meal, etc., there was some shrinkage in 
milk flow, but a financial saving of over 25 per ct. in the feed cost of 
producing the milk. (611-2) 

Alfalfa hay can be largely employed in maintaining shotes and 
breeding swine during winter. Cottrell 7 states that brood sows wintered 
on alfalfa hay with no grain farrowed large, healthy litters of pigs in 
the spring. Even for fattening pigs numerous trials show that a limited 
amount of alfalfa hay aids in producing cheap gains. (1010) 

340. Pasturing alfalfa. — Alfalfa is not primarily a pasture plant, for 
it grows from buds on the crowns instead of by a lengthening of the lower 
parts of the stems and blades, as with the grasses. Especially in humid 
regions grazing is apt to injure the stand. Cattle and sheep on alfalfa 
pasture are, moreover, subject to bloat. Nevertheless, this crop furnishes 
such nutritious pasture that it is grazed on many farms even in the east- 
ern states. To avoid serious injury to the stand, fields should never be 
pastured until they have become well established and animals should be 
kept off when the ground is frozen, soft, or muddy. Heavy stocking 
of the pasture is decidedly injurious, especially with horses and sheep, 
which gnaw the plants to the ground. Since certain parts of a field 
are always more palatable to stock and these are grazed closely while 
other spots are passed by, Wing 8 advises a combination of pasturing 
and mowing. The area to be pastured is divided into 3 lots, and after 
the stock have eaten a considerable part of the crop on the first they are 
turned onto the second lot, the alfalfa remaining on the first being cut 
for hay. When the first lot has grown to about the blooming stage it 
is again grazed. Except where mild winters prevail, alfalfa should be 
allowed to grow to a height of 6 to 12 inches in the fall for winter pro- 
tection. 

Alfalfa pasture is especially suitable for horses and pigs, which are 
not subject to bloat. Gramlich of the Nebraska Station 9 found that 
horses fed hay at noon only and turned on alfalfa pasture at night 
stood hard farm work as well as others which were dry-fed. For colts 

S N. J. Bui. 204. "Alfalfa Farming in America, p. 337. 

T Kan. Bui. 114. °Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 227 

and young horses the succulent alfalfa, rich in protein and mineral 
matter is especially helpful. (509) This pasture is the foundation of 
cheap pork production on thousands of farms. (984-5) 

The danger to cattle and sheep from bloat varies greatly with climate 
and other factors. Tho it is always present in some degree, in such 
sections as the irrigated districts of the Southwest, but trifling loss is 
experienced. Sheep are more subject to bloat than cattle. The follow- 
ing methods advocated by Coburn 10 and Wing 11 will aid in avoiding 
bloat, tho no procedure is absolute insurance against loss: For perma- 
nent pasture sow with the alfalfa, bluegrass, brome grass, or some other 
grass adapted to your conditions. Use upland in preference to lowland 
for pasture, and have a constant supply of water for the stock. Frosted 
alfalfa is especially dangerous, but in the late fall after the crop has 
dried it may be grazed again. Before turning animals on alfalfa for 
the first time, allow them to fill up on grass pasture, with grain in 
addition, if they have been accustomed to it. Then in the middle of 
the forenoon, when they do not care to graze longer, turn them on the 
alfalfa. Tho some advise allowing the stock to graze only a few minutes 
the first day and gradually increasing the length of time on the following 
days, it is probably safer to keep them on the pasture continuously, for 
they will then never consume undue amounts at one time. Watch the 
stock closely for the first few days and remove permanently those animals 
which exhibit symptoms of bloat, for individuals show great differences 
in their susceptibility to the trouble. The Miller and Lux Co., who 
graze thousands of cattle on alfalfa in the San Joaquin Valley, Cali- 
fornia, 12 when starting cattle on alfalfa pasture cut part of a field and 
turn the cattle upon this portion after the alfalfa is half dry. Then 
after they are well filled they are allowed to eat whatever of the green 
crop they wish. 

341. Alfalfa for soilage. — Alfalfa is one of the most valuable of all 
soiling crops, owing to the large yields and the fact that under proper 
management it will furnish rich succulence thruout the entire summer. 
Considerably more forage may be obtained from a given area as soilage 
than animals gather by grazing. In a trial with dairy cows by Lyon 
and Haecker at the Nebraska Station 13 only half as much feed was 
secured when alfalfa was pastured as when the crop was cut and fed 
as soilage. Voorhees of the New Jersey Station 14 reports that the first 
cutting is ready about the last of May or the first of June, with 3 cuttings 
following at intervals of from 4 to 6 weeks. In certain hot irrigated 
sections of the West where no satisfactory grass pastures can be pro- 
vided in summer, dairy cows are often maintained for most of the year 
mainly on alfalfa, fed as soilage. In the Sacramento valley many herds 
are fed 30 to 40 lbs. of green alfalfa per head daily with what alfalfa 
hay they will eat, but no concentrates. The allowance of alfalfa soilage 

10 The Book of Alfalfa, pp. 109-119. u Information to the authors. 

"Alfalfa Farming in America, pp. 338-344. 13 Nebr. Bui. 69. "Forage Crops. 



228 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

may even be increased to 50 lbs., which amount will furnish nearly 2 lbs. 
of digestible crude protein. 13 Alfalfa alone makes a very narrow ration, 
the nutritive ratio being 1 : 4.0 or less. Undoubtedly larger production 
would be secured were some carbonaceous concentrate added. Whether 
this would be profitable, however, would depend on the relative price of 
the feeds. Complaints have been received from practical dairymen that 
this one-sided ration tends to abortion and other troubles. In Europe 
where soilage is commonly fed to horses in summer alfalfa is the most 
popular crop. 10 Whether it will prove profitable to feed alfalfa as 
soilage rather than to graze it will be determined by the relative cost 
of land and labor. 

342. Alfalfa silage. — In many instances alfalfa is ensiled with entire 
success, but often poor, vile-smelling silage is produced. The difficulty 
seems due to the high protein content of the crop compared with the 
small amount of sugars, from which the acids necessary to preserve the 
silage may be formed. (404) True 17 reports the successful ensiling of 
alfalfa at the Nevada Station during 4 successive years. If the crop 
was somewhat dry when put into the silo, water was added. (783) Favor- 
able results have been secured when alfalfa has been ensiled with green 
rye or wheat cut when just past the milk stage, when they are rich in 
sugars. Esten of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station 18 suggests that the 
third cutting of alfalfa may be satisfactorily ensiled with green corn 
or sorghum. Owing to the palatability of good alfalfa hay, whenever 
the crop can be cured in a satisfactory manner there is little reason for 
ensiling the crop, especially in view of the fact that either corn or the 
sorghums are reliable silage crops in nearly all sections of the country. 
In the West where foxtail, with its troublesome beards, sometimes greatly 
injures the quality of the first cutting, it may be profitable to ensile the 
crop. (338) Alfalfa should be ensiled just as soon after cutting as 
possible and should preferably be cut into short lengths so that it may 
be well packed. When it is impossible to avoid undue curing, it should 
be ensiled with dew on it or water should be added. 

343. Types of alfalfa. — Besides the common alfalfa, which is the type 
chiefly grown in the United States, various other types are of importance 
in certain sections. Turkestan alfalfa is indistinguishable from ordinary 
alfalfa in growth. Tho inferior in the humid regions, the concensus of 
opinion in semi-arid regions is that it is somewhat superior to the common 
type in drought and cold endurance. Arabian and Peruvian alfalfa are 
rapid growing, tender strains, which have an unusually long growing 
season. In the irrigated districts of the Southwest these types are valu- 
able. Several strains of yellow-flowered, sickle, or Siberian alfalfa 
(Medicago falcata), some of which produce rootstocks, have been intro- 
duced into the northern plains district. This type is especially hardy 
and promises to be of value in climates too severe for the common type. 
The term variegated alfalfa, or sand lucern, is applied to hybrids of the 

15 N. J. Bui. 148. 17 Information to the authors. 

16 Wing, Alfalfa Farming in America, p. 331. 1K Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 70. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 229 

common and Siberian types, which are exceptionally drought resistant 
and hardy. 

344. Alfalfa meal and feed. — The manufacture of alfalfa meal (ground 
alfalfa hay) and various feeds containing more or less of this material 
has increased rapidly of late. Alfalfa meal varies in fineness from a 
product nearly as fine as corn meal to a coarsely chopped or shredded 
material, containing pieces half an inch in length. Compared with hay 
the meal is easier to transport to distant markets, there is somewhat less 
waste in feeding it, and for animals having poor teeth, or horses worked 
long hours, the grinding is undoubtedly beneficial. (507) The bulky 
meal is also helpful in diluting heavy concentrates, which, if carelessly 
fed, may cause digestive disturbances. For these reasons alfalfa meal 
has a legitimate field. However, grinding ever so finely will not trans- 
form a roughage into a concentrate. As shown elsewhere (424), with 
animals having good teeth and ample time to masticate their food, 
grinding hay does not increase its digestibility. Owing to the great 
palatability of well-cured alfalfa hay but little is refused when it is fed 
long. Unfortunately, it is impossible to determine without chemical or 
microscopic analysis whether alfalfa meal has been made from nutritious, 
leafy, early-cut hay or from over-ripe, stemmy material. Hence the meal 
should be purchased on guarantee of composition, special attention being 
paid to the fiber content, which in first-class meal should not be higher 
than in good quality hay, or about 30 per ct. 

From 4 trials at the Colorado Station 19 Morton concludes that for 
fattening lambs the value of ordinary alfalfa hay may be increased 15 
to 25 per ct. by grinding, but that with hay of good quality such 
preparation wall not pay. (835) McCampbell of the Kansas Station 20 
found that alfalfa meal, fed dry, irritated the nostrils of horses and 
that they preferred long hay to the meal when wet. He concludes that 
alfalfa meal is not a desirable or an economical feed for horses when good 
alfalfa hay is available. (507) In view of the fact that the market 
price of alfalfa meal is often as high or higher than wheat bran, it is 
important to. note that in trials at each of 3 stations substituting good 
quality alfalfa meal for an equal weight of bran lessened the production 
of dairy cows. (613) Ordinarily the stockman can produce roughage 
more economically on his farm than he can purchase it in commercial 
feeds. In case he desires to mix hay with heavy concentrates the ma- 
terial may readily be cut sufficiently fine in a silage cutter. Unless good 
alfalfa meal sells at an appreciably lower price than wheat bran its 
purchase can not be recommended. 

Molasses, either beet or cane, is now mixed with alfalfa meal, the 
product being sold as "alfalmo" or under other names. The mixture 
is well-liked by stock, but its economy as a feed must be determined by 
comparing the composition and price with those of other feeds. Many 
mixed feeds, discussed in Chapter XI (285), contain more or less al- 
falfa meal. 

19 Colo. Bui. 187. -°Kan. Bui. 186. 



230 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

II. Red Clover 

345. Medium red clover, Trifolium pratense. — This legume, commonly 
known as red clover, is the most important legume in the humid sections 
of the northern two-thirds of the United States, where, grown in rotation 
with corn and the cereals, it so helpfully serves for pasture and hay 
production and for the maintenance of soil fertility. Clover is chiefly 
seeded in combination with timothy, 19,542,000 acres of mixed clover 
and timothy being grown for hay in the United States in 1909, compared 
with only 2,443,000 acres of clover alone. Red clover does best on well- 
drained soils rich in lime, being intolerant of a water-logged or acid 
soil. A short-lived perennial, but few plants live over 3 years, and the 
crop is usually treated as a biennial. 

Thruout the clover-growing districts red clover generally yields a 
heavy first crop of hay, with a second cutting which is usually much 
lighter and which is often allowed to mature for seed. In the southern 
states, where it does not thrive during the heat of summer, red clover is 
sometimes grown as a winter annual, the first crop being cut in the spring 
and the second in early summer. At the northern limits of its culture 
but one cutting is produced. The average yield of clover hay per acre, 
according to the census of 1910, was 1.29 tons, but under favorable 
conditions much higher returns are secured, the yield in 2 cuttings 
ranging from 2 to 4 tons or even more per acre. 

On all stock farms in the eastern United States there should be a 
well-planned rotation of crops, such as corn, followed by either wheat, 
oats, or barley, and this in turn by a legume, preferably red, alsike, or 
mammoth clover, grown either alone or with the grasses, some of the 
fields being grazed by the stock. 

Under such a rotation, when proper use is made of the farm manure, 
reinforced by phosphate and potash fertilizers when necessary, the 
humus and fertility of the soil on the whole farm is maintained or even 
increased, the weeds are held in check, and the maximum yield of crops 
is economically produced on all the fields. Because alfalfa fields are 
usually difficult to establish and should be maintained for many years. 
the alfalfa plant does not particularly favor a short rotation of crops. 
In their eagerness to grow alfalfa, ambitious farmers in the East are 
apt to neglect the clovers, which are so vitally helpful in maintaining 
fertility of the whole farm in short-time crop rotations. In many cases 
the growing of red or mammoth clover has been abandoned on account 
of failure to secure stands. Such "clover sickness" of the soil may be 
due to certain diseases, but in most cases it means that lime and phos- 
phate, and possibly potash are needed. Farmers who willingly prepare 
fields thoroly for alfalfa often fail to exercise reasonable care to get 
good stands of clover. 

346. Development of nutrients. — Immature clover, like all young 
plants, is exceedingly watery. At the Wisconsin Station 21 Woll found 

"Wis. Rpt. 1889. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 231 

but 8.2 per ct. dry matter in green clover cut long before it had reached 
the proper condition for making hay. Such clover contained more water 
than skim milk. This explains why clover when cut too early is such 
unsatisf actory soilage ; the animals cannot then consume enough to 
secure the nourishment they require. 

Hunt of the Illinois Station 22 has arranged the results of studies of 
the medium red clover plant, made by himself and Jordan of the Penn- 
sylvania Station, to show the yield per acre at various stages of growth. 

Yield and nutrients in an acre of medium red clover 

Yield of Carbohydrates 

Stage of growth when cut hay Crude N-free 

per acre Ash protein Fiber extract Fat 

Illinois, Hunt Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Full bloom 3,600 217 400 660 1,052 197 

Heads three-fourths dead . . . 3,260 196 379 672 1,024 156 
Pennsylvania, Jordan 

Heads in bloom 4,210 260 539 1,033 1,731 116 

Some heads dead 4,141 226 469 1,248 1,379 106 

Heads all dead 3,915 208 421 1,260 1,378 94 

The table shows that when cut at full bloom the clover crop yielded 
the largest amount of hay per acre, and also contained more ash, crude 
protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat. The fiber, or woody matter, 
which is the least valuable portion of the plant, was the only nutrient 
which increased after full bloom. The loss of other nutrients after 
blooming was due to the withering and dropping of the lower leaves 
and probably to a leaching of soluble nutrients by rains. This shrink- 
age of nutrients as clover matures is similar to that in the smaller 
grasses (313), and is in marked contrast to the continued storage of 
nutrients up to full ripening in Indian corn. (23) 

The table clearly points to full bloom as theoretically the best date 
for cutting clover hay. Practical experience, however, places the time 
somewhat later, or when about one-third of the blossom heads have 
turned brown. This is because at any earlier date the plant is so soft 
and sappy that only with difficulty can it be cured into good hay. De- 
laying until all the heads are dead makes haying still easier, but means 
poor, woody, unpalatable hay. 

347. Clover for hay. — Well-cured clover hay, brigfht and with leaves 
intact, is a most excellent roughage for all farm stock. Tho dusty 
clover hay is to be avoided for feeding horses, that of good quality is 
successfully and economically used with both farm and city horses. (505) 
Mixed clover and timothy hay is preferred by many to clear clover hay 
for horse feeding since it usually is more free from dust. 

No investigations of the experiment stations in animal husbandry 
have been more helpful than those showing the great value of the 
legumes, including clover hay, for fattening cattle and sheep. By add- 
ing clover hay to the ration the grain requirement can be materially 
reduced and the fattening period shortened — both matters of great im- 

"111. Bui. 5. 



232 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

portance in these days oi' high-priced concentrates. (764, 857-9) For the 
cow, clover hay is unexcelled as a roughage, unless by alfalfa. Not 
only is it palatable and much relished, but it is high in protein and 
lime. Where well-cured clover hay furnishes one-half or more of the 
roughage, the dairyman is able to cut the allowance of concentrates and 
materially reduce the cost of the ration. (614) This roughage has 
the same high place for feeding breeding ewes, wintering cattle, and 
especially for young animals. (787, 798-9, 692) Early-cut clover hay 
ranks next to alfalfa for swine, being especially valuable for breeding 
stock. (1011) 

348. Clover for pasture, soilage, and silage. — Clover pasture is helpful 
and important for all farm animals. For pigs it furnishes about suf- 
ficient food for maintenance, so that all the grain fed goes for gain. 
Clover-pastured pigs are healthy and have good bone and constitution — 
points of special importance with breeding stock. (986) Tho there is 
somewhat less danger from bloat with clover than alfalfa, cattle and 
sheep should not be turned on clover pasture for the first time while 
hungry or before the dew has risen. As a preventive, dry forage, such 
as hay or straw, should be placed in feed racks in the pasture. To 
these cattle and sheep will resort instinctively when bloat threatens. 

Clover is particularly valuable for soilage, ranking next to alfalfa 
among the legumes available for that purpose. By cutting clover early, 
it at once starts growth again if the Aveather is favorable, and will 
furnish three or four cuttings annually. In some cases clover has made 
fair silage, but so many failures have occurred that this plant cannot 
he recommended for such purpose except where weather conditions pre- 
vent its being properly cured into hay. The same precautions should 
then be taken as with alfalfa for silage. (633) 

111. Other Clovers and Leguminous Forage Plants 

349. Mammoth clover. Trifolium medium. — The distinctive character- 
istics of mammoth clover are its rank growth, coarse stems, and blooming 
2 or 3 weeks later than the medium variety. It usually lives 3 years 
or more and thrives better on poor or sandy soil than does medium red 
clover. Since it yields hut a single cutting during the season, this 
clover is frequently pastured for several weeks in the early spring. 
After the stock is removed the plants shoot up and are soon ready for 
the mower. Owing to its coarser growth the hay is more difficult to 
cure and somewhat less palatable than red clover. Wallace- 3 recom- 
mends that for pasture medium and mammoth clover seed be sown in 
equal proportions, together with grasses, holding that since mammoth 
clover blooms later there is more nearly a succession of good forage than 
is possible with only one variety. 

350. Alsike clover, Trifolium hybridum. — This variety of clover, once 
supposed to be a cross between red clover and white clover, has weak 

23 Clover Culture. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 233 

stems which fall to the ground unless supported by attendant grasses. 
Alsike flourishes on land too acid or too wet for other clovers, and is a 
hardier, longer-lived plant, enduring 4 to 6 years in good soil. As it will 
grow readily on "clover-sick" soil, it has replaced red clover on many 
fields during recent years. Well-made alsike hay is fine-stemmed and 
ranks among the best, being eaten with but little waste. 

351. White clover, Trifolium re pens. — This creeping perennial has 
the widest range of any of the clovers, thriving in almost any soil from 
( !anada nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, if moisture is ample. In the North 
it is an important plant in mixed pastures, forming a dense mat of 
herbage and furnishing feed thruout the growing season. In the South 
it nearly disappears in summer, but reappears in the fall furnishing 
winter pasturage and thus combines well with Bermuda grass. (320) 
Owing to its low, creeping growth it does not yield hay. 

352. Sweet clover. — White sweet clover, Mclilotus alba, also known as 
nielilot and Bokhara clover, is a biennial which is widely distributed 
along roadsides and in waste places over southern Canada and a large 
part of the United States, thriving best on soils rich in lime. It will 
grow on soil so poorly drained or so worn and low in humus that alfalfa 
or red clover will not live. Increasing experience shows that where 
these more valuable legumes do not thrive, sweet clover, which was once 
viewed as a weed, is of considerable value. Thousands of acres of de- 
pleted, gullied land in Kentucky and Tennessee are being restored to 
fertility by this legume. In the West it may be grown on hard adobe 
soils, which it mellows with its deep root system. The plant may also 
be utilized for pasture, hay, and soilage, and has occasionally been 
ensiled. At first animals usually refuse sweet clover, for all parts of 
the plant contain cumarin, a bitter compound with a vanilla-like odor, 
hi spring the herbage is less bitter and animals of all classes can gener- 
ally then be taught to eat it. After becoming accustomed to the taste 
they are said sometimes to prefer sweet clover to other legumes or the 
grasses. In certain districts where the plants seem unusually high in 
cumarin it is reported that animals cannot be induced to eat them. 
When the clover is cured as hay a large part of the cumarin is volati- 
lized, the hay thus being less bitter than the green plants. 

Sweet clover seed should be thickly sown so that the stems will not 
grow coarse, and the crop should be cut when the first blossoms appear, 
or even before, since after this stage they rapidly grow woody. The 
first season 1 cutting and the second 2 of hay can be secured in the 
North, and often 3 in the South. The crop should be cut about 6 inches 
from the ground, for the new shoots grow out not from the crown, as 
in alfalfa, but from the stems. Lloyd of the Ohio Station 24 states that 
farmers report good results from feeding sweet clover to horses and 
cattle. (769) Wilson 25 found the hay satisfactory for lambs at the South 
Dakota Station, and Evvard 2,; obtained good results with sweet clover 
as a hog pasture at the Iowa Station, tho it was greatly excelled by 

■< Ohio. Bui. 244. :5 S. D. Bui. 143. :o Iowa Bui. 136. 



234 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

alfalfa and red clover. (859, 987) Care must be taken in pasturing 
cattle and sheep on sweet clover, lest it cause bloat. The plants should 
be grazed closely, as otherwise they become woody. A yellow-flowered 
sweet clover, Melilolus officinalis, 2 weeks earlier and somewhat smaller 
in growth than the white sweet clover, has been quite widely introduced 
in the United States. 

353. Crimson clover, Trifolium incarnatum. — This annual clover, adap- 
ted to mild climates, is grown chiefly in the Atlantic seaboard states 
from New Jersey to South Carolina. Here it is treated as a winter 
annual, being sown in the late summer or early fall, blossoming the 
following spring, and dying by early summer. Crimson clover has 
proved vastly helpful to the agriculture of these states, where it is used 
mainly as green manure and as a winter cover crop. It is extensively 
used for pasture and hay, and to a more limited extent for soilage. 
This clover is suited to a wide range of soils, succeeding on both sandy 
and clay land if well drained. Duggar of the Alabama,- 7 and Williams 
of the North Carolina Station'- 8 believe that of all the clovers it has the 
widest adaptability to southern conditions. An especially valuable 
feature is that the crop may be harvested or turned under as green 
manure early enough in the spring to permit the raising of other crops 
the same year. The climate of the humid Pacific coast section is well 
adapted to crimson-clover culture. 

When grown for hay it is important that crimson clover be cut by 
the time the flowers at the base of the most advanced heads have faded, 
even tho the weather be unsettled for hay-making. When cutting is long- 
er delayed, the minute barbed hairs of the blossom heads and stems be- 
come hard and wiry. If hay from such over-ripe clover is fed to horses or 
mules these hairs sometimes mat together in the digestive tract, forming 
felt-like masses which may grow to the size of baseballs and finally plug 
the intestines, causing death. When it is necessary to feed over-ripe hay 
to horses or mules, which are usually the only animals affected, to reduce 
the danger it should be given with other roughage, preferably with 
succulent feeds, or else wet thoroly 12 hours before feeding. Grantham 
of the Delaware Station 29 found that of 108 growers over three-fourths 
considered crimson-clover hay as good or better than that from red clover 
or cowpeas. According to Piper 30 yields of hay from good stands average 
about 1.25 tons per acre. (615) During a short season in the spring be- 
fore it matures, crimson clover furnishes valuable pasturage or soilage 
in advance of grass or other clovers, and in warm sections it may be 
utilized as late fall or winter pasture. 

354. Bur clovers. — The southern or spotted bur clover (Medicago ara- 
bica) and California or toothed bur clover (M. hispida) are winter 
annuals that furnish valuable pasturage in mild regions. The former, 
which is the hardier, is found chiefly in the southern states, and the 
latter in California and Texas. They are admirable supplements to 

"Ala. Bui. 147. - s N. C. Cir. 7. 20 Del. Bui. 89. M Forage Plants, p. 432. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 235 

Bermuda pasture, furnishing feed when that grass is resting and re- 
ing unless grazed too closely. •'320; Even on land where summer 
cultivated crops are grown, bur clover, if once sown, volunteers in the 
fall. Cauthen of the Alabama Station 33 states that tho not commonly 
bo used it may be seeded for hay with fall grain, 

355. The common field-pea vine. — The common field pea, Pisum 
ati/vum, var. mrvense, the use of which as a grain crop has already 

been discussed ^ 261 y . is grown in Canada and the northern states to 
some extent for forage. A combination of peas arid oats, if cut early. 
makes nutritious hay, well liked by all classes of stock and also makes 
silage of good quality. The combination is frequently sown as a spring 
soiling crop, especially for dairy cows, or as pasturage, chiefly for 
swine. \n some of the irrigated valleys of the Rocky .Mountain region 
field peas, usually with a small quantity of oats or barley, are so 
extensively and grazed when nearly mature by sheep and pigs. '860, 988 y 
In the grain which the field pea furnishes and the hay and silage which 
it is possible to secure from it. the stockman located far \\<>v\\\ has a 
fair compensation for the com crop which he cannot grow. 

356. Pea-cannery refuse. — Formerly the bruised pea vines and empty 
pods from the pea canneries were used only for manure. The value of 
this rich by-product for stock-feeding has now been abundantly demon- 
ted, and it is usually preserved in silos or in large stacks, where the 

deca; terior preserves the mass within. The silage has a strong 

odor but is relished by all farm animals, especially dairy COWS, fattening 
cattle, and sheep. '356, By spreading cannery waste out thinly on a 
plat where the grass is short, it may be cured into hay worth, according 
to Crosby, 82 20 per ct. more than clover hay, but this involves more 
labor than placing it in the silo. 

357. Cowpea, Vigna sinensis. — This hot weather annual is the most 
important legume in the cotton-belt, furnishing grain for humans and 
animals '282,. tho chiefly grown for forage and green manure. Its 
especial value lies in the fact that it will grow on all types of soil and 

but little attention, increasing the fertility of the land and furnish- 
ing rich hay, pasturage, soilage, and silage. This vine-like plant does 
not mature in a definite time, but continues to bear pods and put forth 

.'eaves during a long period. Sown at corn planting or later, < 
varieties mature the first pods in 70 to 00 days. The crop may be then 
cut for hay. or the harvesting considerably delayed without lose ' 

yield from 1 to 3 to: client hay per acre, which is equal to 

red clover or alfalfa in value and is an excellent roughage for bo 

<■. and sheep. '508, 769. 859, When cowpea hay is fed to dairy 

or fattening steers the allowance of concentrates may be reduced 
to one-half the amount needed when a carbonaceous rough? :h as 

corn stover or hay from the grs 616 Because of the suc- 

culent Leaves and thick sterns the cowpea is difficult to cure. To pr f - 
"Ala. Bui. 166. n J3. S Dept A^r., Bur. Plant Indus., Cir. 45. 



23G FEEDS AND FEEDING 

loss of the leaves llie crop should he cured in cocks hit i 1 1 with devices 

winch permil air circulation. (333) 

To support the vines cowpeas are often broadcasted or drilled with 
sorghum, soybeans, millet, or Johnson grass, and Piper 33 suggests that 
the new Sudan grass should prove excellent for this purpose, as it 

matures at the right time and is readily cured. ( Jo w peas arc extensively 

planted with corn or sorghum, when some cowpea seed is often picked 
by hand and the remainder of the crop, corn and all, pastured, furnish- 
ing economical Iced For cattle, sheep, or pigs. (770, 872, 990) The 
combination crop makes palatable, protein-rich silage that should be 
more extensively used. Thru the greater utilization of cowpeas and 
other legumes the live-stock industry of the South may be enormously 

increased. 

358. Soybean, Glycine hispida. -Soybeans arc tor the most part bushy 
plants with no tendency to vine, and which, unlike cowpeas, die after 
the crop ol* pods has been matured. (256) They thrive in the same 
climate as corn, maturing sufficiently tor hay in northern sections where- 

ever corn may be grown for silage. Soybeans arc better adapted to the 

northern part of the corn belt than cowpeas, which require a longer 

growing season and are injured by slight I'rosls. They are also more 
drought-resistant than cowpeas and hence well suited to light soils, tho 
they will not thrive on such poor land as do cowpeas. The fondness of 
rabbits tor the plaids is a. serious drawback in the plains district. The 
soybean crop should be cut for hay when the pods are well formed but 
before the leaves begin to turn yellow, for soon after this the stems 
become woody and the leaves easily drop off. The crop yields from 
1 to J> Inns pei- acre of hay equal to cowpea, or alfalfa hay in feeding 
value. (617) Soybeans alone make rank smelling silage, but I ton of 
soybeans ensiled with 3 to 4 tons of corn or sorghum makes a satisfactory 
product. For this purpose the soybeans and corn or sorghum may be 
mixed as ensiled or they may be grown together. In the South soybeans 
alone or soybeans and corn are often grazed by hogs. When designed for 
past ure the beans should be planted in rows to lessen the loss by tramping, 
and the hogs should not be turned in until the pods are nearly mature. 
(989) In the northern states the chief value of soybeans is for sandy 
land or as a catch crop when clover or other crops fail. Moore and Del- 
wiche of the Wisconsin Station 84 reporl that soybeans planted in June on 
jack' pine sand where sugar beets had failed produced 2 tons of hay 
per acre. Evvard of the Iowa Station 80 found soybeans or cowpeas 
surpassed for hog pasture by rape, clover, and alfalfa on soil where the 
latter crops flourished. 

359. Vetch. — Only the hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), also called sand 
o)- Russian vetch, and the common vetch (V. sativa), also known as 
smooth or Oregon vetch, are important in the United States. Both are 
ordinarily annuals, tho the hairy vetch especially may live for more 

"Forage Plants, p. 505. "Wis. Bui. 236. 3r, Iowa Bui. 136. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 237 

than ;i year. Being cool-weather plants, they are usually fall-sown in 

mild climates, bill a spring strain of the common vetch is sometimes 
grown. While coiiiiiioii vetch is killed by zero temperatures, hairy vetch 

usually endures the winter in the northern states if well established in 
the Call. Hairy vetch may be grown on poorer soil than its relative, 

is adapted to a wider range lh;in crimson clover, and is markedly drought 

resistant. H is chiefly grown Cor hay, being usually sown with the 

Cereals to SUpporl the Weak vines, which clamher from 4 to 10 feet in 

a tangled mass. Harvested when the pods are Hull grown, a palatable 
hay is secured. According to Piper 80 the yield From vetch grown alone 
ranges from L.5 to 2.5 tons or more of hay per acre. (619; 
In the South and in western Washington and Oregon where the 

winters are not severe, coiiiiiioii vetch is preferred lor soil rich enough 

for its culture, since the seed is cheaper and the vines grow less tangled. 
Piper places i he yield of hay at 2.5 ions in the hit ter district and slightly 
less in the southern st;ites. Smith of the United States Department of 
Agriculture 87 reports that at Atlanta, Ga., vetch and oat hay is popular 

with liverymen, selling on a par with cowpea hay. Besides furnishing 

hay, the vetches afford excellent pasturage for cattle, sheep, and swine. 
Smith reports the successful use of vetch silage for- ;i dairy herd. 

360. Lespedeza, Lespedeza striata.- -Japan clover, commonly called 

lespedeza in the South, is ;i summer annual which has now spread over 
most of the territory from central New .Jersey westward to central 

Kansas and south to the Gulf. Here, even on the poorest, soils, it, appears 
spontaneously as ;i common constituent of mixed pastures, and unless 
closely grazed reseeds itself from year to year. On tin; poorer sands 
and clays of the cotton bell lespedeza is perhaps the most valuable 
past ure plant, adding nit rogen to the soil, binding if together, preventing 
washing, and furnishing pasturage well-liked by all stock. This legume 

has not been known to cause bloat. Only on rich soil does if grow tall 
enough for hay. The crop is easily cured and in extreme cases yields 
3 tons of hay per acre, which according to Duggar of the Alabama Sfa 
lion"" is equal to alfalfa. (407) 

361. Velvet bean, Rlizolobiuw <L<.<,ri)i<)ian,iim,--'V\u; tropical velvet- 
bean planl flourishes soulh of 3 line drawn from Savannah, Georgia, 
to Austin. Texas. The vines, which run on the ground from L5 to 75 
feet, are difficull to cure into hay. and are mostly used for grazing. 
Scott of the Florida Station 89 reports a yield of 20 to 30 bushels of 60 
lbs. of shelled beans per acre. He states that. 3 tons of beans in tie- 
pod are equal to 1 ton of cottonseed meal for milk production and can 

be produced at 00 per ct. of the cost of the meal. (604 J Scoff found 
that the fat of pigs fed exclusively on velvet beans has a dark, dirty 
appearance and disagreeable odor- and taste, which may probably be 

avoided by feeding a limited quantity of beans with corn, cassava, etc. 

"Forage Plants, p. 472. Wiim, MeadowH and l'a:-,hire::, p. 354. 

» 7 U. s. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 529 M Pla. Bui. 102. 



238 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The charge that velvet beans cause abortion among cattle and swine and 
blind staggers with horses is substantially without foundation. Horses 
fed exclusively on velvet-bean hay may suffer from kidney trouble, but 
all danger may be averted by feeding equal parts of velvet-bean and crab- 
grass hay. Tracy 40 reports 20 acres of velvet beans in Florida furnish- 
ing half the daily grazing for 30 cows during 27 days in winter, after 
which 10 tons of pod beans were harvested. Eighty acres of velvet 
beans in southern Georgia furnished grazing for 100 head of cattle 4 
months. Seventy days' grazing on velvet-bean pasture was sufficient to 
put steers in marketable condition. (760) 

362. Peanut, Arachis hypogaea. — Peanuts are grown chiefly for the 
under-ground nuts (258), tho the entire plant is sometimes cured into 
a nutritious hay. According to Piper, 41 as a hay plant the peanut 
cannot compete with the soybean or the cowpea, but the plant is of 
importance as a pasture crop for hogs, which root out the nuts. Hogs 
finished solely on peanuts yield a soft pork, but this may be largely 
avoided by feeding corn or other feeds. (1005) Since the nuts will not 
long remain in the ground without sprouting, the crop must be pastured 
soon after maturity. "When peanuts are grown for the seeds, the straw 
is used for stock feeding, the yield ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 tons or more 
per acre. 

363. Beggar weed, Desmodium tortuosum. — This annual legume, which 
has rather woody stalks 3 to 10 feet high bearing abundant leafage, 
is used for green forage and hay production in the sub-tropical regions 
of our country. Garrison of the South Carolina Station 42 reports a 
yield of over 11.5 tons of green and 2.25 tons of dry forage from 1 
acre. Smith 43 states that on rich land yields of from 4 to 6 tons of hay are 
not unusual. The hay ranges between clover and alfalfa in protein con- 
tent and is relished by stock. 

364. Miscellaneous legumes. — The Tangier pea (Lathyrus tingitanus) , 
which is somewhat similar to the common sweet pea, but more vigorous 
in growth, has given promising results as a hay and green manure crop 
in the southern states and western Oregon. 44 Serradella (Ornithopus 
sativus), cultivated to a considerable extent in Europe on poor sandy 
land, has thus far attained no importance in the United States. As it 
will grow on soil too acid for other legumes it may be found useful on 
acid sands in the northern states. The moth bean (Phaseolus aconiti- 
folius), a native of India, is in many ways superior to the cowpea in 
northern Texas, according to Conner 45 being more drought resistant 
and curing more readily. The hyacinth bean or bonavist (Dolichos 
lablab), an annual resembling the cowpea but more viny, is often grown 
as an ornamental. It is of no especial promise as a forage crop except in 

<0 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 300. " 3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1897. 
41 Forage Plants, p. 547. "Wash. Bui. 2., Spec. Series. 

12 S. C. Bui. 123. ""Tex. Bui. 103. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 239 

the plains region of Texas, where it is apparently somewhat more drought 
resistant than the cowpea. 40 

The Kudzu vine (Pueraria thunbergiana) is a rapidly growing annual 
vine, often grown as an ornamental in the South, where it reaches a 
length of 60 feet or more. Recent trials show it to be of considerable 
promise as a perennial forage crop for the Gulf region. Under field 
conditions the prostrate branches root at the joints and send up twining 
shoots 2 to 4 feet high, which may be readily cut with a mower. 
According to Piper, 47 in northern Florida 3 cuttings of hay a season 
have been obtained, the yield ranging from lower than velvet beans to 
as high as 10 tons per acre. 

"Tex. Rpt. 1912. 47 Forage Plants, p. 564. 



CHAPTER XV 

ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 

I. Roots. and Tubers 

In northern Europe and in eastern Canada root crops are extensively 
grown for stock, but in this country such use has never assumed im- 
portance. Indeed, in 1909 over 5000 acres of corn were raised in the 
United States for each acre of roots grown for live stock feeding. 
Having cool summers, northern Europe is w r ell suited to the growth oi 
roots but not to the culture of corn, while in most parts of our country, 
with the hot summers, this imperial grain and forage plant thrives. 
As shown later in this chapter, where corn nourishes it furnishes a 
palatable, succulent feed at less cost than do roots. Hence, it is reason- 
able to expect that in the United States the culture of roots for forage 
will increase only in districts having summers so cool that these crops 
give better returns than corn, and on farms in the corn belt where too 
few animals are kept to use corn silage economically, or where roots 
serve as a relish for show animals and dairy cows on official test. 

365. Use and value of roots. — Roots should be regarded not as rough- 
ages, but as watered concentrates, high in available energy for the dry 
matter they contain. (22) All are low in crude protein compared to 
their content of carbohydrates. The studies of Friis 1 in Denmark and 
Wing and Savage at the New York (Cornell) Station 2 shoAv that for 
the dairy cow a pound of dry matter in roots has the same feeding 
value as a pound of dry matter in grain, such as corn, wheat, or barley. 
(637) Wing and Savage found that mangels could replace half the 
grain ordinarily fed in a ration of grain, mixed hay, and silage without 
reducing the yield of milk or butter, and that with grain at $30 per ton, 
mangels were an economical substitute when they could be grown and 
stored for $4 per ton. 

Since nearly 90 per ct. of the dry matter in roots and only 66 per ct. 
of that in well-matured corn silage is digestible, one would expect the 
dry matter of roots to have somewhat the higher value. However, in 
the majority of the trials in which this question has been studied with 
the dairy cow, just as much milk was produced from 100 lbs. of dry 
matter in the silage ration as in the ration containing roots. (638) 

In addition to the nutrients they furnish, roots and other succulent 

feeds have a beneficial tonic effect upon animals, and are especially 

helpful in keeping breeding cattle, sheep, or swine in prime condition. 

Many successful stockmen recommend roots highly for animals being 

^Expt. Sta. Rec, 14, 1903, p. 801. " N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. 

240 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 241 

fitted for exhibitions and for dairy cows crowded to maximum production 
on official tests. At the Michigan Station Shaw 3 and Norton found that 
when roots were added to a well-balanced ration for dairy cows contain- 
ing good corn silage the yield of butter fat was increased 5.8 per ct. 
Yet this increase was not sufficient to offset the greater cost of the ration 
containing the roots. (640) 

In this country the daily allowance of roots per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
is usually 25 to 50 lbs. or less. Thruout Great Britain fattening cattle 
and sheep are often fed 100 lbs., or even more, per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
daily with satisfactory results, and sheep are sometimes fattened on 
concentrates and roots alone. This practice can not be generally recom- 
mended, for better results are secured when some dry roughage is fed. 
Roots are usually chopped or sliced before feeding, and the cut roots 
are often put into the feed box and meal sprinkled over them. In 
feeding cattle in Canada and England, roots are quite commonly pulped 
and spread in layers several inches thick, alternating with other layers 
of cut or chaffed hay or straw. After being shoveled over, the mass is 
allowed to stand several hours before feeding, to moisten and soften 
the chaffed straw or hay. In this manner great quantities of straw may 
be successfully utilized. (784, 786, 865) For winter feeding in the 
northern states roots must be stored in well-ventilated pits or cellars, 
but in mild climates they may remain in the field until fed. In Great 
Britain sheep are often grazed on root crops, saving the labor of 
harvesting. 

366. Roots vs. corn silage. — The most extensive of several trials in 
which the yields of roots and silage corn have been compared are 
summarized in the following table : 

Yield of fresh and dry matter per acre of roots and fodder corn 





Mangels 


Sugar beets 


Rutabagas 


Fodder corn 


Station 


Green 
weight 


Dry 

matter 


Green 
weight 


Dry 

matter 


Green 

weight 


Dry 

matter 


Green 
weight 


Dry 

matter 


Maine* 


Lbs. 
15,375 
38,273 

47,480 


Lbs. 
1,613 
4,554 
4,440 


Lbs. 

17,645 
25,591 
29,760 


Lbs. 
2,590 

4,683 
4,890 


Lbs. 

31,695 
39,260 


Lbs. 

3,415 
4,260 


Lbs. 
39,645 
18,332 
38,320 


Lbs. 
5,580 


Perm, f 


6,763 
8,050 


Ontario, J 5-8 yrs 


Average 


33,713 


3,536 


24,332 


4,054 


35,478 


3,838 


32,099 


6,798 











*WolI, Book on Silage. fPenn. Rpt. 1898. tOntario Dept. Agr., Bui. 228. 



On the average, the corn crop contained 91 per ct. more dry matter 
than mangels, 66 per ct. more than sugar beets, and 77 per ct. more than 
rutabagas. At the Ohio Station 4 Thorne found that to grow and harvest 
an acre of beets yielding 15.75 tons and containing 3,000 lbs. of dry 
matter cost more than an acre of corn yielding 57 bushels of grain and 
containing 6.000 lbs., or twice as much, dry matter. In trials covering 

3 Mich. Bui. 240. "Ohio Rpt. 1893. 



242 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

4 years at the New York (Cornell) Station 5 Minns found the cost of 
growing and ensiling silage corn about the same per ton as that for 
growing and harvesting mangels. However, owing to their watery- 
nature 100 lbs. of dry matter in mangels cost over twice as much as in 
corn silage. These findings show that where corn thrives, corn silage 
will furnish dry matter at one-half the cost of roots or less. This is 
largely because root crops require more careful and thoro preparation 
of the soil and far more hand labor in cultivation, harvesting, and 
storage than does corn. 

367. Yields of various root crops. — The most extensive comparisons of 
the yields of various root crops are those reported by the New York 
(Cornell) Station 6 from 5-year tests and by the Ontario Agricultural 
College 7 from trials covering 5 to 15 years, which are summarized in 
the following table. The yields from kohlrabi, cabbage, rape, and kale, 
which are sometimes included loosely under the term "root crops" are 
also given, along with the return from a 200-bushel crop of potatoes. 

Yield and dry matter per acre in various root crops 

New York (Cornell) Station Ontario Agr. College 

Green wt. Dry matter Green wt. Dry matter 

Tons Lbs. Tons Lbs. 

Mangels 39 .7 8,400 23 .7 4,440 

Sugar mangels 28 .1 6,400 24 .0 5,460 

Sugar beets 28 .3 8,000 14 .9 4,890 

Rutabagas (swedes) 26.3 5,000 19.6 4,260 

Hybrid turnips 27 . 1 5,200 

Turnips 16.8 3,600 27.2 5,160 

Carrots 18.5 4,400 27.5 6,460 

Parsnips 8.3 3,800 8 .3 2,750 

Kohlrabi 23 .4 4,600 15 .8 2,819 

Cabbage 36 .4 4,600 23 .1 4,102 

Dw irf Essex rape 17 .2 5,758 

Thousand-headed kale 17 .7 4,000 

Potatoes (200 bushels) 6.0 2,540 6.0 2,540 

As is shown in the table, the rank of these various crops varies 
widely in different sections, depending on the climatic and soil con- 
ditions. 

368. The mangel, Beta vulgaris, var. — Tho the mangel, or mangel 
wurzel, is the most watery of roots, it returns a large amount of dry 
matter per acre because of its enormous yield. The dry matter content 
of mangels averages 9.4 per ct. and that of the half-sugar mangels, 
which are crosses between the mangel and the sugar beet, is somewhat 
higher. Because it stands well out of the ground, the mangel is easily 
cultivated and harvested, and furthermore it keeps better in winter 
than does the sugar beet. Mangels should not be fed until they have 
been stored for a few weeks, as the freshly-harvested roots may cause 
scours. Mangels are useful for all farm animals, except possibly the 
horse. (637-8, 784, 864) Fed to rams or wethers for long periods, both 

5 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 317. T Ontario Dept. of Agr., Bui. 228. 

Piper, Forage Plants and their Culture, p. 587. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 243 

mangels and sugar beets tend to produce dangerous calculi, or stones, 
in the urinary organs. 

369. Sugar beets, Beta vulgaris, var. — This root has been marvelously 
developed for the single purpose of producing sugar, some strains now 
yielding 16 per ct. or more. The sugar beet demands more care in culti- 
vation than the mangel and more labor in harvesting, as it sets deep in 
the ground. Sugar beets are esteemed by many dairymen as succulence 
for cows under test. If liberally fed, this root may induce scouring be- 
cause of its high sugar content. Farmers patronizing sugar factories 
should utilize cull beets as well as the tops. Beet tops and leaves may be 
fed fresh or ensiled. Care must be taken when stock is turned on beet 
fields to forage, as decaying beet tops may poison the animals. Accord- 
ing to Morton of the Colorado Station, 8 tho the tops keep better if cut, 
they may be ensiled whole if the mass is well packed. At the Wisconsin 
Station Humphrey found that beet tops make good silage when run thru 
the silage cutter along with an equal weight of dry corn fodder, sufficient 
water being added so that the mass will pack well. 

370. Rutabaga, Brassica campestris. — The rutabaga, or swede, ranks 
next to the mangel in ease of cultivation and harvesting. Sheep prefer 
it to all other roots. Like other turnips, the rutabaga may taint the 
milk of cows, and for this reason should be fed immediately after milk- 
ing. This root is of vast importance to the stock interests of Great 
Britain and is likewise a favorite in Canada, where it is extensively 
grown. (511) 

371. Turnip, Brassica rapa. — Turnips are more watery than rutabagas 
and do not keep so well. Hybrid turnips, crosses between the turnip 
and the rutabaga, keep better than ordinary turnips. Maturing early, 
turnips are used chiefly for early fall feeding. Sown as a catch crop, 
large yields are often secured without cultivation. Tho used mainly for 
sheep, they can also be fed to cattle. 

372. Carrot, Dane us carota. — Under favorable conditions the stock 
carrot gives heavy yields. This root is relished by horses of all ages and 
conditions, but should not be fed in large amount to hard-worked or 
driving horses. (511) Carrots also serve well for other stock, especially 
dairy cows. Hills of the Vermont Station 10 writes: "Carrots far sur- 
passed beets in feeding value." 

373. Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa. — The parsnip is the favorite root with 
dairy farmers on the islands of Jersey and Guernsey. It contains about 
as much dry matter as the sugar beet, but because the yield in this 
country is relatively low and the root difficult to harvest, it is little 
grown. (511) 

374. Potato, Solanum tuberosum. — In Europe heavy-yielding varieties 
of large-sized potatoes are extensively grown for stock, but in this 
country potatoes are only fed when low in price or too small for market. 
Knowing their feeding value, the farmer is in position to utilize the 

"Breeder's Gaz.. 65, 1914, p. 115. "Wis. Bui. 228. 10 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 



244 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

crop wisely, for feeding his live stock, rather than to force it on a pro- 
fitless market. Potatoes are chiefly employed for swine feeding (1001), 
but may be fed in limited amounts to cattle, sheep, and horses in partial 
substitution for grain. For pigs the tubers should be boiled or steamed, 
and mixed with meal. The heavy feeding of raw potatoes is not ad- 
visable, as it induces scouring, but they may be fed in limited amounts 
sliced and mixed with dry feed. The bitter-tasting water in which 
potatoes are cooked should be thrown away, especially if the tubers are 
not sound. According to Pott, 11 potatoes may furnish half the dry 
matter in the ration for fattening cattle and sheep, and one-fourth for 
horses. (511) Milch cows should not be fed more than 30 to 35 lbs., as 
larger amounts injure the quality of the butter. (641) Unripe potatoes 
and especially the sprouts of stored potatoes contain considerable 
solanin, a poisonous compound ; hence in feeding potatoes any sprouts 
should be removed. 

In Germany where machinery for drying potatoes has been perfected, 
the dried product is quite extensively fed to live stock. To produce 1 ton 
of the dried 'potato flakes from 3.5 to 4.0 tons of raw potatoes are re- 
quired. 

375. Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus. — The tubers of this 
hardy perennial, which resemble the potato in composition, are sometimes 
used for human food and for feeding stock. The tubers live over winter 
in the ground and enough are usually left to make the next crop. Due to 
this the plant may sometimes become a weed. Goessmann of the Massa- 
chusetts Station 1 - reports artichokes yielding at the rate of 8.2 tons per 
acre. They may be harvested in the same manner as potatoes, or hogs 
may be turned in the field to root out the tubers. At the Oregon Sta- 
tion 13 6 pigs confined to one-eighth of an acre of artichokes gained 244 
lbs., consuming 756 lbs. of ground wheat and oats in addition to the 
tubers. Allowing 500 lbs. of grain for 100 lbs. of gain, we find that an 
acre of artichokes was worth 3,700 lbs. of mixed wheat and oats. The pigs 
made but little gain on artichokes alone. 

Pott 14 reports that the leaves and stems may be cut when half the leaves 
are still green, without reducing the yield of tubers. This forage may be 
fed to sheep, goats, or dairy cows with good results. Despite the many 
enthusiastic endorsements of artichokes no community in this country 
seems to grow them continuously — a significant fact. (511, 1002) 

376. Sweet potato, Ipomaca batatas. — The sweet potato, a southern crop 
grown as far north as New Jersey and Illinois, serves not only for human 
food, but also for feeding stock, especially swine, which do their own har- 
vesting. Tho the average yield is less than 90 bushels per acre, some 
farmers raise fully 200 bushels. 15 The sweet potato is at its best on sandy 

"Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, pp. 363, 366-7. 

'-Mass. Rpt. 10. 13 Ore. Bui. 54. 

"Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 196. 

15 Duggar, Southern Field Crops, p. 449. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 245 

soil. Keitt of the South Carolina Station 10 states that land which under 
ordinary cropping yields but 20 bushels of corn will produce 200 bushels 
of sweet potatoes per acre. Dodson of the Louisiana Station 17 considers 
sweet potatoes the best root crop for. hogs for fall and early winter graz- 
ing. (1004) Conner of the Florida Station 18 found that sweet potatoes 
may be successfully substituted for half the corn in the ration of work 
horses, 3 lbs. of sweet potatoes replacing 1 lb. of corn. Scott of the same 
station 10 found that 100 lbs. of sweet potatoes was as useful as 150 lbs. 
of corn silage for dairy cows. While more valuable, sweet potatoes were 
also far more expensive to produce than the corn silage. 

The vines, tho difficult to gather because they trail and take root at 
short intervals, are often utilized for feed, usually in the green state. 

377. Chufa, Cyperus esculent us. — The chufa sedge, frequently a weed 
in damp fields on southern farms, produces numerous small, chaffy, 
edible tubers. These are relished by pigs, which are usually turned in to 
harvest the crop. As chufas are low in digestible crude protein, protein- 
rich feeds should be added to balance the ration. They grow best on 
light, sandy soils, yielding from 100 to 150 bushels of 44 lbs. each per 
acre. Like artichokes, the tubers remain in the ground uninjured thru 
the winter. Good crops of chufas have produced 307 to 592 lbs. of pork 
per acre, after making allowance for the other feed consumed by the 
pigs. (1006) 

378. Cassava, Manihot utilissima. — Cassava, a bushy plant 4 to 10 feet 
in height with fleshy roots like those of the sweet potato, grows in Florida 
and along the Gulf coast. In the tropics varieties having bitter roots 
containing prussic acid are grown. These must be dried or heated be- 
fore feeding. The sorts grown in the United States have sweet roots con- 
taining but a trace of prussic acid. From 5 to 6 tons of roots, carrying 
from 25 to 30 per ct. of starch, are produced per acre. They are used for 
the manufacture of starch and for cattle and swine feeding. At Musco- 
gee, Alabama, 20 200 steers and 100 hogs were fattened by using 1600 lbs. 
of cassava roots daily in place of grain. 

Dodson 21 reports that in Louisiana a larger tonnage can be obtained 
from sweet potatoes than from cassava, and at about one-third the cost. 
This crop has never been important in the United States and its culture 
has declined greatly in the last 20 years. The cassava waste of starch 
factories should be dried for feeding. (782) 

II. Miscellaneous Succulent Feeds 

379. Cabbage, Brassica oleracea. — On rich ground cabbage gives as 
good returns of palatable forage as do root crops, but as more labor is 
required in its cultivation, it is but little grown for stock feeding. Cab- 
bage is highly prized by shepherds when preparing stock for exhibition. 

10 S. C. Rpt. 1909. p. 32. »Fla. Bui. 72. w U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 167. 
17 La. Bui. 124. 19 Fla. Bui. 99. 21 La. Bui. 124. 



246 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

and is also used for feeding milch cows, (Jill of England 22 considering it 
superior to rutabagas. Like oilier plants of the mustard family it 
should be l'«'<l after milking to avoid tainting the milk. When cabbage 
is raised Cor market, the small heads and the leaves may be fed to slock. 

380. Kohlrabi, Brassica caulorapa. -This member of the mustard Earn 
ilv, which is valued for ils thickened, turnip-like stem, can be grown 
wherever rutabagas thrive, tho the yield is usually lower. According to 
the New York (Cornell) Station 88 kohlrabi is a good substitute Eor 
rutabagas in the Middle West, where these roots have a tendency to run 
to neck and I'orin little root. Kohlrabi stands well out of the ground and 

thus can be readily pastured by sheep, which also relish the leaves. This 
crop has not heen known to faint the milk when \'a\ to COWS. 

381. Rape, Brassica napus. — Largely thru the instrumentality of our 
experiment stations, rape is now extensively grown by stockmen thruout 
the United States. This member of the turnip family stores its nutri 

meld in the numerous leaves and stems, the pacts eaten by slock. The 

Dwarf Essex variety should he sown, birdseed rape being worthless. 

While rape can he used I'or soiling, it is best to let slock harvest the crop. 

Unless grown in rows, cattle will tramp down considerable of the forage 

while grazing. Rape is too watery I'or silage. The seed, which is in- 
expensive, may he sown in succession from early spring until August in 
the North and even later in the South, either broadcast, in drills and 

cultivated, or finally with corn just, previous to the last cultivation. 

From 6 to 11! weeks a tier seeding the crop is large enough I'or use. 

Zavitz of the Ontario College 24 reports a yield of 27 tons of rape forage 

per acre I'rom ^ Ihs. of seed sown in drills 27 inches apart, the crop hav- 
ing heen cultivated evevy K) days. In plot tests covering IT) years he 
secured an average yield ol' L9.2 tons per acre.'' 1 ' Rape endures quite 

severe frosts, therefore furnishing laic autumn feed, tt should never be 

eaten so closely that only I he hare stalks remain, I'or I he yield of new 

leaves will then he reduced. Animals on rape consume large amounts of 

salt, which should he freely supplied, as it lends to check any undue 

laxative effect of the forage. Sometimes stock must be taught to eat 
rape, but l hey later become fond of it. 

('at lie which during the tall moid lis have I he run of a rape field, to- 
gether with pasture, will go into winter quarters in high condition. To 
avoid tainting the milk of dairy cows, rape should he led or grazed only 
directly alter milking. Rape has its largest use for sheep and hogs, and 
since the animals gather the crop, the cost, is low compared with the re 
turns. Cabbage, rape, lurnips, etc., like all cruciferous plants, have an 
unusually high content of sul fur, which may explain in part their value 
for sheep. (875-G) Access lo clover or bluegraSS pasture when on rape 

is highly advantageous to all stock, besides reducing the danger I'rom 

bloal or hoven Rape furnishes one of the hest forages I'or hogs, and as 

"Jour. Brit. Dairy Ahhoc, L898. a4 Ont. Dept. kgr., Rpt. 10. 

"N. v. (Cornell) Bui. 244. -"Oni. Dept, A.gr., Bui. 228. 



BOOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 247 

it, somewhat more than maintains them, all the grain which is fed goes 
to make gain. (982, 992; Pigs, especially the white breeds, running in 
rape when the leaves are wet, may suffer from a skin affection. 

382. Kale, Brassica oleracea, vex. Asephala, -Coarse growing vane 
ties of kale, a cubba^c-likc plant that does not Conn heads, are used ex- 
tensively for soilage and pasturage La England and France. In this 
country kale is grown extensively only in the northern Pacific coast dis 
trict, where "thousand headed" kale, the common variety, is considered 
the best of soiling crops for dairy cows. On rich soil and with ample 
moisture yields of 35 to 45 ions and even more are secured. 20 In the 
mild climate of that seel ion the crop is fed chiefly from October to April, 
as it endures considerable frost. Frozen kale should be thawed out be 
fore being fed. lake other members of the mustard family, it should be 
fed after milking to avoid tainting the milk. Kale is an excellent feed 
for sheep and swine. 

A hybrid kale with thick, fleshy stems, called marrow cabbage, has 
excelled common kale in trials at the Western Washington Station. 21 
The large leaves are harvested as they mature, and Later the entire plant, 

is cut, ;hkI fed. 

383. Pumpkins, squashes, and melons. — Tin; pumpkin, Cucurbito pepo, 

is often planted in corn fields and the I'rnits used as a relish for horses, 

cattle, or pigs. The field pumpkin resembles the mange] in composition 
while the smaller garden pumpkin contains somewhat more <\f.y matter. 
Bills of the Vermont Station 28 found 2.5 tons of pumpkins, including 
seeds, equal to 1 ton of corn silage for dairy cows. Tho often cooked for 

swine, trials show equally satisfactory results with the raw pumpkins. 

( 1003 j The tradition among farmers that pumpkin seed:: increase the 
kidney excretions, tend to dry up cows, and hence should be removed 
before feeding, has no good foundation. The seeds contain much nutri 

ment and should not, he wasted. Pigs relish them, and they act, as a 

vermifuge, freeing the animals of worms and putting the digestive or 
gans in good condition. As the seeds are rich in protein and oil, eating 

an excess may cause digestive disturbance. Squashes and melons, es 
pecially pie melons, or citrons (also called cow melons ), are sometimes 
i"ed to slock. 

384. Apples and other fruits.— Windfall apples, pears, peaches, plums, 
oranges, figs, etc., may often be fed advantageously to stock and sound 
fruit may be thus used when prices are too low to warrant marketing 

the crop, for all farm animals relish these fruits. (511) Fruits contain 
somewhat more dry matter than roots, the chief nutrients being the 

sugars. Since they are low in protein, they should be used with protein 

rich feeds. For dairy cows apples have ahoul, 40 per cl,. of the value of 

com silage, and apple pomace is practically equal to the same weight of 
corn silage. C635) In trials at the Utah Station 28 when fed with shorts 

"Wash. Bui. 2, Special Series; Ore cir. 5. "Vt. Rpt. 1908, 

"Wash, Bui. 2, Special Series. "Utah Bui 101. 



■.MS PIM'PS \\P IMMMMVi 

;uul skim nr.' • vox equaled 9 to P> lbs of eOUeon 

irat^s Wilson of the A- S reports satisfa< \ gains with 

lambs ted ripe waste olives and alfalfa 

385 Spurrey, s i so On sandy laud in northern Europe 
spurn n ' ieh requires . ; . pool, moist, growing season, is used as a > 

rop or soilage and for green manure Fhe plant has proved of little 
mtry, t\o1 adapted to our hot summers 

386 Prioklj oomfrey, > - rhis plant, oeea 

\ - \ . wrtisers, has little - comparison with the 

;e plants When carefully cultivated u gives -unto 

- ■ »rage whieh at first is not relished by cattle. Well of the 

Wisconsin s ■•■ ,- p that red clover returned 2 ; per ct more dry 

matter and 23 poret. mow crude protein than the same area of carefully 

culti> i j eomfre;v 

387 Mexican clover, ^ s i This annual, which is oo1 
a legume, is abundant iti sandy land in sections of Florida and along 

Oo is wh< re it springs op spontaneously ea< h summer after the 
manner o trass It furnishes pasturage and. tho rather succulent, 

\ ■ v , - - I into 

388 Purslane, " rhe succulent weed of the garden, 
purslane, can 5 ■' - to advantage with swine Plumb oi 

3 ; - brood SOWS 9 lbs of purslane each daily, along 

■ § and hominy meal, and se ins, 

389 Tree leaves and twigs Phe small branches and leaves of trees 
are I ; fed to farm animals in the mountain regions of Europe 

herbage is scai ad in ease o he failure of pastures or the hay 
\ have been extensively ftsed elsewhere Tree leaves are more 
tes ble than twi > ter kinds compare favorably with or 

dinar} ha} in leeding value I caves of the ash, birch, linden, and P 
are \ - • given Che} are eaten with relish, especially by 

. si " ics - s ■ N ^"' N to leaves ga 

s Us •••.'"% as is haj from the grass - Leaves 
which turn brown and drop from the trees in autumn are worthless for 

a als ' : si . consisting oi ground and crushed 

S S v \,n. -s used in certain mixed feeds as an absorbent 

lasses 885' 

111 :': >\> ! v > ' ; : 

; - g ■■ »x\ris . • the plains < v - - 

\ where P - annon salt shut out many or even all of the 

a1 s 

390 Sagebrush Wr ag >f the Red D - ri Wyoming, kelson 

s s - g . : j . spp msnmed in the 

•■.• w s s •• •■> ill leave all 

\ ■ • ■ fad " ■.' S I 



ROOTS '1 [JBEfl > M18CEL BO . z .y, 

othei and feed on sagebrufh fc After 

that, they irill not touch it fbi 

391 Saltbtuh, 4^ 
Dual and perennial, fan 

I ■ 
z : "> • -, ! 

.- ■ ■ • 
tame digeftibilil 

altbufh in pen to ' ! g 

mained healthy during ..'... . r. Ol 

faltl ..;.-. 

but had a g 

892 rhe pea* . 'orcobat '. .■ . 

likei animal*, 

and Skinner of tl z -,v; 

,rahly v/it.h alfalfa in 1 

393 Ruffian thistle, BaKsola kaU, ragugs—l 

I 
I 
and • • . 

qnieli 

' / ! 

| 
cholll '""'•■; pro 

. 
I • ■ 

\ 

Under favorable 

; 
of tl 

:'row hy first 
• ; i eat 

apparent 

6 12 1 .• • 

t thru nu 
w-hie: 
less harm I ess. 

Pr. • ; 

15.7 per • 

t in nitr . vaet. The yottng joint* 

than those whiel 2 : or ovei 

- those ' n a 

z N B " T '< ; - :^)6. z. Rpt. : 



250 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

higher percentage of dry matter than the prickly pears. Cacti alone do 
not provide a maintenance ration for stock. According to Vinson, 30 
cattle in the deserts of Sonora, Mexico, subsist for 3 months of the year 
on little else than the fruits of cacti, but they become emaciated. When 
fed in large amounts with no dry feed cacti tend to produce scours. As 
cacti are all low in protein, this forage should be supplemented by pro- 
tein-rich feeds, such as alfalfa hay or cottonseed meal. From trials at 
the Arizona Station 37 Vinson concludes that 6 lbs. or more of cholla 
fruit with 0.5 to 0.75 lb. of alfalfa hay will maintain a sheep in a lean 
but healthy condition. 

In a trial by Griffiths 38 cows fed 3 lbs. cottonseed meal and 8 to 12 lbs. 
of rice bran per head daily ate about 150 lbs. of singed prickly pear, 6 
lbs. of pear equaling 1 lb. of sorghum hay in feeding value. A lot of 27 
steers fed a ration of 96 lbs. chopped prickly pear and 4.4 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal gained 1.75 lbs. per head daily, requiring 55 lbs. of pear and 
2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per pound of gain. 

Spineless cacti, which during recent years have been extensively ad- 
vertised, have long been known in Mexico and the Mediterranean coun- 
tries. The spineless varieties are not hardy where the temperature falls 
below 20° F. and are thus of limited value in the southwestern states. 
These cacti cannot survive on the open range because cattle will graze 
and destroy them, and moreover they must be enclosed by rabbit-proof 
fences, as these animals are fond of them. Griffiths 30 reports yearly 
yields of 20 to 25 tons of spineless cactus per acre without irrigation at 
Chico in the Sacramento Valley, California ; this locality having an aver- 
age rainfall of 23 inches. These yields were secured with expert culti- 
vation and when a perfect stand was carefully maintained. 

The chief importance of cacti will undoubtedly be to furnish emer- 
gency forage for stock in the semi-arid regions in case of drought, for 
these plants are able to utilize most efficiently small and irregular sup- 
plies of moisture. For this purpose plantations of the spiny cacti may be 
established on the open range, where they will be able to grow and hold 
their own until drawn upon in time of serious drought, for cattle will 
not graze them when other feed is reasonably abundant. 

IV. Poisonous Plants 

Only the briefest mention can be made of the leading plants poison- 
ous to stock. One in trouble should send suspected specimens to the 
experiment station of his state or to the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

395. Plants carrying prussic acid. — Prussic acid, a most deadly poison, 
has been found in over 200 species of plants. It is present in the wild 
cherry, laurel, locust, vetch, Java bean, flax, etc. The leaves of the wild 

30 Ariz. Bui. 67. 38 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 91. 

37 Ariz. Rpt. 21. '"U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 483. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 251 

cherry, especially when wilted, are particularly fatal to cattle. Peters 
and Avery of the Nebraska Station 40 have shown that when the sorghums, 
both saccharine and non-saccharine, are stunted by drought, prussic 
acid may develop in such quantity as to bring death to cattle browsing 
upon them, the affected animals often dying soon after eating a few 
mouthfuls of the poisonous forage. While normal plants are entirely 
harmless, authorities advise caution in the use of the sorghums, kafirs, 
Johnson grass, etc., growing on rich soil, as well as in the use of second- 
growth and stunted plants. The poison is not found in wilted or cured 
sorghum or in sorghum silage, which are therefore always safe for 
feeding. 

396. Ergot. — The seeds of rye and many grasses are sometimes at- 
tacked by a fungus which produces enlarged black, sooty masses, known 
as ergot. Occasionally hay or straw bearing the fungus severely injures 
cattle which are continuously fed thereon during winter. Ergot acts 
on the nervous system, depressing heart action and thereby restricting 
the blood circulation. In advanced cases the ears, tail, and lower parts 
of the limbs of affected animals lose warmth and sensibility, dry gangrene 
sets in, and the diseased parts finally slough away. Animals showing 
symptoms of this trouble should have their feed changed to remove the 
cause, and be warmly housed and liberally supplied with nourishing food. 

397. Forage poisoning. — During recent years serious losses of horses 
and mules have occurred in various parts of the country, especially in 
the Central West, from forage poisoning, or blind staggers (cerebro- 
spinal-meningitis). This is caused by eating moldy feed, either corn 
grain, corn fodder, silage, or grass, or it may result from drinking water 
which has passed thru moldy vegetation. Cattle also may be killed by 
such poisoning but are less susceptible than horses or mules. Whenever 
poisoning is suspected the feed should be changed immediately, for the 
mortality is high in well-developed cases, the animal dying in some in- 
stances in 6 to 8 hours 41 To prevent the disease care should be taken not 
to feed moldy, improperly cured, or otherwise damaged feed. Graham of 
the Kentucky Station 42 states that if moldy forage must be fed it should 
be given sparingly with other feed of good quality. When corn is at all 
moldy he recommends "floating" it. This consists of placing the grain 
in water, whereupon the damaged kernels will rise to the surface and may 
be skimmed off. 

398. Cornstalk disease. — A mysterious ailment in the West at times 
attacks cattle turned into the stalk fields during fall and winter after the 
corn ears have been removed. All efforts to determine the cause have 
thus far proved futile. Alway and Peters of the Nebraska Station 43 
investigated the losses from cornstalk disease in one county in Nebraska 
in which 404 farmers lost 1,531 head of cattle during a single fall. They 
state that no precaution and no feed or combination of feeds has so far 

«>Nebr. Bui. 77. 42 Ky. Bui. 167. 

"Haslam, Kan. Bui. 173. iS Nebr. Press Bui. 27. 



252 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

been found to prevent or mitigate the losses from this disease. They 
further conclude that farmers in districts in which the disease is preva- 
lent, unless they are to lose the valuable forage of their corn stalks, must 
choose between two alternatives : ( 1 ) Cutting the stalks when the corn 
ripens, shocking them in the field and feeding the fodder, thus avoiding 
all trouble. (2) Pasturing the standing stalks with the knowledge that 
they are liable to lose as many as one-twentieth of their cattle in an un- 
favorable season. 

399. Corn smut. — At the Wisconsin Station 44 the senior author fed 2 
milch cows on well-cleaned corn smut mixed with wheat bran, starting 
with a few ounces and increasing until 32 ounces of smut was supplied 
daily to each cow. At this point one refused her feed, but the allowance 
of the other was increased until 64 ounces, or 1 peck, was fed daily. 
This cow seemed to thrive on the smut and was growing fat, when she 
suddenly sickened and died. Smith of the Michigan Station 40 fed 4 
cows on well-cleaned corn smut until each was eating from 1 to 10 lbs. 
daily. Only one cow showed any indisposition, and she recovered. In 
experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry, 46 United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, corn smut was fed to heifers without harmful effect. 
It is reasonable to conclude that corn smut is generally harmless to 
cattle, tho animals becoming fond of it and eating inordinately may suffer 
harm. 

400. Loco poisoning. — Great numbers of horses, cattle, and sheep have 
been lost on the great ranges of western America thru ' ' loco ' ' poisoning 
brought about by eating various plants, mostly legumes. The loss from 
this cause in Colorado alone has been estimated at a millon dollars an- 
nually. 47 "Locoed" animals have a rough coat and staggering gait, 
carry a lowered head, and show paralytic symptoms — in general, going 
"crazy." The studies of Marsh and Crawford 455 seem to show that the 
poisoning is due to the presence of barium salts in certain legume plants. 
Barium does not generally exist in the soil, so the dangerous plants are 
found only in certain districts. Loco poisoning is most prevalent in 
springtime when the ranges provide scant feed, and the emaciated 
animals are forced to subsist largely on plants which they would ordinar- 
ily- reject. "Well-nourished animals are rarely affected. 

401. Castor bean. — The castor bean and the pomace remaining after 
the oil has been extracted contain a deadly poison. Castor beans or 
pomace accidentally getting into feeding stuffs sometimes cause myste- 
rious deaths. Carnivan 49 reports that exposing castor oil cake to the air 
for 5 or 6 days or cooking the seeds or cake for 2 hours destroys the 
poison. 

44 Wis. Rpt. of Regents, 1881. 

" 5 Mich. Bui. 137. 

<n U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim., Indus. Bui. 10. 

47 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bui. 121, Pt. Ill; Farmers' Bui. 380. . 

^Loc. cit. ""Ann. Soc. Agr., Lyon, 1887. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 253 

402. Saltpeter. — Mayo of the Kansas Station 50 reports losses of cattle 
from eating corn forage carrying quantities of saltpeter in and on the 
stalks. The dangerous forage had been grown on land previously used 
as feed lots where the soil was excessively rich. 

403. Miscellaneous poisonous plants. — The common horsetail, water 
hemlock, poison hemlock, death camas, several species of larkspur, cockle 
bur, woody aster, and many other plants are more or less poisonous to 
farm animals. As Marsh"' 1 points out, stock seldom eat poisonous plants 
by choice, but only when induced or compelled by the scarcity of other 
feed. When the grazing is short animals should therefore be kept away 
from spots definitely known to be infested with such plants. In moving 
herds or flocks on the range special precautions should be taken when it 
is necessary to pass over a trail that has been used by many others, for 
all good feed will have been consumed, and the stock will eat whatever 
is left. 

60 Kan. Bui. 49. D1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 536. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 

I. Silage and the Silo 

The preservation of beet leaves, beet waste, and other green forage by 
gathering into heaps or into earthen pits and covering with earth has 
long been practiced in Europe. In 1877 the French farmer, Goffart, pub- 
lished his ' ' Manual of the Culture and Siloing of Maize and Other Green 
Crops," the first book of its kind, covering 25 years of practical ex- 
perience. To Goffart belongs the credit of describing the first modern 
silo and of observing and recommending the peculiar merits and advan- 
tages of the maize (corn) plant for silage. In 1876 Francis Morris, 
Oakland Manor, Howard county, Maryland, made the first silage in 
America by putting whole corn forage into a pit dug in the ground and 
covering it with earth. The first silo in this country built partly above 
ground was constructed by Dr. J. M. Bailey of Boston, Massachusetts, 
in 1879. In the same year Mr. J. B. Brown of New York gave American 
readers a translation of Goffart 's book, and in 1880 Dr. J. M. Bailey 
issued "The Book of Ensilage, the New Dispensation for Farmers." In 
1881 Professor I. P. Roberts 1 at Cornell University, and the senior 
author 2 at the University of Wisconsin, built and filled the first silos used 
for experimental purposes in America. By these means silos and silage 
were brought prominently before the farmers of this country, and the 
interest which was awakened has steadily increased until the ensilage of 
fodders has become a factor of vast importance in American agriculture. 

404. How ensiling preserves forage. — When green forage is packed 
firmly into an air-tight chamber, such as a silo, fermentations take place, 
caused both by the enzymes contained in the plant cells and by bacteria 
and yeasts carried into the silo on the forage. During these fermen- 
tations much of the sugar in the ensiled forage is broken down into or- 
ganic acids, chiefly lactic acid (the acid in sour milk), with some acetic 
acid (the acid in vinegar), and traces of other acids. In these changes 
oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxid (carbonic acid gas) given off. At 
first the oxygen in the air which has been entrapped in the ensiled mass 
is used up, but if the mass has been well compacted, this is soon ex- 
hausted. The enzymes and bacteria then obtain the additional oxygen 
needed for these decompositions from the oxygen-containing compounds 
in the forage— chiefly the sugars. When the sugar in the forage has 
been changed into the acids the fermentation is checked, for the other 

'Information to the authors. 

2 Wis. Rpt. on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders. 1881. pp. 60-69. 

254 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 255 

carbohydrates are attacked to only a small extent. It is due to this that 
well-matured corn or sorghum makes less acid silage than immature 
plants, which contain more sugar. Even tho an excess of sugar is present 
the fermentation comes to an end at length, for sufficient acid is finally 
produced to prevent both the further growth of the bacteria and yeasts 
and the action of the plant enzymes. During the fermentation processes 
the temperature rises somewhat, but if the mass has been well compacted, 
so that but little air is present, the temperature in the interior of the silo 
rarely reaches 100° F. The changes are therefore far less extensive than 
those which occur in the making of brown hay. (334) 

Not only does the accumulation of acid automatically check the further 
action of the acid-forming enzymes and bacteria, but it also prevents the 
growth of undesirable putrefying bacteria, such as cause the decaying of 
meat. The poor-quality, foul-smelling silage which often results when 
such legumes as alfalfa, clover, or soybeans are ensiled alone is doubt- 
less largely due to the fact that there is not enough sugar present in the 
plants to yield sufficient acid to check the growth of these putrefying 
bacteria. The high protein content of these plants also favors putre- 
faction. 

After a few days the silage-making processes cease, and no appreciable 
changes will take place so long as the air is excluded. Instances are on 
record where silage made 12 to 14 years before has been found to be of 
excellent quality. 

Tho the conversion of sugar into organic acids is the chief change 
which takes place in good silage other decompositions also occur to some 
extent. A considerable part of the protein is broken down by enzymes 
into amino acids (11), the silage sometimes containing 2 or 3 times as 
much of these cleavage products as the original fodder. However, as 
this splitting of the protein into simpler compounds is similar to the 
digestion which takes place in the digestive tract of the animal we need 
not suppose that the nutritive value is thereby necessarily impaired. (49) 

405. Steaming silage. — It has sometimes been advocated that forage be 
steamed immediately after placing it in the silo, on the ground that the 
bacteria, yeasts, and enzymes are thereby destroyed, and the more or 
less perfectly sterilized mass thus preserved with little or no fermenta- 
tion. However, Withycombe and Bradley found in digestion trials with 
cows at the Oregon Station 3 that steaming corn forage after ensiling 
reduced the digestibility of the dry matter 16 per ct, the crude protein 
91 per ct., the ash 79 per ct., and the fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat 
to a slight extent. Hence, tho the steamed silage was admirably pre- 
served and contained only half as much acid as ordinary silage, its feed- 
ing value was greatly reduced. (83) 

406. Requisites of a good silo. — 1. Air-tight walls. The silo walls must 
be air-tight, for if oxygen gains entrance the fermentations will con- 
tinue and molds will grow, spoiling the silage. Such action takes place 

' Ore. Bui. 102. 



256 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

at the top of the silo where the mass is exposed to the air, but if the 
silage has been well packed and wet down, the impervious top layer of 
rotten material, which soon forms, prevents further entrance of the air. 
All doors must fit tightly, else the silage will spoil about the openings. 

2. Cylindrical shape. In the early silos, which were rectangular 
structures, it was exceedingly difficult to pack the mass in the corners so 
that it would not spoil. With the devising of the cylindrical silo by King 
at the "Wisconsin Station 4 this serious trouble was overcome, thereby 
greatly advancing the practice of ensiling forage plants. The cylindri- 
cal silo has now been commonly adopted, for besides the advantage of 
having no corners, it provides the largest cubic capacity for a given 
amount of building material, and the sides are strong and unyielding. 

3. Smooth, perpendicular, strong walls. Unless the walls of the silo 
are smooth and perpendicular, cavities will form along the walls as the 
mass settles and the adjacent silage will spoil. The walls must be strong 
and rigid, for during the settling of the silage a great outward pressure 
is developed. This increases with the depth of the silo and, according to 
King, reaches 330 lbs. per square foot of wall surface at a depth of 30 
feet. After the silage has fully settled this lateral pressure ceases. 

4. Depth. The early silos were shallow, and even tho the forage was 
well-tramped it was often necessary to weight the mass down to force out 
the air sufficiently. By making the silo deep the great pressure com- 
pacts all but the upper layers so that the losses thru fermentation are 
reduced to a minimum. The fact that the losses of nutrients are heaviest 
in the upper layers and surface of the silage is another reason for having 
the silo deep, because the loss per ton of total contents is thereby reduced. 
At the Wisconsin Station 6 King placed about 65 tons of green corn for- 
age in an air-tight silo in 8 layers, and determined the loss in each layer, 
after standing from September to March. The dry matter lost in the 
respective layers was as follows: surface (eighth) layer, 32.5 per ct. ; 
seventh layer, 23.4 per ct. ; sixth layer, 10.3 per ct. ; fifth layer, 2.1 per 
ct. ; fourth layer, 7.0 per ct. ; third layer, 2.8 per ct. ; second layer, 3.5 
per ct. ; and bottom layer 9.5 per ct. While the surface layer lost over 
32 per ct. of its original dry matter, the average loss in the first 5 layers 
from the bottom was less than 5 per ct., and the loss for the whole silo 
only 8.1 per ct. 

407. Types of silos. — Silos may be constructed of wood, solid concrete, 
concrete blocks, brick, stone, glazed tile, or sheet steel. In the semi-arid 
regions pit silos, preferably with cement lining and curb, are extensively 
used, but these are impracticable in humid climates. In the southwestern 
states silos are sometimes built of adobe, reinforced with wire and plas- 
tered with cement. The choice between the various types of construc- 
tion, all of which make good silos when well-built, will depend upon local 
conditions. 

This work can present only the primary principles relating to silo. 

4 Wis. Bui. 28., issued July, 1891. ' 5 Wis. Bui. 83. "Wis. Bui. 83. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 257 

construction, advising those interested to secure from the state experi- 
ment stations or the United States Department of Agriculture instruc- 
tions concerning the form, materials, manner of construction, etc., as 
detailed in bulletins which are available for the asking. 

408. Advantages of silage.— The widespread use of the silo for the 
preservation of forage is easily explained when we consider the advan- 
tages this system offers, the more important of which are : 

1. At a low expense silage furnishes high-quality succulent feed for 
any desired season of the year. For winter feeding silage is far cheaper 
than roots and is as efficient a feed, except possibly in the case of animals 
being fitted for shows or milch cows on forced test. (109, 365) For sum- 
mer feeding silage furnishes succulent feed with less bother and expense 
than do soiling crops. Dairy cows yield no greater product from soilage 
than from silage. (420, 642) 

2. When crops are properly ensiled less of the nutrients are wasted 
thru the fermentations which take place than are lost when the forage is 
cured as hay or dry fodder. (301, 330, 332) 

3. Silage, even from plants with coarse stalks, such as corn and the 
sorghums, is eaten practically without waste. On the other hand from 
20 to 35 per ct. of dry corn fodder, even if of good quality, is usually 
wasted. 7 The use of silage thus permits the keeping of more stock on a 
given area of land, a factor of much importance on high-priced land. 

4. Crops may be ensiled when the weather does not permit of curing 
them into dry fodder. In some sections of the South it is almost im- 
possible to preserve the corn crop satisfactorily as grain and stover on 
account of the humidity, and also because rodents and weevils cause 
great loss in the stored grain. 8 Preservation as silage obviates both 
difficulties. 

5. Weedy crops which would make poor hay may make silage of good 
quality, the ensiling process killing practically all the weed seeds pres- 
ent. 

6. The product from a given area can be stored in less space as silage 
than as dry forage. A cubic foot of hay in the mow, weighing about 5 
lbs., contains approximately 4.3 lbs. of dry matter. An average cubic 
foot of corn silage from a 30-foot silo, weighing about 39.6 lbs., will con- 
tain 10.4 lbs. dry matter, or nearly 2.5 times as much. Dry corn fodder 
takes up even more space per pound of dry matter than hay. In climates 
where it is necessary to store fodder under cover this may be an added 
reason for the use of the silo. 

409. Crops for the silo. — The suitability of the leading crops for silage 
has been discussed in detail in the foregoing chapters. Where it thrives 
Indian corn is the best silage plant. (300) The sorghums, including 
both the sorghos and the grain sorghums, are next in value and im- 
portance, as crops for silage. (309) In England meadow grasses have 

7 Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Bui. 129. 'Washburn, Vt. Bui. 170. 

s Ferris, Miss. Bui. 158. 



(■' Kb: ns v\p FEEDING 

been converted into stark silage, in which case the decaying outside pro- 
. the interior of the mass — a practice which, however, is not gaining 

ivor. Potts o( Australia 10 reports that 3 tons of grass silage is esti- 
mated to be worth 1 ton of oat hay. A stack containing 200 teas of grass 
silage, opened after L0 years, furnished good feed. Georgeson of the 
Alaska Experiment Station 11 reports that fresh native grasses kept well 
when stored in a log silo made smooth inside, and that such silage satis- 
factorily maintained oxen during ;; winters. Green cereals are fairly 
satisfactory for silage, providing they are ensiled before the stems 
become wood} 1^318) Since the hollow stems of these plants con- 
tain air, such forage must be closely compacted in the silo. 

Vs a class the legumes have proved disappointing for silage when 
ensiled alone. (342, 348) Better results have been secured when such 
crops as alfalfa and clover are ensiled with plants which carry more 
sugar and less protein, such as green rye, wheat, corn, or sorghum. 

\ pt where weathe litions prevent curing these legumes into 

-. sfaetory hay, there is usually little need of ensiling them, for more 
reliable silage crops may usually be grown. When ensiled with corn or 
the sorghums, cowp< is a - : soybeans produce silage of high quality, 
rich in protein. (^357-81 The refuse of pea canneries makes a silage 
much relished by farm animals. ^356) 

Such substances as beet pulp, beet tops, apple pomace, the waste from 
sweet corn canneries, and sorghum bagasse may be successfully ensiled 
in silos, or placed in heaps and covered with earth, or, if no better 
•• v\ ision can be made, massed in large heaps without covering, in which 
de portion on decaying forms a preserving crust. (274, 358) 
Cooke of the Vermont Station 1 - found that ensiled apple pomace was 
preferred b\ eows to either hay or corn fodder, and concludes that it 
has a value equal to corn silage for cows (635) Boyce of Australia' 1 
reports prickly pears making si elished by cattle, the thorns soften- 

ing and becoming harmless. Weeds and other waste vegetation may 
some - advantageously ensiled. Featherstonhaugh of Australia 1 ' 4 
reports a case where 800 cons of ensiled thistles made satisfactory silage. 
Attempts to ensile cabbage, rape, and turnips have failed, the product 
being ill-smelling and wate] ) 

410. Cost of silage. — The cost of silage per ton will vary widely de- 
pom 1 abor, the yield of forage per acre, rent of land. 
summary of recent data from 4 experiment stations 
s the approximate ton and acre cost of growing a silage crop and 
placing it in the silo, including the rent of land, cost of fertilizers. 
man and horse labor, interest and depreciation on machinery and silo, 
other charges, such as the cost of twine and fuel: 

\ s w a . Ra Vol 15. p. S ,3 N. S. Wales Gaz.. Vol. 8. p. 505. 

v- ifca Bui. 1. U N. S. Wales Gaz., Vol. 9. p. 71. 

v Rpt 1903. 



SILAGE -SOILAGE -THE PREPARATION OF PEED 259 
Cost per acr< of corn silagt 

Miiini'Mut.ii Illinois Ohio New Jersey 

■Si.iition, 1 * Station," Station," Station, 1 * 

201 acres I 1/ acres 115 acres 30 acres 

Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars 

Land rental 3 .75 5 .28 3 .81 

Manure or fertilizers 3.73 l 46 \ 1fl 1K 

Seed 1.06 0.42 0.28/ lU15 

Labor growing and cutting crop . 5.19 \ 19 OA ,, ftQ Q 07 

Labor filling silo. 4.12/ 12 ' 26 14 - 63 827 

Twine 0.36 0.41 0.18 1 

Coal 0.42 0.46 0.25 I 10.84 

Rental of power for cutter 1.39 1.21 1 .36 J 

Interest and depreciation on farm 

machinery 1 .56 1 .76 1 .34 .... 

Miscellaneous 1,13 0.58 0.42 

Total cost per acre 18.98 26.11 23.73 29.26* 

I losl per ton 3.30 3.65* 

* Not including re nl and interesl mid depreciation on farm machinery. 
'« Minn. Idil I 15, » Ohio Bui. 266, 

'» Unpublished data " N. J. Rpt. 1913, pp. 414-415. 

Cnn-ici- of Hie United States Department of Agriculture, 1 " collecting 
data from 31 Wisconsin and Michigan farms, found the amount of corn 
forage placed in the silo daily varied from 3.3 to 7.4 tons for each man 
employed. Chase and Wood of the Nebraska Station,- gathering data 
lor ;>41 acres of silage corn, found that the average cost per ton in filling 
silos was as follows: Cutting with binder, $.20 ; hauling, $.44; putting 
in silo, $.40; twine, $.03; and interest and depreciation on silo, $.32. 
Figuring corn at $.50 per bushel and stover at $.50 per acre the total 
average cost of the silage was $2.98 per ton. 

411. Silage on the stock farm. — The use of silage has practically 
revolutionized the feeding of dairy cattle over a large part of the United 
States, and is fast assuming equal importance for the feeding of beef 
cattle and sheep. This succulent feed tends to keep the bowels normal, 
the body tissues sappy, the skin pliant, and the coat glossy, all of which 
mark the animals as in condition to make the most from their feed. (109) 
Furnishing at any time of the year a uniform supply of succulence 
nearly equal in palatability and nutritive effect to the pasturage of 
early summer, silage is eminently suited to the dairy cow. (629-36) As 
shown by the trials reviewed in later chapters, thru the wise use of 
silage for fattening cattle and sheep the cost of meat production may 
be materially lowered. (774-83, 866-70) Silage is especially valuable for 
breeding stock and young animals, which would otherwise often be 
wintered exclusively on dry forage. On too many farms stock cattle 
barely hold their own during winter. This means that for half of each 
year all the feed consumed goes for body maintenance, returning nothing 
to the owner, and serving only to carry the animals over winter and to 
pasture time, when they once more begin to gain in weight and thereby 
really increase in value. By the use of corn silage, combined with other 

10 U. S. Farmers* Bui. 292. = ft Nebr. Bui. 145. 



200 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

cheap roughages, young cattle can be made to gain steadily all winter 
at small cost, so that with t he coming of spring they will not only have 
increased in weight but are in condition to go on pasture and make 
the largest possible gains. 

Silage is a valuable succulence for the breeding flock, but must be 
fed in moderation to ewes before lambing or weak, flabby lambs may 
result. (884) Good silage may also be used in a limited way with idle 
horses and those not hard worked in winter, especially brood mares and 
colts. (510) Spoiled, moldy soilage should always be discarded, and 
special care must be taken to feed no such material to sheep or horses, 
which are much more easily affected thereby than are cattle. Silage 
which is unduly sour is apt to cause digestive disturbances with sheep. 
For all animals only as much silage should be supplied as will be 
cleaned up at each feeding. Care should be taken to remove any 
waste for this succulence spoils in a comparatively short time on 
exposure to the air. Frozen silage must be thawed before feeding. 
[f then given before any decomposition lakes place no harm will result 
from its use.- 1 

On high-priced land and with high prices ruling for purchased con- 
centrates and for labor the tanner will find the legumes and Indian 
corn or the sorghums his best crop allies. Heavily manured land will 
yield enormous crops of corn or sorghum forage carrying much grain, 
and this, utilized in part as dry forage, but mostly as silage, will 
materially extend the feeding powers of the farm in roughage rich in 
carbohydrates. Then let red clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, vetch, or other 
legumes be grown to furnish a protein-rich dry roughage. With an 
abundance of silage and legume hay the stockman need then supply 
only the minimum of rich concentrates which he must either grow or 
purchase. With this combination of feeds the number of animals the 
farm will carry is greatly increased, to the great advantage of both 
land and owner, and the cost of* producing meat and milk is cut to 
the minimum. 

412. Summer silage. — In many districts summer droughts frequently 
injure the pastures, making necessary the supplying of additional feed 
to maintain satisfactory production with dairy cows and other farm 
animals. Especially on high-priced land, where intensive agriculture 
must be followed, it is often desirable to keep more animals than can 
profitably be maintained entirely on pasture during the summer. Silage 
will admirably meet both these needs where enough animals are kept 
to feed off 2 inches or more of silage each day so that the surface will 
not decay. (420) 

In trials covering 3 years at the Wisconsin Station 2 -' Woll, Humphrey, 

and Oosterhuis compared corn silage and soilage as summer supplements 

to pasture for dairy cows. In the production of milk and butter fat 

the silage ration was as efficient as that containing soilage, and also far 

:1 TJ. a. Farmers' Bui. 556. --Wis. Bui. 235. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE—THE PREPARATION OF PEED 261 

cheaper and more convenient. (642 j To provide a succession of green 
feed for animals by means of soiling crops it is necessary to fit and plant 
comparatively small areas to different crops at different limes. As the 
cut soilage will quickly heat in warm weather if placed in piles and 
will then be less palatable, a supply must be harvested each day or at 
least about every 2 days. Harvesting in small quantities and in all 
sorts of weather is inconvenienl and expensive, and moreover the work 
must be done a1 the busiest season of the year. On the other hand, 
when corn or the sorghums are grown for silage the Large fields are fitted, 
planted, cultivated, and harvested with labor saving machinery at a, 
minimum expense, and feeding the silage takes hut a few minutes daily. 

Corn and sorghum return greater yields of nutrients than many of 
the crops it is necessary to include ill a soiling system. Silage Furnishes 
feed of uniformly high quality thruout the season, a goal which is diffi 
cult to attain by soiling, Tor one crop is often exhausted or too mature 
before the next is in prime condition for feeding. The years when 
drought is severe and pastures unusually short are the very times when 
soiling ci'ops will be scant or may even fail. By means of the silo, the 
crop may be carried over from one year to the next, thus providing 
insurance against drought. 

413. Filling the silo. — Provided the material is closely packed, it is 
not essential that green forage be cut into bits to preserve it in the silo. 
The legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, cowpea vines, etc., are often 
ensiled uncut, and some farmers ensile whole corn forage, tied in bundles. 
Especially Willi such coarse material as corn or sorghum, the forage 
I lacks much better when cut into short lengths by passing thru a 
silage cutter. For this reason and because of the greater ease in tilling 
and especially in removing the silage, corn and sorghum are commonly 
cut before being ensiled, preferably into one-half to one inch lengths, 
for if cut longer than this stock may refuse the coarser portions. 

When filling the silo the inpouring material should be thoroly mixed 
and evenly spread, so as to prevent uneven settling, as well as to make 
the mass uniform for feeding. As the friction of the walls retards the 
settling of the adjacent forage, material here should be kept slightly 
higher than in the center and should be especially well-tramped. The 
silage settles best when several days are occupied in filling the silo, for 
time is required for the forage to soften and settle and to expel the 
entangled air thru heat and the generation of carbon dioxid. After 
the mass has settled considerably, more forage may be placed in the 
silo, but any spoiled material should first be removed. If feeding is 
not to begin immediately, the surface should be wet down thoroly and 
tramped well several times the first week, when an impervious layer 
of rotten silage will form on top and only a few inches will be spoiled 
To lessen the waste it is well to remove the ears from the last few loads 
of corn. A covering of a foot or so of cheap refuse, such as straw, 
weeds, or corn stalks, wet with water, will save the more valuable 



262 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

forage underneath. Oat or wheat grains scattered over the top of the 
ensiled mass soon germinate and form a mat which helps to keep out 
the air. The crust should not be disturbed until feeding commences, 
when all spoiled silage should be removed and discarded. When the 
forage becomes dry before being ensiled water should be added either 
to the mass in the silo or preferably to the cut forage as it passes thru 
the blower. 

414. Danger from carbon dioxid. — In silo filling there is possible danger 
to those who go into the pit after an intermission, due to the generation of 
carbonic acid gas, which sometimes accumulates in sufficient quantity 
to prove fatal to life. The possibility of danger may be ascertained 
by lowering a lighted lantern or candle into the pit. If the light con- 
tinues to burn at the bottom human beings can live in the same atmos- 
phere, but if it goes out it means death to one entering the pit. The 
opening of a door low down in the silo will allow the poisonous gas 
to pour out, or pouring a lot of cut forage into the pit soon creates a circu- 
lation which removes the danger. 

415. Weight of silage. — King 23 reports the weight of silage from well- 
matured corn 2 days after filling the silo to be as follows : 

Weight of a cubic foot of corn silage at different depths 

Depth 
1 foot 

10 feet 

20 feet 

30 feet 

36 feet 

The second column shows that 10 ft. from the top corn silage weighs 
about 33 lbs. per cubic ft., while 36 ft. down it weighs 61 lbs., or nearly 
twice as much. The last column shows that the whole mass down to 10 
ft. has a mean weight of about 26 lbs., while the whole mass in a silo 
filled to a depth of 36 ft. has an average weight of 42.8 lbs. per cubic foot. 

416. Capacity of the silo. — The following table, chiefly from data 
obtained by King, 24 shows the approximate capacity of cylindrical silos 
for well-matured corn silage 2 days after filling. The depth indicated 
is the actual depth of the silage, not the height of the silo wall. It 
is therefore necessary to have the silo about 5 feet higher than the 
depth given to allow for settling. 

The table shows, for example, that a silo 20 ft. deep and 15 ft. in di- 
ameter will hold about 59 tons of cut corn silage, one 32 ft, deep and 
26 ft. in diameter about 346 tons, and one 40 ft, deep and 22 ft, in 
diameter about 340 tons. 

23 Wis. Bui. 59. 24 Wis. Bui. 59. 



Weight at 

given depth 

Lbs. 


Mean weight for 

whole depth 

Lbs. 


18.7 


18.7 


33.1 


26.1 


46.2 


33.3 


56.4 


39.6 


61.0 


42.8 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 263 



Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos in tons of corn silage 



Depth of silage in feet 



Inside diameter in feet 



10 



12 



14 



15 



16 



18 



20 



22 



24 



26 



20 
21 

2-2 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
34 
36 
40 



26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
47 
49 
51 
56 
61 
70 



38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
67 
70 
74 
80 
87 
101 



51 

55 

59 

62 

67 

71 

75 

79 

83 

87 

91 

96 

100 

109 

118 

138 



59 

63 

67 

72 

76 

81 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

126 

136 

160 



67 

72 

77 

82 

86 

91 

97 

102 

109 

114 

119 

125 

131 

143 

155 

180 



91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 
181 
196 
228 



105 
112 

120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
196 
205 
224 
243 
282 



127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
173 
184 
194 
205 
216 
226 
237 
248 
271 
293 
340 



151 
161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
256 
269 
282 
295 



177 
189 
202 
216 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
300 
315 
330 
346 



417. Proper size of the silo. — The diameter of the silo should be gauged 
by the number and kind of animals to fed from it, and its height by the 
length of the feeding period. The silo should be of such diameter that 
in the cooler part of the year at least 1.5 inches, and preferably 2 inches, 
of silage will be removed from the entire surface daily to keep the sur- 
face from spoiling. When silage is used for summer feeding somewhat 
more should be removed daily. The exact size of silo required may be 
computed from the length of the feeding period and the amount required 
daily for the different kinds of stock, as shown in the respective chapters 
of Part III. Knowing the number of animals of each kind to be fed, 
the entire amount of silage which will be consumed daily may be ascer- 
tained. The maximum diameter which the silo should have, may then 
be determined from the following: Two inches in depth of ordinary 
corn silage weighs about 3 lbs. per surface square foot near the top of 
the silo and 9 lbs. near the bottom, averaging about 6.6 lbs. in a silo 
filled to a depth of 30 feet. To use 2 inches from the surface each day 
the amounts indicated below should be fed daily from silos of various 
diameters. 



Minimum amount of silage to be fed daily from silos of various diameters 



iameter 


Minimum amount 


Diameter 


Minimum amount 


of silo 


of silage 


of silo 


of silage 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 



10 feet 520 

11 feet 625 

12 feet 745 

14 feet 1,015 

16 feet 1,325 



18 feet 1,680 

20 feet 2,075 

22 feet 2,510 

24 feet 2,985 

26 feet 3,505 



In cold weather and when the silage is well packed, a somewhat 
smaller amount may be removed daily. 



264 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

When the minimum diameter which the silo should have has thus 
been determined, the total amount of silage required for the desired 
feeding period may be computed and the dimensions for a silo of this 
capacity found by referring to the table in the preceding article. It 
should be borne in mind that silage in a relatively deep silo keeps better 
than in a shallow one, and that a deep silo is the most economical to 
construct. King- 5 found that a silo 36 ft. in depth will store 5 times 
as much feed as one 12 ft. deep, due to the greater compactness of the 
stored mass. Many silos are now built 40 ft. or even more in depth. 
A silo 20 ft. in diameter will hold 4 times as much as one having half 
that diameter, while it costs but twice as much to build. Gurler 26 
advises against silos over 25 ft. in diameter on account of the increased 
labor involved in removing the silage. 

II. Soilage 

Soilage means supplying forage fresh from the field to animals in 
confinement. It was first brought to public attention in this country 
by Josiah Quincy, whose admirable essays, printed in the Massachusetts 
Agricultural Journal in 1820, were later gathered into a booklet 
entitled ' ' The Soiling of Cattle, ' ' long since out of print. Soilage, one 
of the most intensive forms of husbandry, is especially helpful where 
it is desired to concentrate labor and capital in maintaining farm ani- 
mals on a relatively small area of land. 

So far as known to the authors the word "soilage" was used for the 
first time in an editorial in the New York Independent of March 11, 1909 
by E. P. Powell, the helpful, charming writer on rural topics. It is in 
a class with the words "leafage," "herbage," "forage," "pasturage," 
and "silage," and is here adopted as a valuable accession to our all too 
brief distinctively agricultural vocabulary. 

418. Advantages and disadvantages of soilage. — Compared with allow- 
ing animals to gather their food by grazing, soiling has the following 
advantages: 1. With all crops, even grasses, which soon spring up 
again when grazed, a larger yield is secured by allowing the plants to 
nearly mature before harvesting than by pasturing them. 27 (310) 2. 
With a properly planned succession of soiling crops an abundance of 
palatable feed may usually be supplied thruout the season, so that the 
production of the animals will not decline if pastures become parched 
in midsummer. 3. None of the forage is wasted thru being tramped 
down by the animals or fouled with manure. 4. Less fencing is required. 
5. In bad weather cattle will be more comfortable fed soiling crops in 
the stable than when grazing. 

The greater expenditure for labor, seed, and fertilizer in producing 
the crops and for labor in cutting and carrying them to the animals 
are the chief disadvantages of soilage. In warm weather soilage will 

-"'Physics of Agriculture. -'Largely from Quincy, The Soiling of Cattle: 

-'The Farm Dairy. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF PEED 265 

ferment and mold in a short time if left in piles. When but few animals 
are fed the green forage may be spread thinly on the barn floor, where 
it will keep, but soilage thus handled dries out and is less palatable. 
Where a considerable quantity is harvested at one time much labor may 
be saved by using the mower and horse rake. During wet spells the 
palatability of the soilage is reduced, and it is difficult to harvest and 
cart the food to the animals without injury to the land. On the other 
hand, pastures also suffer if grazed while wet. 

419. Yield of pasturage and soilage. — Quincy reports that he main- 
tained 20 cows in stalls, allowing exercise in an open yard, on the soilage 
from 17 acres of land where 50 acres had been required when the land 
was pastured. 

The senior author 28 kept 3 cows for 122 days in summer on 3.7 acres 
of excellent bluegrass pasture at the Wisconsin Station and maintained 
3 others in stable and yard for the same period by feeding soiling crops 
(green clover, fodder corn, and oats) from 1.5 acres. On this area a 
total of 44,835 lbs. of green forage was produced. The product from 
an acre under each system was as follows : 

Yield of milk and butter from 1 acre of soiling crops and pasture 

Milk per acre Butter per acre 

Lbs. Lbs. 

From 1 acre of soiling crop 4,782 196 

From 1 acre of pasture 1,780 82 

This shows that in Wisconsin 1 acre of soilage crops equalled about 
2.5 acres of good bluegrass pasture for feeding dairy cows. 

Otis of the Kansas Station 29 found that it required 0.71 acre of 
soiling crops, half the area being alfalfa, to furnish a cow roughage for 
144 days, while, when the cow was grazed, during the same period it 
required 3.6 acres of pasture composed of prairie and mixed grasses. 
After allowing for the grain consumed, soilage returned $18.08 and 
pasturage $4.23 per acre. Voorhees 30 found that to produce a ton of 
dry matter in soiling crops yielding from 3 to 4.5 tons of dry matter 
per acre annually, cost on an average $6.50, and that the total cost per 
ton of dry matter, including cutting and hauling to the barn, would 
be about $9. 31 The feeding value of this dry matter was nearly equal 
to that in purchased concentrates costing over $20 per ton. 

420. The place of soilage on American farms. — It has been shown 
before (412), that silage is a more economical means of supplying succu- 
lent feed in summer than is soilage. On farms where too few animals 
are kept to prevent the molding of the surface of the silage as it is fed 
off or where a silo is not available, soilage should be provided to prevent 
the usual midsummer shrinkage in milk flow with cows, and in flesh with 
beef cattle or sheep. Under this system animals may be housed in 
darkened stables away from the flies during the heated portion of the 
day and fed liberally with fresh cut soilage, being turned to' pasture 
at night for exercise and grazing. Young cattle will then continue 

:? Wis. Rpt. 1885. 20 Kan. Press Bui. 71. 30 Forage Crops. 31 N. J. Rpt. 1907. 



266 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

growing, steers will increase in fatness, and cows yield a normal flow 
of milk during a period of the year when, because of heat, flies, and 
scant pastures, there is quite commonly no profit, and sometimes serious 
loss. It is also often advantageous to supply extra green forage during 
the fall months, even tho the pastures have then partly recovered their 
ability to supply nutriment. 

Because of the high price of labor in this country it is not usually 
economical to maintain cattle in summer on soilage or silage with no 
pasturage in regions where good summer pastures may be provided. On 
high-priced land where it is desired to keep as many animals as pos- 
sible on a given area such a system may be the most profitable. In 
Europe where labor is relatively cheap compared with land, a much 
wider use can economically be made of soilage. 

421. Crops for soilage. — A long list of crops are well suited for soilage, 
including the various legumes, such as alfalfa, the clovers, field peas, 
cowpeas, and soybeans; the cereals, as rye, wheat, barley, and oats; 
the smaller grasses ; and especially corn — sweet corn for early feeding 
and field corn later — and the sorghums. The adaptability of all these 
for soilage has been discussed in the preceding chapters. 

Soiling crops should not be fed until reasonably mature. Green, 
immature plants are composed largely of water, and often cattle cannot 
consume enough of them to secure the required nourishment. (23, 310) 
For this reason, where quite green crops are fed, some dry forage should 
also be supplied. 

422. A soiling chart. — Wherever soilage is practiced, a succession of 
crops must be carefully planned so that a continuous supply of green 
forage of the proper stage of maturity will be available over the period 
desired. This must be worked out by each farmer, bearing in mind the 
yields and seasons of maturity of the various crops which are suited to 
his soil and climatic conditions. In such planning it is helpful to pre- 
pare a soiling chart, similar to the following, worked out by Voorhees 
of the New Jersey Station, 32 which will show the area of each crop to 
be grown, the date of seeding, the period of feeding, and the estimated 
yield. Any attempt in this line will be more or less imperfect at first 
but may be modified from growing experience and close study to meet 
the local conditions. 

This chart is an example of a practical system of soilage, since it 
records the actual attainment of one who most successfully specialized 
in this system for many years. The results here reported were obtained 
upon lands once regarded as of low agricultural value, brought to high 
productiveness by systematic soilage and fertilization. The table shows 
that 24 acres of land, producing 2 and sometimes 3 crops during the 
season, yielded 278.3 tons of green forage, supplying an average of 60.4 
lbs. of green forage daily per head to an equivalent of 50 dairy cows 
from May 1 to November 1, a period of 6 months. 

s; Forage Crops, p. 35. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 267 



Soiling crops grown at the New Jersey Station for the support of a herd 
equal to 50 dairy cows for 6 months 



Crops grown 



Total 
seed 
used 



Date of 
seeding 



Period of cutting 
and feeding 



Total 
yield 



Rye, 2 acres 

Rye, 2 acres 

Alfalfa, 1 acre, 1st cutting. 

Wheat, 2 acres 

Crimson clover, 6 acres 
Mixed grasses, 1 acre 

Oats-and-peas, 2 acres . . . . 



Bushels 
4.0 
4.0 
0.6 
4.0 
1.2 



Oats-and-peas, 2 acres 

Alfalfa, 2d cutting 

Oats-and-peas, 5 acres 

Southern white corn, 2 acres 

Barnyard millet, 2 acres 

Soybeans, 1 acre 

Cowpeas, 1 acre 

Cowpeas-and-kafir corn, 2 acres 

Pearl millet, 2 acres 

Cowpeas, 1 acre 

Mixed grasses, 5 acres (partly dried) . 
Barley, 2 acres 




10.0 \ 
7.5/ 
0.5 
1.4 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.0 
0.25 
1.5 



3.5 



Sept. 27 
Oct. 3 
May 14 
Sept. 26 
July 16 



April 2 
April 11 



April 19 

May 2 
June 19 
June 1 
June 10 

July 10 

July 11 
July 24 



Sept. 2 



May 1- 7 
May 7-19 
May 19-25 
May 25- June 1 
June 1-21 
June 21-26 

June 26- July 4 



4-9 

9-11 

11-22 



July 
July 
July 

July 22-Aug. 

Aug. 3-19 
19-25 
25-Sept. 



Aug. 
Aug. 

Sept. 1-16 

Sept. 16-Oct. 1 



Oct. 
Oct. 
Oct. 



1- 5 

5-27 
27-Nov. 



Tons 

9.4 
19.2 
11.1 

10.4 

42.8 

8.3 

12.4 

S.2 

2.1 

16.4 

17.7 

23.2 

8.8 

10.5 

24.4 

20.2 
8.0 

20.0 
5.2 



Total 



278.3 



III. The Preparation of Feeds 

In the nomadic stage of husbandry the animals gathered their own 
food, the care of the owner ending when grazing, water, and protection 
from marauders were provided. With the change from primitive times 
the growing of plants and their conservation for animal use becomes 
an ever-increasing burden on the stockman. It is therefore a question 
of prime importance to determine to what extent such preparation of 
feeds as grinding or rolling grain, cutting or chaffing hay and coarse 
forage, and cooking various feeding stuffs is profitable. 

The purpose of such artificial preparation of feed is to make it more 
digestible, to improve its palatability, or to permit the mixing of well- 
liked feeding stuffs with materials which would otherwise be refused. 
In studying any method of preparing feeds farmers must not only con- 
sider the beneficial effect, if any, on the animals, but must also determine 
whether such effect is marked enough to warrant the added expense in- 
curred. The value of the different practices for each class of stock is 
discussed in detail in the respective chapters of Part III, but a summary 
of the conclusions there drawn will be helpful in showing the principles 
which should govern the feeder in deciding how far to employ such 
methods of preparation. 



268 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

423. Grinding, crushing, or rolling grain. — As has been shown before 
(83), grinding, crushing, or rolling grain increases the digestibility only 
when animals fail to masticate the whole grain. In fact, grinding grain 
so finely that it is bolted with little chewing may sometimes decrease 
the digestibility because of imperfect mixture with the saliva. For all 
animals, such grains as bald barley or rice, which are unusually hard, 
or small seeds, such as millet, grain from the sorghums, or weed seeds, 
should ordinarily be ground. For animals with poor teeth or for young 
animals before their teeth are well developed, grinding grain in general 
is advisable. Ordinarily horses can grind their own oats and corn, and 
idle horses should always do so. For horses which are hard-worked 
and spend much of their time away from the stable the grain may well 
be ground and mixed with a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay. 
(462) A cow yielding a large flow of milk is a hard-worked animal, 
and her grain should usually be ground. (668) Where pigs follow 
fattening cattle to gather up any grain which escapes mastication and 
digestion there is no advantage in grinding corn or even shelling it, 
except perhaps toward the close of the feeding period when the cattle 
may be induced to eat more by grinding. Where no pigs run with 
cattle, it is usually economical to grind or crush the corn before feeding. 
(735-6) Except in the case of small or hard seeds, sheep with good 
teeth should grind their own grain. (835) While it pays to grind the 
small grains for pigs, there is no appreciable advantage in grinding corn 
for pigs weighing 150 lbs. or less. For older animals such preparation 
may sometimes be profitable. (920-1) 

424. Cutting or chaffing forage. — Passing such coarse forages as corn 
or the sorghums thru a feed cutter or shredder is usually profitable, not 
because the portions consumed are digested more completely but because 
the animals waste less of the feed and the cut forage is more convenient 
to handle. This applies to soilage as well as to cured forage. (297) 
Where hay is palatable and consumed with little waste, it is ordinarily 
not economical to cut or chaff it for cattle or sheep, unless it is desired 
to mix the good-quality hay with other less palatable feed so that the 
whole will be consumed. Such preparation will often pay with roughage 
of poor quality as the animals will consume the cut forage with less 
waste. (835) The use of cut, or chaffed, hay and straw is common in 
establishments where large numbers of horses are kept. A little water 
lays the dust of chaffed hay, and the feeder can rapidly and accurately 
apportion the allowance for each animal. If meal is mingled with a 
limited portion of moistened chaffed hay, the mixture is in condition to 
be quickly masticated and swallowed so that it can remain longer in the 
stomach undergoing digestion — an item of importance with hard-worked 
horses which are in the stable only at night. (459) 

Hay or straw should not be cut so fine that the animals will swallow it 
without chewing, or in the case of ruminants, that it will escape rumi- 
nation. Kellner 33 recommends that straw be cut into pieces 1 to 1.4 inches 

■°Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 265. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 269 

long for cattle and 0.6 to 1 inch long for horses and sheep, green fodder 
and hay being cut somewhat longer. 

425. Cooking feed. — In 1854 Professor Mapes voiced the popular 
opinion of those days when he wrote: 34 ''Raw food is not in condition 
to be approximated to the tissues of animal life. The experiment often 
tried has proved that 18 or 19 lbs. of cooked corn are equal to 30 lbs. of 
raw corn for hog feed." Numerous scientific trials have since demon- 
strated, however, that in general cooking feed does not increase its 
digestibility, and in fact decreases the digestibility of the crude protein. 
(83, 922) This is shown by the trials of Lacld at the New York 
(Geneva) Station, 35 in which he determined artificially the digestibility 
of the crude protein in several common feeds, before and after cooking, 
with the results shown below : 

Influence of cooking on digestibility of crude protein 

Per cent digested 
Uncooked Cooked 

Per ct. Per ct. 

Fresh corn meal 68 . 6 60 . 5 

Old corn meal 72 .6 63 .2 

Clover hay 67 .7 53 .3 

Cottonseed meal 87 .7 73 .8 

In each case cooking lowered the digestibility of the crude protein. 

426. Steaming roughage for cattle. — Fifty years ago and even later, 
there could be found in this country establishments more or less elaborate 
used for steaming or boiling straw, corn stalks, hay etc., for cattle 
feeding; it is doubtful if there is to-day a single one for this purpose. 
Feeding steamed hay to oxen at Poppelsdorf, Germany, 36 showed that 
steaming rendered the components of hay, especially the crude protein, 
less digestible. "When dry hay was fed, 46 per ct. of the crude protein 
was digested, while in steamed hay only 30 per ct. was digested. The 
advice given years ago by the editor of an agricultural journal is as 
sound today as when given : 37 ' ' The advantages are very slight and not 
worth the trouble of either building the fire, cutting the wood, or erecting 
the apparatus, to say nothing of all these combined, with danger and 
insurance added." 

427. Cooking feed for swine. — While cooking feed for cattle was aban- 
doned years ago, it is still practiced to some extent for swine. Fortu- 
nately the matter has been carefully studied by several experiment 
stations and definite conclusions reached. The most extended trial was 
one running 9 years at the Maine Agricultural College, 38 in which 
cooked and uncooked corn meal were fed. In each case there was a loss 
by cooking. It is not going too far to say that the investigators of this 

"Trans. Am. Inst., 1854, p. 373. 
35 N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1885. 

38 Hornberger, Landw. Jahrb., 8, p. 933; Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, 
p. 266. 

"Country Gentleman, 1861, p. 112. 

5 "Ann. Rpt. of Trustees of the Maine State Col. of Agr., 1878. 



270 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

subject usually began their studies in the full belief that the common 
feeding stuffs would be improved by cooking. The following are fair 
samples of the comments which commonly accompanied the reports of 
feeding trials with cooked and uncooked feed for swine. 

Shelton 39 closes an account of his own findings with these words : 
"The figures given above need but little comment. They show as con- 
clusively as figures can show anything, that the cooked corn was less 
useful than the raw grain. . . . Such entire unanimity of results can 
only be explained on the theory that the cooking was an injurious process 
so far as its use for food for fattening animals is concerned. ' ' 

Brown of the Ontario Agricultural College, 40 reviewing several trials 
with cooked and uncooked peas and corn, wrote : "I am not at present 
prepared to say definitely what other kinds of food may do, raw or 
cooked, with pigs or other domestic animals, or how the other animals 
will thrive with peas or corn, raw or boiled, but I now assert on the 
strongest possible grounds . . . that for fast and cheap production of 
pork, raw peas are 50 per ct. better than cooked peas or Indian corn in 
any shape." 

At the Wisconsin Station 41 the senior author, starting with the belief 
that cooking must increase the value of the common feeds for swine, 
after some 15 trials with cooked and uncooked whole corn, corn meal, 
ground barley, and wheat middlings, was forced to the conclusion that 
the Maine findings were correct. (922) 

428. Stock bread. — In some sections of Europe bread is made from 
ground cereals, leguminous seeds, potatoes, cut straw, chaff, etc., prin- 
cipally for horses, tho sometimes for calves* and cattle. The bread may 
be more appetizing than the original materials, but the chemical changes 
which take place as a whole do not increase its nutritive value. Such 
preparation can be generally recommended only where unpalatable feed 
may thereby be consumed with less waste. Unless baked into hard 
biscuits such bread will keep only a comparatively short time. 

429. When cooking feed is advisable. — No one can review the large 
accumulation of data from the experiment stations without being con- 
vinced that generally it does not pay to cook feed for farm stock when 
such feed will be satisfactorily consumed without cooking. However, a 
few feeds, such as the potato and the field bean of the North, can be 
successfully fed to swine only after being cooked. Hard grains and 
seeds which can not be ground should be cooked or soaked. Musty hay 
and corn fodder are rendered more palatable and safe by steaming. 

An occasional allowance of steamed or cooked barley or bran is 
especially helpful to horses because of its favorable action on the bowels, 
and this is doubtless true in lesser degree with fattening cattle. In 
winter, breeding swine and stock hogs are benefited by a daily feed of 
steamed roots, tubers, clover or alfalfa chaff, etc. with meal added. It 
is often advantageous to administer warm feed in winter, especially to 
swine, but warming should not be confused with cooking feed. 

•^Rpt. Prof. Agr., Kan. Agr. Col., 1885. "Ont. Rpt. 1876. "Wis. Rpt. 1893. 



SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 271 

430. Soaking feed. — Corn becomes hard and flinty a few months after 
husking, and sometimes causes sore mouths, so little being then eaten 
that gains may cease or the animals lose in weight. Grain which is 
difficult of mastication should be either ground or softened by soaking, 
so that the animals may at all times consume full rations. Studying 
the results of 12 feeding trials with pigs at 8 stations, Rommel 42 finds 
a difference of slightly over 2 per ct. in favor of soaked over dry feed 
for fattening pigs. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 43 found 
a loss from soaking ground grain, while whole grain returned better 
gains when soaked. (735, 923) 

431. General conclusions. — It has generally been assumed that by 
cutting, grinding, and cooking feed much labor is saved the animal, 
to the advantage of the feeder. This idea is based on the general theory 
that the less work the animal does in mastication and digestion the 
larger the net production of work, flesh, or milk. On the contrary, 
we know that the muscles of the body do not grow strong thru idleness, 
and that work and activity are conducive to bodily health, growth, and 
strength. We must therefore conclude that the organs of mastication 
and digestion should be kept working at their normal capacity. When 
cutting, grinding, cooking, or pulping brings more satisfaction to fatten- 
ing animals soon to be slaughtered, and causes them to consume heavier 
rations, such preparation may pay, as it may also with exceptionally 
hard- worked animals that have but limited time for taking their rations. 
Feeding liberally and in an orderly manner, with ample variety in wise 
combination, is more important and helpful than making feeds fine 
and soft so that they can be quickly swallowed with little chewing. 

42 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim., Indus., Bui. 47. 
43 Ottawa Bui. 33. 



CHAPTER XVI] 

MANURIAL value of feeding stuffs 

Unless the plfinl food removed from the soil in crops is returned in 
some form, aftor a period of years reduced yields will telJ the story of 
soil depletion. Already over great areas of our country the soil has 
been so "mined" of its original fertility thai only by the liberal appli 
cation of commercial fertilizers are remunerative crops now possible. 
'This is shown by the fad thai during L913 there were sold in the 
United States over 6,800,000 tons of commercial fertilizers, worth aboul 
$150,000,000. In the South Atlantic states alone over 3,750,000 tons were 
used, including hundreds of thousands of ions of cottonseed meal. 
Southern planters feed great quantities of cottonseed meal to their crops 

;i rational agriculture would combine mixed cropping and stock 
growing with cotton raising. The meal from the cot ion seed would be 
\'cd to farm animals and the resulting manure, still rich in fertility, would 
pass hack lo I he fields, thereby giving a double return. 

A judicious use of commercial fertilizers is highly commendable, but 
their place in general agriculture is to supplement deficiencies only 
after all the fertility in feeding stuffs that have been \\^\ to live slock 
has been wisely and fully conserved. 

432. Farm manure as a fertilizer, -lust as with commercial fertilizers, 

the valllO of farm manure is computed on its content of nitrogen, phos 

phoric acid, and potash, for of the constituents which plants remove from 

the soil only these need ordinarily be replaced. Phosphoric acid and 
potash, when naturally lacking in the soil, or when they have been 
carried off in crops or animals sold, must be replaced by means of com 
mercial fertilizers or the manure of farm animals. The nitrogen needed 
may be indirectly obtained from the air by raising legumes, but in 
practice much is purchased along with phosphoric acid and potash. 

\'ol only do farm manures supply plaid food hut the vegetable, Or 
Organic, matter they contain is important in increasing the productivity 
of the soil. As this vegetable matter gradually breaks down in the soil, 
the acid products formed help dissolve and make available to plaids 
some of the otherwise insoluble plant food in the soil. Furthermore, 
the humus formed from the organic matter id' manure helps retain 
moisture, improves the soil texture, renders it more resistant lo wind 
action, etc. The value id' Organic matter lo the soil is shown by the 
fact that on fields lacking in humus such crops as vyc are often grown 
and turned under as green manure for the sole purpose of increasing 
the humus content. 

272 



MANUItlAL VAN -|-; OF PEKDING STUFFS 

Farm manures teem with bacteria of various kinds which causa 
chemical changei not only in the manure but also in the soil itself, con 
verting insoluble plant food into form* available tor crop growth, 

After much practical work at the Ohio Station, Thorne 1 concludes 
that i in- fertilizing constituents of farm manures have as high a value per 
pound as those in such high grade fertilizers as tankage, bone meal, and 
muriate of potash. In view of the highly beneficial effects winch Harm 
manure has in addition to supplying nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash, this is ;i conservative estimate, Because of the enormous use 
of commercial fertilizers thruoul the civilized world, the nitrogen, phos 
phoric acid, and potash they carry have a recognized market price per 
pound, which fluctuates no more than thai of other standard articles of 
world wide commerce, In this country the average price of these in 
gredients to those who buy in Large quantities is aboul as follows; 
Nitrogen L8, phosphoric acid 4.5, and potash • » cents per pound. These 
values are used in this volume in computing the fertilizing value of 
feeding stuffs and the manures resulting from feeding them to farm 
animals. 

4M. Fertilizing con:, til inn!.:; recovered in manure. The proportion 

which is recovered in the manure of the total nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
;inil potash supplied in the feed depend:; on the age and kind of animal, 
as shown in the following table from Warington 

Proportion of nitrogen and ash of food which is voided l>>i annual 

[itrogen A.-), 

Pi i .1 Pi i ,i. 

Hoi eatworl 100 100 

Fatti ning o 90 I 07 ? 

I ..in oinj! ,1m ep , 05,7 06 2 

I attening pig 85,3 06 o 

Milch cow 75,5 HU .7 

Calf, fed mill 30 7 45 7 

The mature horse al work is merely repairing Ids body tissues as 
they are broken down. (IW) Therefore no nitrogen or ash (containing 
the phosphoric acid and potash) is stored in his body, but all the 
nitrogen and practically all of the ash is voided in the manure. fA 
negligible amount of ash is excreted in the perspiration.) With fatten 
hitf animals whose bodies are nearly or quite mature, but little of the 
fertilizing constituents supplied in the food are retained in the body 
over '.>:> per ct. of both nitrogen and ash being voided by the fattening 
o and sheep. (122; With the pig fattened while not yet mature and 
storing nitrogen in his lean meat tissues, about H. r > per ct, of the nitrogi n 
of the food is returned in the manure. As milk is rich in nitrogen and 
ash, the cow in milk voids only about 7. r > per ct. of the nitrogen and 89 
per ei of the ash contained in her food. - 150; The young calf, growing 
rapidly in bone, muscle and body organs, voids only 30.7 per ct, of the 
nitrogen and 45.7 per ct. of the ash in the food, storing the balance in 

■Ohio Bul. ix:; 'Chemistry of the Farm, p, ma 



274 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

its body. (113) Considering the proportion of young animals and of 
those giving milk on the average farm, it has been estimated 3 that from 
the feed supplied farm stock about 80 per ct. of the nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash is ordinarily recovered in the feces and urine. The 
proportion of the organic matter of the food which is found in the 
feces will vary widely, depending on the proportion of difficultly diges- 
tible roughage in the ration. For well-fed ruminants and horses it 
ranges from 40 to over 50 per ct. As has been indicated before (432), 
the organic matter is a highly important factor in the beneficial action 
of the manure. No definite money value is, however, usually given to it 
in discussions of the fertilizing value of farm manures. 

434. Influence of feed on the value of manure. — The animal creates 
nothing of fertilizing value, for it voids only that which it has eaten 
or drunk. Part of the fertilizing constituents is appropriated in the 
formation of flesh or milk, and the rest is voided in the excrements. 
The value of manure therefore depends primarily on the character of 
the food from which it originates. Foods rich in nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, and potash yield rich manure ; those low in these constituents 
make poor manure. In a trial reported by Warington, 4 cows fed 154 
lbs. of mangels per head daily voided 88 lbs. of urine, containing but 
0.12 per ct. nitrogen and 0.60 per ct. potash. Other cows fed 26 lbs. of 
alfalfa hay and given 66 lbs. of water daily voided only 14 lbs. of urine, 
which, however, carried 1.54 per ct. of nitrogen and 1.69 per ct. of 
potash, thus containing 13 times as much nitrogen and 3 times as much 
potash per pound as the urine from the cows eating mangels. 

435. Fertility and manurial value of feeds. — Having shown that the 
value of manure depends primarily on the feeds eaten, we next consider 
the fertilizing constituents of typical feeding stuffs and animal products, 
shown in the following table, taken from the extensive data in Appendix 
Tables III and VI. For this table the fertility value of each feed per 
ton has been computed on the basis of what the total nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash in that feed would cost if purchased in commer- 
cial fertilizers. The last column gives the manurial value 5 of each feed ; 
i.e., the value of the manure which would result from feeding 1 ton of 
the feed to live stock. This has been computed on the assumption that, 
on the average, farm animals return in the manure about 80 per ct. 
of the total fertilizing value of the feed. (433) Obviously this value 
holds only when the manure is so cared for as to prevent the losses 
mentioned later. (442-3) 

3 Hart and Tottingham, Gen. Agr. Chem., 1913. p. 124; Van Slyke, Fertilizers 
and Crops, 1912, p. 300. 
* Chemistry of the Farm, p. 218. 
r Hart, Wis. Bui. 221. 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 



275 



Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs and animal products 



Concentrates 

Dent corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Wheat bran 

Linseed meal, old pro- 
cess 

Cottonseed meal, choice 
Roughages 

Timothy hay 

Red clover hay 

Oat straw 

Com silage, recent anal- 
yses 

Animals and animal pro- 
ducts 

Fat ox 

Fat pig 

Milk 

Butter 



Fertilizing constituents in 1000 lbs. 



Nitrogen 



Lbs. 

16.2 
19.8 
19.8 
25.6 



54 
70 

9 

20 

5 



3.4 



23 
17 



1.2 



Phosphoric 
acid 



Potash 



Lbs. 

6.9 

8.1 

8.6 

29.5 

17.0 
26.7 

3.1 
3.9 
2.1 

1.6 



15.5 
6.5 
1.9 
0.4 



Lbs. 

4.0 

5.6 

5.3 

16.2 

12.7 
18.1 

13.6 
16.3 
15.0 

4.4 



1.8 
1.4 
1.7 
0.4 



Fertility 
value 
per ton 



Dollars 

6.85 

8.42 

8.43 

13.49 

22.31 
29.63 

5.20 
9.36 
3.78 

1.81 



9.96 
7.10 
2.43 
0.51 



Manurial 
value 
per ton 



Dollars 

5.48 

6.74 

6.74 

10.79 

17.85 
23.70 

4.16 

7:49 
3.02 

1.45 



1.94 



The fertility values given in the fourth column mean, for example, 
that the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed from the soil 
in a ton of oat straw will cost not less than $3.78 if bought in the 
market in commercial fertilizers. A ton of corn (grain) removes $6.85 
in fertility, and of wheat, $8.43. Because the legumes usually obtain 
much of their nitrogen from the air, only a part of the fertility in a 
ton of clover, worth $9.36, may have been taken from the soil. Clover 
hay is 80 per ct. richer than timothy hay and over 2.5 times as rich 
as oat straw in fertility. The fertility value of wheat bran is $13.49 
per ton, while that of the wheat grain is only $8.43. This is because the 
starchy part of the grain, which forms most of the flour, holds but 
little fertility, while the outside portion, the bran, is high in nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash. 

Of the feeds listed, cottonseed meal has the highest fertility value, 
$29.63 per ton ; this explains why it has often been applied directly 
to the soil as a fertilizer. In 1913 the farmers of Connecticut 6 spread 
on their fields nearly 7,000 tons, or about 300 carloads, of this valuable 
feeding stuff, one of the richest and best for dairy cows and fattening 
cattle. Millions of dollars worth of cottonseed meal are annually 
applied by the planters of the South to the cotton fields to make another 
crop of cotton. Where the meal is first fed to live stock, the milk or 
flesh produced should easily pay its cost, and under good management 
also for a considerable share of the labor of feeding. "With proper care 
and application, the manure resulting from each ton of meal fed would 

c Conn. (New Haven) Rpt. 1913. 



276 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

be worth $23.70, the mamirial value, as surely as would the application 
to the same land of commercial fertilizers worth this amount. 

436. Selling fertility. — The table in the preceding article further 
shows that those who sell such crops as hay, corn, and wheat part with 
far more fertility for a given sum of money than do those who sell 
animals or their products. The farmer who sells 1,000 lbs. of clover hay, 
worth $5 to $8, parts with about as much fertility as if he had sold 
1,000 lbs. of fat ox or fat pig, worth $60 to $75, or more. Based on 
the selling price, milk carries considerable fertility from the farm, and 
butter practically none. Farm crops may be regarded as raw products, 
while farm animals, milk, wool, butter, etc., represent manufactured 
products. A large amount of raw material in the form of grass, hay, 
corn, etc., is put into animals, and the heavy waste or by-product 
resulting, in the form of manure, when carried back to the fields con- 
serves most of the fertility. The farmer who feeds his crops to live 
stock is a manufacturer as well as a producer, with two possible profits 
instead of one, while his farm loses little of its fertility. The farmer 
who grows and sells grain, hay, and straw is selling a large amount of 
fertility, the need of which will surely be apparent as time goes on and 
his fields give smaller and smaller returns. Such a farmer is slowly 
but surely mining phosphorus and potash from his soil, which can be 
replaced only by some purchased material. 

Virgin soils as a rule contain great quantities of available fertility, 
and the pioneer farmers in America, drawing upon Nature 's store, have 
given little consideration to how their crops are fed and have not 
realized that they are steadily and often wastefully drawing on the 
store of fertility which represents their principal capital. The western 
farmer, when marketing corn or wheat, or the southern planter, when 
selling seed cotton, considers he is selling labor and rent of land. 
Rarely does he realize that he is also selling fertility, to replace which 
would cost a considerable part of all the crop brings. Rather than to 
reckon the value of his crop at the market price, he should recognize 
that its true value when sold from the farm is really the market price 
minus the value of the fertility which the crop removes from the soil. 

437. Buying fertility. — Even in live-stock farming -where little or no 
grain or roughage is sold and when proper care is taken of the manure, 
not all of the fertility removed in the crops is returned in the manure. 
The supply of nitrogen in the soil can usually be maintained by the 
growth of legumes, but sooner or later it is necessary to replace the 
small but steady loss of phosphoric acid and potash. Therefore in 
purchasing feeding stuffs, one should always consider not only the 
feeding value but also their worth as fertilizers. By purchasing those 
concentrates rich in phosphoric acid and potash, such as wheat bran 
and middlings, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, malt sprouts, etc., many 
live-stock farms are steadily being increased in fertility. 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 277 

438. British practice. — In Great Britain, where many of the farmers 
are long-period tenants, the manurial value of feeding stuffs is recognized 
by law in a manner that tends greatly to the betterment and permanence 
of her agriculture. The Agricultural Holdings Act, which is the law 
governing the relations between landlord and tenant, directs that when 
a tenant is vacating his leasehold he shall be reasonably compensated 
for the improvements he has made. Among these, credit must be given 
for the fertilizing value of feeding stuffs which the tenant may have 
purchased and fed out, and also, under certain conditions, for the 
fertilizing value of grains produced on the farm and fed to stock. In 
order to furnish data to guide the valuers who serve in settlement 
between landlord and tenant, after full and extended study Lawes and 
Gilbert and later Voelcker and Hall of the Rothamsted Experiment 
Station drew up tables showing the compensation to be allowed for the 
fertilizing value of various feeds. The recommendations, as revised in 
1913 and adopted by the Central Association of Agriculture and Tenant 
Right Valuers, 7 are that the tenant shall be credited as follows for all 
manure resulting from feeding purchased feeds to stock on the lease- 
hold: 

For all unused manure or that which has been recently applied to 
the land without a crop being grown thereafter, a credit of three-fourths 
of the total value of the phosphoric acid and potash in the feed is 
allowed. Because a greater loss of nitrogen commonly occurs in stored 
manure than in manure dropped in the fields by animals at pasture, a 
credit of 70 per ct. of the total value of the nitrogen is allowed when 
the stock have been fed at pasture, and of only 50 per ct. when they 
have been fed in barn or yard. 

When one crop has been grown since the application of the manure, 
a part of the fertility thereby being used up, the credit allowed is only 
half that stated above. It is realized that the beneficial effects of farm 
manure persist much longer than 2 years, but owing to the difficulties 
of checking records for a longer period, the compensation is not extended 
over a greater time. The principles of the English law, as here set 
forth, should be drafted into every lease drawn between landlord and 
tenant in this country. 

439. Composition and value of fresh manure. — Even tho the value of 
manure produced by animals of the same kind depends primarily on 
the nature of the feed supplied, it is important to note the approximate 
composition of manure from the different classes of farm animals. The 
following table, adapted from Van Slyke, 8 shows the percentage of 
water and the amount and value of the fertilizing constituents per ton 
in fresh manure, including both feces and urine, from the different 
farm animals. 

7 Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, England, 74, 1913, pp. 104-119. 
"Fertilizers and Crops, p. 291. 



278 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Composition of one ton of average manure from farm animals 

Phosphoric 
Water Nitrogen acid Potash Value 

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dols. 

Horse manure 78 14 5 11 3 .30 

Cow manure- 86 12 3- 9 2 .74 

Sheep manure 68 19 7 20 4 .74 

Pig manure 87 10 7 8 2 .52 

Horse and sheep manures contain less water than that of cows or 
pigs, and are known as ' ' hot manures ' ' because their low water content 
permits rapid fermentation when stored. On the other hand the void- 
ings of the cow and pig form "cold manures," the high water content 
checking fermentation. Sheep manure has the highest value per ton, 
based on fertilizing constituents ; cow manure the lowest. Mixed farm 
manures carry about 10 lbs. of nitrogen, 5 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 
10 lbs. of potash per ton. 

440. Amount of manure voided. — Various methods have been suggested 
for computing the amount of fresh manure — feces and urine — produced 
by farm animals. Heiden 9 found that on the average 100 lbs. of dry 
matter fed to farm animals produced the amount of fresh manure shown 
in the first column of the following table. The second column gives the 
weight of manure plus bedding, computed from data compiled by Van 
Slyke. 10 

Manure from 100 lbs. dry matter fed to farm animals 

Manure Manure plus bedding 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Horse 210 280 

Cow 384 427 

Sheep 183 285 

Owing to the high water content of cow manure, a larger amount is 
produced from 100 lbs. of dry matter in the feed than in the case of 
the horse or sheep. 

The amount of manure voided daily by farm animals varies widely, 
depending on the nature and amount of feed given and the age, activity, 
etc. of the animals. The following table, adapted from Van Slyke, 11 is 
a helpful approximation of the amount of manure voided daily by farm 
animals, per 1,000 lbs. live weight. 

Daily production of manure by farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight 

Feces Urine Total manure Manure plus bedding 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Horse 39 10 49 65 

Cow 52 22 74 82 

Sheep 23 11 34 53 

Pig 50 33 83 99 

"Storer, Agriculture, 1899, II, p. 289. "Fertilizers and Crops, pp. 294, 303. 
'"Fertilizers and Crops, p. 303. 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 279 

Based on live weight, the pig yields more manure than other farm 
animals, due to the heavy feed consumption per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
and the watery nature of the manure. 

441. Fertilizing constituents produced yearly. — According to Van 
Slyke, 12 the approximate amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash voided annually by farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight is 
as follows: 

Annual yield of fertilizing constituents per 1,000 lbs. live weight 

Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Value 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Horse 128 43 103 30 .12 

Cow 156 38 127 36.14 

Sheep 119 44 126 29.70 

Pig 150 104 128 38.08 

The last column shows the total value of the fertilizing constituents, 
computed at the prices previously given. (432) 

442. Losses in farm manures.* — From the foregoing it is evident that 
farm manure is one of the most valuable products of the farm. Yet 
many farmers who freely purchase commercial fertilizers allow much 
of the value of the manure produced by their live stock to be washed away 
in streams or otherwise dissipated. It is most important to realize that 
manure is a perishable product, and that unless proper care is taken 
over half its value may be lost. Plant food may be wasted thru : ( 1 ) 
Loss of urine, (2) loss by leaching, (3) loss of nitrogen by fermentation. 

The importance of bedding to absorb the urine is shown in the follow- 
ing table from Van Slyke : 13 

Proportion of fertilizing constituents in urine and feces of farm animals 

Nitrogen in Phosphoric acid in Potash in 

Urine Feces Urine Feces Urine Feces 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Horse 38 62 100 44 56 

Cow 51 49 100 85 15 

Sheep 48 52 5 95 70 • 30 

Pig 33 67 12 88 43 57 

Average ... 43 57 4 96 60 40 

With the cow and sheep about half the nitrogen is voided in the 
urine ; with the horse and pig somewhat less. Most of the phosphoric 
acid is excreted in the feces. The cow voids about 85 per ct. and the 
sheep 70 per ct. of the" potash in the urine ; the horse and pig over 40 
per ct. For all farm animals, 43 per ct. of the nitrogen and 60 per ct. 
of the potash passes in the urine. Pound for pound the urine has a 
greater fertilizing value than the feces, except with the pig. The fer- 
tility in urine is also in solution and hence much more readily available 
to plants than that in the feces. 

"Fertilizers and Crops, p. 295. "Fertilizers and Crops, p. 295. 

"This discussion of the losses in manure and the care of this valuable farm product is 
necessarily very brief. For more complete information consult the standard works on 
Soils and Agricultural Chemistry. 



280 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

A manure pile under the eaves, against the side of the barn, or manure 
lying for months in an open barn yard is a sight all too common on 
American farms. When manure is exposed to the leaching action of 
the rains, the losses are great, even amounting to half of the total 
value in periods of 2 to 5 months. Obviously, the loss falls on the 
constituents which are most soluble and therefore most quickly available 
to plants. 

Thru fermentation a large share of the nitrogen in the manure may 
be dissipated into the air as ammonia or gaseous nitrogen. The strong- 
smell which every farmer has noticed in close horse stables is due to 
the escaping ammonia produced by the breaking down of nitrogen com- 
pounds in the urine. In the hot fermentations which take place in dry, 
loosely packed manure, the temperature may rise high enough to cause 
"fire fanging," when as much as 80 per ct, of the nitrogen may be lost. 
Phosphoric acid and potash are not lost thru fermentation but heavy 
losses of these constituents may occur thru leaching. 

443. Care of manure. — To prevent loss in manure, the urine should 
be saved by having tight gutters and using plenty of bedding. If 
possible, the manure should be drawn directly to the fields and spread 
each day. When this can not be done it should be stored, preferably 
under cover, in well-packed piles kept moist to prevent hot fermentation. 
If hogs or cattle have access to the shed, they aid in firming the pile. 
In Europe manure is often stored in pits or cisterns. When it is 
necessary to leave manure out of doors, the pile should be made high 
and compact so that rains will not soak thru and should be built with 
the sides perpendicular and the top sloping toward the center. It is im- 
possible to prevent all waste in caring for manure, but under proper 
management not over 10 to 20 per ct, of the nitrogen and practically 
none of the phosphoric acid and potash will be lost. 



Part III 
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



CHAPTER XVIII 

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 

The magnitude of the horse industry in the United States is apparent 
when we learn that there were in this country, according to the census of 
1910, 23,015,902 horses valued at $2,505,792,588. These, with 4,480,140 
mules and 122,200 asses and burros, make a grand total of 27,618,242 
animals of the horse family, worth over $3,000,000,000. Despite the 
coming of the automobile and the auto-truck, for the decade ending 1910 
the number of horses, mules, and asses in the country increased 11.6 per 
cent. The total value of these animals exceeds that of all the beef cattle, 
dairy cattle, sheep, goats, and swine combined. 

To feed these work animals requires an annual expenditure of nearly 
$2,000,000,000. In spite of the enormous feed bill, less attention is given 
to the scientific and economical feeding of this class of live stock than to 
any other farm animals. Many a farmer, for instance, will carefully 
determine which of the feeds available for his dairy herd will furnish a 
well-balanced ration most cheaply. Yet he may forget that similar prin- 
ciples apply to the feeding of his work animals. An average of about 4 
horses or mules are kept on each farm in the United States. When we 
learn in Chapter XIX how it is often possible thru the economical 
and proper selection of feeds and their rational administration to save 
10 to 40 per ct. of the usual feed bill, with no injury, and in some cases 
even a benefit to the animals, it is evident that a careful consideration of 
the principles governing the feeding of horses will pay every owner in 
dollars and cents. Furthermore, it is just as essential to care for work 
animals so as to ensure their maximum efficiency as it is to lubricate 
carefully the vehicles and machinery they draw. 

Before studying in detail the feeds for the horse and the methods of 
feeding and care, it is necessary to consider briefly the principles deter- 
mining the value of the different classes of feeds for the production of 
work and the various factors which influence the amount of labor the 
animal can perform. 

Most of the discussions which follow treat of the horse particularly, 
since over 83 per ct. of our work animals are horses, and nearly all of 
the scientific trials have been conducted with them. The same feeds may 

281 



282 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

be used for mules, however, and the same principles of feeding and care 
apply to these animals. (Special hints on the feed and care of the mule 
are given in Art. 532.) 



I. The Relation op Feed to the Work of the Horse 

The most complete investigations with the horse bearing on the re- 
lation of feed to work, are those of "Wolff, Grandeau and Leclerc, and the 
more recent studies of Zuntz and his associates. Wolff's experiments 
were with a sweep-power constructed so that the amount of work per- 
formed could be measured. Zuntz, in conjunction with Lehmann and 
Hagemann, conducted hundreds of tests with horses working on a tread- 
power so built that the distance traveled and the work performed were 
accurately measured. The animals breathed thru a tube inserted in 
the windpipe, by which means the oxygen inhaled and the carbon dioxid 
exhaled were accurately determined. (141) To such gaseous intake and 
outgo was added that which passed thru the skin and vent, as determined 
by placing the animal in a Pettenkofer respiration apparatus. (71) 

444. Work. — In discussing the production of work it is necessary to use 
the standard terms employed in its measurement, the foot-pound, the foot- 
ton, and the horse power. The foot-pound and foot-ton are terms which 
denote the work done in lifting a weight of 1 lb. or 1 ton, respectively, 
1 ft. against the force of gravity. When the rate at which the work is 
done is taken into consideration the unit used is the horse power, which is 
the power required to lift a weight of 1 lb. at the rate of 33,000 feet per 
minute. If by means of rope and pulleys a horse raises a bucket of water 
weighing 100 lbs. from a well 330 ft. deep in 1 minute, it exerts a force 
equal to 1 H. P. The pull, or draft, exerted by the horse may be measured 
by a dynamometer, a crude form of which is a spring balance placed 
between the singletree or evener and the vehicle or object on which the 
pull is exerted. According to King, 1 the maximum pulling power of a 
horse when walking on a good road is about one-half its weight, but for 
steady and continuous work for 10 hours per day and at the rate of 2.5 
miles per hour the pull should not be more than one-eighth or one-tenth 
the weight of the animal. The daily work performed by horses of differ- 
ent weights would accordingly be as follows : 

Daily work performed by horses of different weights 

Horse-power produced Foot-tons of work done 

800-lb. horse 0.53—0.67 5,247—6,633 

1000-lb. horse 0.67—0.83 6,633—8,217 

1200-lb. horse .80—1 .00 7,920— 9,900 

1400-lb. horse 0.93-1 .17 9,207-11,583 

1600-lb. horse 1 -06-1 .33 10,494-13,167 

The draft required to haul a 4-wheel wagon on various types of road is 
approximately as follows, according to King r 

'Physics of Agr., p. 490. ' Physics of Agr., p. 436. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 283 
Draft required to haul a wagon on various types of road 

Character of road Lbs. draft per ton 

Common earth 75 to 224 

Gravel 75 to 140 

Macadam 55 to 67 

Wood block 28 to 44 

Plank 25 to 44 

This shows that it requires a draft, or pull, of 75 to 224 lbs., as measured 
on a spring balance placed between horse and load, to draw a load of a 
ton, including wagon, on a country earth road, while on a plank road the 
draft is but 25 to 44 lbs. 

The ox draws a load equal to the horse, but ordinarily at only two-thirds 
the speed. A man 's work is usually from one-sixth to one-tenth of a horse 
power, or about one-fifth that of an average horse. For a minute or two 
he can exert a full horse power or even more. 

445. Digestion trials. — Since there have been relatively few digestion 
trials with the horse, we are usually obliged to use for this animal the 
coefficients of digestibility obtained with the ox or sheep. (66) While the 
horse digests the easily digestible feeds about as completely as do the 
ruminants, it falls below them in ability to digest the more difficultly di- 
gestible ones, as is shown in the following table from Wolff : 3 



Digestion coefficients of common feeds for the horse and sheep compared 



Corn 

Horse 

Sheep 

Oats 

Horse 

Sheep 

Alfalfa hay (excellent quality) 

Horse 

Sheep 

Clover hay 

Horse 

Sheep 

Meadow hay (good quality) 

Horse 

Sheep 

Wheat straw 

Horse 

Sheep 



Dry 
matter 



Per ct. 
89 
89 

67 
71 

58 
59 

51 

56 

51 
64 

23 

48 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

77 
79 

79 
80 

73 
71 

56 
56 

62 
65 

19 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 
70 
62 

20 
30 

40 
45 

37 
50 

42 
63 

27 
59 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 
94 
91 

74 
76 

70 
66 

64 
61 

57 
65 

18 
37 



Fat 



Per ct. 
61 

85 

70 
83 

14 
41 

29 
56 

20 
54 



44 



It is shown that the horse digests corn, which is low in fiber, as well as 
does the sheep. On the other hand, it digests oats and meadow hay, which 



3 Land. Vers. Stat., 20. 1877; 21, 1878; Landw. Jahrb., 8, Sup. I, 1879; 10, 
1881; 12, 1884. 



284 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

contain considerable fiber, less completely. Of wheat straw the horse 
digests only 23 per ct., while the sheep digests 48 per ct. Both animals 
digest crude protein about equally well, but the digestive powers of the 
horse are markedly lower for fiber and fat. (85) 

446. Influence of work on digestibility.— The effect of working a horse 
immediately after eating has been studied by G-randeau and LeClerc, 4 
Tangl, 5 Colin, 6 Scheunert 7 and others. Their investigations show that 
moderate exercise, even immediately after the horse has eaten, tends to 
increase digestion in both the stomach and the small intestine, and also 
increases the rate of absorption of digested nutrients. Tho the rate of 
protein digestion is retarded for the first hour after eating, when the 
horse is exercised immediately after the meal, by the end of the second 
or third hour even more protein will have been digested than had the 
horse remained at rest. Contrary to some statements, exercise does not 
hasten the passage of food from the stomach into the small intestine, 
but apparently retards it. Severe labor may, however, depress digestion. 
Grandeau and LeClerc found that hard work at a trot lowered the di- 
gestibility of the protein 7 per ct. and of the fiber 13 per ct., compared 
with the amounts digested when the horse was allowed to rest after eat- 
ing. The greater depression observed in the case of the crude fiber is 
doubtless due to the fact that this nutrient is digested mainly in the 
caecum and large intestine and is hurried thru these organs by the mo- 
tion of the horse in action. 

447. True value of feeds for work. — As previously shown (78-80), the 
true value of different feeds for work is not based merely on the amount 
of digestible nutrients they contain, for a varying percentage of the 
available energy in the digestible portion of the feed is used up in the 
work of mastication and digestion and thereby lost so far as useful me- 
chanical work is concerned. By subtracting the energy thus used from 
the available energy which the digestible nutrients of any feed furnish, 
we will find the amount of net nutrients which may be used in the per- 
formance of such external work as propelling the body, carrying a burden, 
or pulling a load. We should remember, however, that the energy 
which is used up in mastication and digestion is all changed into heat, 
and so may aid in keeping the body warm. 

Zuntz found 8 that the 1100-lb. horse, when drawing a load on a level 
road, will produce about 864.4 ft.-tons of work for each pound of net nu- 
trients consumed in addition to the food required for maintenance. The 
following table shows the amount of work which various feeding stuffs 
will yield according to Zuntz, when fed to the horse which is already re- 
ceiving enough food for maintenance at rest. 

4 Ann. Sci. Agron., 1884, Vol. II, p. 235. 
'Pfliiger's Arch. Physiol., 63, 1896, p. 545. 
6 Traite Physiol. Comp. Anim., 1886, p. 822. 
7 Pfluger's Arch. Physiol., 109, 1905, p. 145-198. 
8 Landw. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. Ill, p. 431. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 285 



Possible work from 1 lb. of 


various feeds when fed to the 


horse 


Feeding stuff 


Dry 

matter 


Crude 
fiber 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 


Nutrients 

required for 

mastication 

and digestion 


Net 
nutrients 
remaining 


Possible 
work from 
1 lb. of feed 


Corn 


Per cent 

87 
86 
86 
88 
87 
84 
25 
85 
84 
15 
86 


Per cent 

1.7 

6.9 

5.9 

9.4 

10.3 

26.6 

1.0 

26.0 

30.2 

1.6 

42.0 


Lbs. 
0.785 
0.720 
0.687 
0.690 
0.615 
0.453 
0.226 
0.391 
0.407 
0.113 
0.181 


Lbs. 
0.082 
0.111 
0.102 
0.125 
0.124 
0.219 
0.027 
0.209 
0.239 
0.021 
0.297 


Lbs. 

0.703 
0.609 
0.586 
0.565 
0.491 
0.234 
0.199 
0.182 
0.168 
0.092 
—0.116 


Ft.-tons 
607.7 
526.4 
506.5 
488.4 
424.4 
202.3 
172.0 
157.3 
145.2 
79.5 
—100.3 


Horse bean 

Peas 


Linseed cake .... 
Oats 


Alfalfa hay 

Meadow hay .... 

Clover hay 

Carrots 

Wheat straw . . . 



The table shows that after supplying the horse with sufficient feed for 
maintenance, each additional pound of corn supplied, up to the capacity 
of the animal, will furnish energy sufficient to produce 607.7 ft.-tons of 
external work, or enough to raise a weight of one ton 607.7 ft. against 
the pull of gravity. Because of its high per cent of digestible nutrients 
and its low content of fiber, Indian corn is the most potential of all the 
given feeds for the production of work. 

Feeds containing much fiber, such as hay and straw, furnish corre- 
spondingly less net food for the production of external work. The table 
shows that the work of masticating and digesting wheat straw requires 
more energy than the straw supplies. Hence the table shows a negative 
value of — 100.3 ft.-tons for 1 lb. of wheat straw. As has been stated 
before (80), the energy used up in mastication and digestion all takes the 
form of heat. Therefore, unless the total work of digesting a ration con- 
taining straw produces more heat than is needed to warm the body, the 
straw will have a positive value for the production of the heat so required, 
and this value will depend upon the total amount of digestible nutrients 
it furnishes. On the other hand, if more energy is spent in masticating 
and digesting the ration than is needed to furnish heat to maintain the 
body temperature, then the energy of the straw will be wasted. This 
helps to explain why a larger amount of straw may be advantageously fed 
to idle horses than to those at work. As is shown later (457) , even in the 
case of the horse at hard labor a certain volume or bulk is necessary in the 
ration. To furnish this necessary bulk a small amount of straw is some- 
times used in place of other roughage, especially in Europe. 

448. Maintenance requirement of the horse. — It is more difficult to de- 
termine the minimum amount of nutrients needed to maintain the weight 
of a horse than of the ox or sheep. This is due to the fact that any excess 
of nutrients supplied the idle horse above maintenance will not usually be 
wholly stored as flesh or fat, for confined horses, even those of quiet 
temperament, dissipate more or less energy thru restlessness and moving 



286 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

about, so that a ration which barely maintains them is really somewhat 
in excess of the theoretical requirement. . 

One method of determining the maintenance requirement is to feed 
a horse at rest a ration insufficient to maintain his weight, and then after 
a time gradually increase the supply of nutrients until the weight is 
barely maintained. Using this method Grandeau and LeClerc 9 were able 
to maintain the weight of each of 3 horses getting walking exercise for 
half an hour daily on a ration of 17.6 lbs. meadow hay, which supplied 
6.1 lbs. of digestible nutrients, or 7 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. 

A more exact method is to give a horse gradually increasing amounts of 
a given feed, during successive periods, and determine in each period the 
maximum amount of work the animal can perform on the allowance and 
still maintain his weight. It is then possible to compute, by difference, the 
nutrients required for the performance of a given amount of work. By 
subtracting the nutrients expended in the work done during any period 
from the total nutrients supplied in that period, the actual maintenance 
requirement is found. 

By the latter method Zuntz and his colleagues 10 found that to maintain 
the weight of the 1100-lb. horse and keep up the body temperature re- 
quired 7.06 lbs. of digestible nutrients, 11 or 12.7 therms. It was found that 
the larger part of the nutrients, nearly 66 per ct., were required merely 
as fuel to maintain the temperature of the body. Indeed, it was necessary 
to supply only 2.43 lbs. of net nutrients (or 4.4 therms of net energy) to 
cover the amount used up in the internal work of the body and in repair- 
ing the body tissues. 

This conclusion accords with the general experience, that idle horses 
can be maintained chiefly on such feeds as hay, corn stover, and straw, 
which furnish relatively little net energy but produce a large amount of 
heat in the body as the result of mastication and digestion. If the rough- 
ages are of sufficiently good quality the animals may be maintained on 
such feeds alone. As roughages are usually far cheaper sources of total 
available energy than the concentrates, maintaining idle horses on such 
feeds is obviously economical. 

449. Protein required for maintenance. — In addition to supplying suffi- 
cient fuel to maintain the body temperature and enough net nutrients 
for the internal work of the body, as has been previously pointed out 
(94), the nutrients in the ration must include a certain amount of di- 
gestible protein to make good the small daily waste of nitrogenous 
tissues. In experiments by Grandeau and LeClerc, 12 3 horses main- 
tained their weight for 4 or 5 months on a ration of meadow hay fur- 
nishing an average of 0.54 lb. of digestible protein daily per 1000 lbs. 
live weight, the hay of course containing some amids beside the true pro- 

°Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1894, p. 9. 
10 Land. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. Ill, pp. 422-426. 

"Including fat x 2.4, the factor used by Zuntz as the relative fuel value for fat, 
compared with carbohydrates. 
]2 Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1884, p. 9. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 287 

tein. One of the horses gained 5 lbs. in 2 months on a daily allowance of 
only 0.45 lb. of digestible protein per 1000 lbs. live weight. In another 
case an allowance of 0.37 lb. of digestible protein daily per 1000 lbs. of 
live weight proved insufficient to maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. Evi- 
dently the minimum protein requirement for the horse ranges from 0.4 
to 0.6 lb. per 1000 lbs. live weight, which is the same as that of the rest- 
ing ox as determined by Armsby. 

Most authorities maintain, and practical experience shows, that the 
health of animals is improved when they are fed more than the theo- 
retical minimum of protein. In view of this, the Armsby standard re- 
commends 1 lb. of digestible protein for the maintenance of the 1000-lb. 
horse at rest. (172) 

450. Nutrients' required for work. — We have considered the nutrients 
required to maintain the horse at rest and studied the value of typical 
feeding stuffs for producing external work. Let us next determine the 
amount of net nutrients which must be fed in addition to the maintenance 
requirement when the horse is to perform various kinds of work. 

The work which the horse performs usually consists of a more or less 
complex combination of the following simple types : 

( 1 ) Locomotion, or merely traveling along a level course with no load. 

(2) Raising the body, with or without a load, against the force of 
gravity in ascending a grade. 

(3) Carrying a load. 

(4) Draft, or hauling a load. 

In the case of a horse drawing a load up a hill, we find all of these types 
combined. The horse is (1) advancing, and at the same time (2) raising 
his body. He is also (3) carrying the harness and (4) hauling the load. 
When he descends the hill he will even perform a fifth type of labor in 
bracing himself so as not to be forced down the hill too rapidly. 

Zuntz 13 found that to perform these different types of work, the 1100- 
lb. horse carrying a 44-lb. harness required the net nutrients shown 
below, after he had already been supplied with enough feed for main- 
tenance at rest: 

Net nutrients required by horse for various kinds of work 

Net nutrients 

required 

Lbs. 

Traveling without load, 1 mile on the level 

At a walking speed of 2 .5 miles per hour . 134 

At a walking speed of 3 .5 miles per hour ■ . 169 

At a trotting speed of 6 .6 to 7 .6 miles per hour .254 

Traveling 1 mile on the level when carrying a load of 220 lbs. at 

Walking speed of 3 .4 miles per hour .210 

Trotting speed of 6 .9 miles per hour .323 

Raising his body 100 feet 

In chmbing incline of 10 .7 per cent .060 

Lowering body 100 ft. on a road with a 5 per cent dip, compared with 

traveling on the level, saves .025 

Draft on level per 1000 ft. -tons, not including locomotion of body 1 .157 

13 Landw. Jahrb., 27, Sup. III. 



288 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Could all the work done by a horse each day be accurately determined, 
it would be possible to resolve it into these different types, so that the 
nutrients required for its production might be calculated and a suitable 
ration computed. However, the table is of theoretical rather than prac- 
tical interest, for the work of most horses varies greatly from day to day ; 
moreover the usual work is complex and difficult to resolve into these 
simple types. Still, these figures are important in showing the influence 
of various factors on the energy expended by the horse in the work he 
performs. 

451. Influence of speed. — It will be noted in the table that 26 per ct. 
more net nutrients are required when the horse walks a mile at a speed 
of 3.5 miles per hour than 2.5 miles. When his gait is hastened to a trot, 
nearly twice as much food is required per mile of travel as at the slower 
walk. Among the reasons why rapid labor generally consumes more 
power than slow motion, even when the distance traveled and the actual 
work done are the same, are the following : When a horse is walking at a 
rapid speed the work of the heart is greatly increased. In trotting or 
galloping the rise and fall of the body is much greater than in walking, 
and therefore a smaller part of the energy expended is available for on- 
ward movement. The temperature also rises, and much heat is lost by the 
evaporation of water thru the skin and lungs. The proportion of food 
producing heat is thus increased, while that appearing as work is dimin- 
ished. 

Fourier 14 found that the horse was at its best for drawing loads when 
moving at a rate of 2 to 2.5 miles per hour. When held down to a slower 
speed, and likewise as the rate of speed was increased beyond this figure, 
his efficiency decreased. At length, when a speed of 11.25 miles per hour 
was reached, less than one-tenth the maximum amount of work was ac- 
complished. Grandeau 15 states that a horse walking 12.5 miles per day 
was kept in condition on a daily allowance of 19.4 lbs. of hay, while a ra- 
tion of 24 lbs. was insufficient when the same distance was covered at a 
trot. A horse hauling a load 12.5 miles daily, the draft performed being 
equivalent to 1943 ft.-tons, was sufficiently nourished by a ration of 24.6 
lbs. of hay, while one of 36.2 lbs. — all the horse would eat — was not enough 
to maintain its weight when the same amount of work was done at a trot. 

Where it is necessary to develop maximum power continuously at con- 
siderable speed, the number of horses required for a specific work must 
always be greatly increased. Thus when horses were used on mail- 
coaches, even on the admirable highways of Great Britian, the proprietors 
maintained 1 horse per mile of route for each coach, each horse traveling 
only 8 miles and working an hour or less per day on the average, 4 horses 
drawing the loaded coach which weighed 2 tons. Draft horses moving 2.5 
miles an hour are expected to do 7 times the work of coach horses moving 
10 miles per hour. 

11 Thurston, The Animal as a Machine and a Prime Motor, p. 52. 

16 Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1894, p. 49. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 289 

With running horses, the requirement of speed reduces the work per- 
formed (carrying the rider) to the smallest amount possible. Low 
writes: 1 " "When it is considered that an ounce of additional loading to 
the same horse may make the difference of a yard or more in half a mile 
of running, it will be seen how greatly the weight borne may affect the 
issue in the case of horses of equal powers." (145) 

452. Locomotion and carrying a load. — The preceding table shows what 
experience teaches — that the horse requires more nutrients to travel a 
mile when carrying a load than when merely moving his own body. We 
see that while only 0.169 lb. net nutrients are required in walking a mile 
at a speed of 3.5 miles per hour with no load, 0.210 lb. of nutrients, or 
over 24 per ct. more, are needed when a load of 220 lbs. is carried at about 
the same pace. When the same load was carried at a trot with a speed of 
6.9 miles per hour the amount of nutrients required was increased by over 
53 per ct. 

Since in locomotion the body of the horse is alternately raised and 
lowered, it is difficult to measure the actual amount of mechanical work 
performed in order to compare it with the energy expended. Compu- 
tations by Zuntz indicate that about 35 per ct. of the total energy ex- 
pended by the horse moving on the level is actually transformed into the 
external work of advancing his body, the remainder of the energy pro- 
ducing no external work, but taking the form of heat. 

453. Influence of grade. — The table further brings out the striking fact 
that for every 100 ft. the horse raises his body in ascending an incline of 
10.7 per ct. (a rise of 10.7 ft. in 100 ft.), he requires 0.06 lb. of net nutri- 
ents in addition to the amount required on a level course. In other 
words, in raising his body 200 ft. in going up a grade he would use up 
almost as much feed as in traveling a mile horizontally. At the incline 
of 10.7 per ct. the horse was about as efficient in converting feed into 
muscular work as when traveling on a level course, about 34 per ct. of 
the total energy expended being transformed into the actual work of 
both propelling his body and raising it against the force of gravity. In 
climbing a hill the horse does much more work in traveling a mile than 
when going on a level course, for besides propelling his body, he must 
raise it against the force of gravity. Including both the work of ascent 
and the Avork of locomotion, Zuntz found that in ascending the grade of 
10.7 per ct. at a speed of 3.1 miles per hour the horse expended more than 
3 times as much energy as in walking the same distance on the level at but 
a slightly faster pace. In the latter case he was merely propelling his 
body and not raising it against the force of gravity. At the steeper 
grade of 18.1 ft. in 100, nearly 5 times as much energy was expended as 
when moving on a horizontal course. 

In going doAvn a gentle incline, owing to the pull of gravity, less energy 
was expended than in moving on a level road, resulting in a saving of 
nutrients, such saving being greatest when the down grade was about 5 ft. 

lfi The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles. . 



290 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

in 100. If the grade was steeper, the horse expended energy in bracing 
himself to check too rapid progress. When the downward grade reached 
10 ft. in 100, as much energy was expended as when traveling on a level, 
and on a still steeper down grade the amount of energy expended was 
greater than that expended on the level. 

The saving of feed by the proper use of wagon brakes in a hilly country 
is evident when we consider the energy the horse spends in descending a 
steep hill. Here he must not only brace himself to hold back his own 
body, but. must also struggle to hold in check the heavy weight of the 
wagon. 

454. Draft. — The preceding table (450) shows that after deducting 
the energy necessary for merely moving the body on a level course, 1.157 
lbs. of net nutrients were required by the horse for each 1000 ft.-tons of 
draft on a level course. The horse is slightly less efficient as a machine 
in performing draft than in moving his body along a level course or in 
raising it against the force of gravity, for only 31 per ct. of the total 
energy expended was actually turned into draft. In drawing a load up 
a grade of only 8.5 ft. in 100, but 23 per ct. of the. energy expended was 
actually turned into work. This was due to the fact that when perform- 
ing draft up that grade more work was done per minute, and this led to 
an increase in the rapidity of breathing and the over-exertion of certain 
groups of muscles, with the result that more energy was wasted as heat 
and less was utilized in moving the load. 

455. The nutritive ratio for work animals. — We have seen before that 
under normal conditions the non-nitrogenous nutrients — carbohydrates 
and fats — furnish the energy necessary for the production of muscular 
work, and that no more protein tissue is usually broken down during 
work than during rest. (140) Hence, as Kellner 17 points out, there is a 
great similarity between the nutrient requirements of mature working 
and mature fattening animals. After growth is completed and the pro- 
tein tissues and organs of the body have reached full size, both working 
and fattening animals need only so much crude protein in their food in 
excess of maintenance requirements as is necessary to insure complete 
digestion of the ration. The remainder of the nutrient requirements, 
whether for producing fat with the ox or performing work with the horse, 
may be met thru a sufficient supply of carbohydrates and fat. (143) 

Accordingly it is not necessary and is, furthermore, often not economi- 
cal to furnish as much digestible protein in the ration as stated in the 
Wolff-Lehmann standard, which places the nutritive ratio at 1 :7.0 in 
the case of light work, 1 :6.2 for medium work, and 1 :6.0 in heavy work. 

Grandeau and Alekan 18 found that when horses working at a trot 
were fed rations of corn, sugar, and oat straw, furnishing but little crude 
protein and having extremely wide ratios, varying from 1 :21 to 1 :28, the 
ration still contained sufficient digestible crude protein to keep them in 
excellent condition. Kellner 19 found that horses were able to perform 

17 Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 443. '"Landw. Jahrb., 9, p. 665. 

"Ann. Sci. Agron., 1901, II, p. 38. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 291 

hard labor without deterioration on a ration having a nutritive ratio of 
1 :9. Grandeau fed 3 horses during a whole year, sometimes on a ration 
of horse beans and straw having a nutritive ratio of 1 :3, and again on one 
of Indian corn and straw having a ratio of 1 :10. While on these rations 
the horses were either resting in the stall, exercising at a walk or trot, 
working on a sweep at a walk or trot, or finally working before the car- 
riage. The effect of the rations was about the same in all cases, and any 
difference was in favor of the corn-and-straw ration having the wider 
ratio. These and other experiments, as well as practical experience, show 
that the nutritive ratio for work horses may vary widely without injury 
so long as the minimum requirement of crude protein is satisfied. 

We should remember, however, that when more than 8 to 10 parts of 
digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates + fat X 2.25) are 
supplied to one part of digestible protein, the digestibility of the ration 
is decreased. (84) Most authorities agree also that a supply of protein 
in excess of the actual minimum requirement has a beneficial stimulating 
influence on the animal. It would, therefore, not seem advisable to feed 
to horses a ration having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :8 to 1 :10, except 
possibly under unusual conditions when protein-rich roughages or con- 
centrates were not at hand, or were unusually high in price. 

McCampbell 20 of the Kansas Station studied this question in his ex- 
periments at Fort Riley, the most extensive yet carried on with horses in 
the United States. From trials in which prairie hay and corn were fed 
with and without a nitrogenous supplement, he concludes that a ration 
having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :8 is inadvisable. It is not necessary 
to employ protein-rich concentrates to secure this nutritive ratio when 
legume hay forms the larger part of the roughage allowance. 

456. Ration for the work horse. — We have seen how it is possible to 
analyze the work a horse does, and determine the amount of net nutrients 
he requires for each type. In practice, however, in only a few instances 
is it possible to determine the nutrients in this manner, because of the 
complex and varying nature of the work. We must, therefore, use some 
simpler method in computing a ration for the horse. As shown in the pre- 
ceding article, the Wolff-Lehmann standard advises more protein than is 
necessary, and is hence often uneconomical. Kellner 21 has embodied the 
findings of Zuntz in his standards, shown in the following table, which 
states the amounts of digestible protein and net energy required by the 
horse at light, medium, and heavy work per 1000 lbs. live weight. Altho 
such a classification of work performed is somewhat vague, it is still 
helpful in practice. Murray 22 states that for the 1000-lb. horse, light work 
means the performance of from 250 to 500 ft.-tons of work per hour, or- 
dinary work 500 to 750 ft.-tons, and heavy work 750 to 1000 ft.-tons. For 
the convenience of American readers, the requirements of net energy, as 
set forth by Kellner, have been converted into therms. 

20 Kan. Bui. 186. 

"Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 453. 

23 Murray, Chem. of Cattle Feeding, 1914, p. 153. 



292 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Requirements of horses at light, medium, and heavy work 

Required per 1000 lbs. live weight 
Digestible protein Net energy 

Lbs. Therms 

Horse at light work 1.0 9.8 

Horse at medium work 1.4 12 .4 

Horse at heavy work 2.0 16 .0 

It will be noted that the horse at heavy work is given twice as much 
protein as when at light work, while the net energy supply is increased by 
only about 63 per ct. This is due to the fact that the horse at severe labor 
is benefited by a fairly liberal supply of protein. The requirements of 
the work horse as determined by Zuntz and McCampbell have been stated 
by the authors in terms of dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total 
digestible nutrients, and are given in Appendix Table V. 

457. Severe work. — The more severe the labor which the horse per- 
forms, the larger must be the supply of net nutrients. Since the ration 
must not have undue bulk, this necessitates a large proportion of concen- 
trates, high in net energy content. On the other hand, the more severe 
the labor the smaller must be the allowance of roughage, for coarse feeds 
are of low value for producing work, and when given in undue amount 
hinder breathing, thru the distension of the digestive tract, thus placing 
an increased burden on the already hard-worked animal. However, 
some roughage must be supplied even during severe labor, for, as is 
shown elsewhere, horses fed no roughage but given an abundance of oats, 
which are rather high in fiber, soon show loss of appetite and impairment 
of the digestive functions. (107) It must be remembered that rich feed, 
carelessly administered, brings danger ; hence especial care must be used 
in feeding the horse at severe work. 

Wolff cites the intense work of the mail-coach horses on the route 
from Plieningen to Stuttgart, Germany. Two strongly built, spirited 
horses, in good flesh, drew a heavy mail coach, often carrying 8 passen- 
gers, up and down the mountain road 35 miles daily, trotting at the speed 
of 5.4 miles per hour. They were fed daily 22 to 24 lbs. of oats mixed 
with cut straw, and hay without limit, of which they ate very little — often 
none at all. Under these severe conditions these horses received sufficient 
fiber in the oats and cut straw, and hence instinctively refused hay. 

Formerly the German army horse was fed only 11 lbs. of oats, 5.5 lbs. 
of hay, and some cut straw during the maneuvers, when often traveling 
over 40 miles a day, covering about equal distances at the walk, trot, and 
gallop. It is not surprising that on this ration, containing only about 8.8 
lbs. of digestible nutrients, the horses, which performed about 11,900 ft.- 
tons of work daily, lost heavily in weight, and that many were unfitted 
for further military service. 

458. Variations in body weight. — During exercise and work a loss in 
body weight occurs due to the heavier oxidation or burning of the nutri- 
tive fluids of the body and to the largely increased evaporation of water. 
Grandeau and LeClerc 23 found that 2 horses lost on the average 2.3 lbs. 

23 Ann. Sci. Agron., 1888, II, p. 276. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 293 

each when walked for 148 minutes without drawing a load, while on haul- 
ing a load at a trot for 79 minutes each lost 9.3 lbs. A horse performing 
a certain amount of work at a trot gave off 20.6 lbs. of water vapor, nearly 
twice as much as when doing the same amount of work at a walk, and over 
3 times as much as when at rest. Such losses diminish the amount of 
energy available for the production of work. 

Rueff- 4 found, after making corrections for food and droppings, that 
farm horses at medium work lost 7.7 lbs. each during 11 hours. A horse 
carrying a 176-lb. load lost 11 lbs. in 25 minutes and regained only 1 lb. 
in 24 hours. A 14-yr.-old blind stallion ridden 90 minutes by a 166-lb. 
rider lost 33 lbs., regaining 22 lbs. the following day. Von Lutzow 25 
found that 20 draft horses, weighing about 1750 lbs., each lost from 44 to 
122 lbs. when put at hard work for 2 weeks. In a 3-day rest period only 
3 horses regained their original weight. 

Boussingault 20 found the maximum variation in the weight of 2 horses 
on the same keep and care during 15 days to be 25 and 28 lbs. respectively. 
A horse put on the scales at 4 o'clock after fasting weighed 1051 lbs. one 
morning, 1060 lbs. the next morning, and 1038 lbs. the third morning. 
This shows the necessity of carrying on feeding experiments for consider- 
able periods and with several animals in order to escape, or rather lessen, 
the errors which are introduced into the calculations thru accidental 
variations in the weights of the animals studied. 

II. Preparation op Feeding Stuffs for the Horse 

459. Chaffed hay. — In large establishments chaffing or cutting the hay 
given to horses is usually advisable, because the cut roughage can 
then be accurately administered according to the needs of each animal, 
dust can be allayed, and the feeding operations more systemized and ex- 
pedited. Horses that have been on the street all day and have worked to 
the limit may be given meal mixed with a small portion of the moistened 
chaffed hay, some of the nourishment thus being passed to the stomach 
more quickly than is possible when feeding long hay. On this point 
Lavalard, 27 summarizing extensive experience with omnibus and cab 
horses in Paris, writes: "For the past 4 or 5 years we have chopped 
coarse fodder, using a ration of equal parts of hay and straw, and have 
found this practice the most economical for several reasons : Straw may 
thus be made to form an integral part of the ration, and the proportion 
of hay and straw may be accurately regulated. Furthermore, horses 
waste much less of such fodder. . . . The feeding of chopped fodder has 
brought about a considerable saving and permitted greater uniformity 
than was previously the case in our experiments." On the other hand, 
having in mind farm horses, Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 2S holds 
that there is no particular advantage in cutting hay. (424) 

- 4 Von Gohren, Naturgesetze d. Futterung, p. 370. » Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 12. 
55 Deut. Landw. Presse., 36, 1909, p. 285. 2S Mass. Bui. 99. 

26 Ann. Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 330; Rural Economy, p. 397. 



294 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

460. Cooked feed. — The custom of cooking even a small portion of the 
feed given to horses has almost ceased. Johnstone, 20 who had the practice 
thoroly ingrained into his nature by early Scotch experience, out of his 
later observations writes : ' ' Time was when I considered the feeding of 
sloppy stuff a necessity in properly wintering brood mares, but experience 
has shown me that dry food is best. Therefore I prefer uncooked food. . . 
Time was when I believed that for stallions during the season it was 
an excellent plan to give a mash of boiled barley every Wednesday and 
Saturday night. . . . The experiments have, however, shown that the ad- 
dition of this material to a horse 's grain ration makes no appreciable dif- 
ference in the manner in which the grain is digested." (425-9) 

461. Soaked grain. — Wolff 30 found that healthy horses with good teeth 
utilized beans and corn equally well, whether fed whole and dry or after 
having been soaked in water for 24 hours, care being taken in the latter 
case to guard against loss of nutrients. Ear corn that is so dry and flinty 
as to injure the horse 's mouth should be soaked or ground. Whole wheat 
and barley should always be soaked if they cannot be ground, or, better, 
rolled. (430) 

462. Ground grain. — Investigations have shown that when horses are 
fed whole oats mixed with cut straw or hay the percentage of kernels 
passing thru the alimentary tract unmasticated is much smaller than 
when the whole oats are fed alone. From his extensive studies with 
thousands of cab, omnibus, and army horses in France, to which cut straw 
or hay was usually fed, Lavalard 31 concludes that the advantages gained 
by grinding oats were not covered by the expense. In some of the experi- 
ments the horses showed better appetites for whole than for ground oats. 
Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 32 likewise concludes that 
where oats are mixed with bran and cut hay there is no advantage in 
grinding if the horses have good teeth. Whether it will pay to grind oats 
when not fed with cut roughage will depend on how well the horse masti- 
cates the grain and on the expense of grinding. A profit from crushing 
oats is claimed by several large feed stables. As shown later (475). 
thruout the corn belt corn is usually fed on the cob or as shelled corn, 
tho some authorities recommend the use of corn-and-cob meal or coarse- 
ly ground corn meal. It is reasonable to hold that when horses are hard 
worked and have but little time in the stable, or when their teeth are 
poor, it is well to grind their grain. All small, hard grains, such as 
wheat, barley, rye, and kafir, should always be ground or, better, rolled. 

III. Watering the Horse; Salt 

463. Time for watering. — On theoretical grounds various authorities 
have advised watering the horse before giving him grain, to prevent pos- 
sible flushing of the grain out of the stomach into the small intestine. 

20 The Horse, p. 77. "'Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 12. 

30 Landw. Jahrb., 16, 1887, Sup. Ill, p. 21. 32 Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpt., 1905. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 295 

Tangl 33 of Budapest, whose investigations concerning the time of water- 
ing horses are the most complete of any recorded, found that horses may 
be watered before, after, or during meals without interfering with the 
digestion or the absorption of the food they eat. All methods are equally 
good, tho circumstances may favor one over the other. A horse long de- 
prived of water, or having undergone severe exertion, should be watered 
before getting his feed. An animal accustomed to a certain order of 
watering should not be changed to another order, for such change di- 
minishes the appetite. Horses drink the greatest amount of water when it 
is given after they have been fed, and the least when it is supplied before 
they are fed. In some cases watering before feeding somewhat decreased 
the appetite. Tangl shows that the only important point in this whole 
matter, about which there has been so much discussion and dogmatic as- 
sertion, is to adopt a reasonable, convenient system of watering, and then 
rigidly adhere to it. It is dangerous to allow a horse to gorge himself 
with water when very warm, but a moderate drink taken slowly will re- 
fresh him without harm resulting. 

464. Amount of water consumed. — The amount of water which horses 
will drink depends upon many factors, the most important of which are 
the individuality of the animals, the temperature of the air, the nature of 
their food, and the amount of work performed. Grandeau and LeClerc 34 
found that 2 Paris cab horses when drawing a load at a walk consumed 
16 per ct. more water than when walking but drawing no load. On trot- 
ting with no load the amount was increased 6 per ct., and on drawing a 
load at a trot 85 per ct. over that consumed when walking without a load. 

Merrill of the Utah Station 35 found that horses fed timothy hay drank 
79 lbs. of water each daily, while on alfalfa hay they drank 10 lbs. more. 
One of 2 horses getting alfalfa hay drank 21 lbs. of water more per day 
than the other. Morrow of the Oklahoma Station 36 reports that during 
hot weather in August a pair of farm mules drank 350 lbs. of water in 1 
day — an extremely large amount. In making provisions for water, from 
10 to 12 gallons, or 100 lbs., daily should be allowed for each horse. (103) 

465. Salt. — The horse shows great fondness for salt, and for his well- 
being it should be regularly supplied. Horses at hard work require more 
than those laboring less severely. Roberts 37 states that 4 horses on dry 
feed ate 28 pounds of salt in 56 days, or 2 ounces per horse daily. 



IV. Miscellaneous Factors Influencing Efficiency of Horses 

466. Exercise. — The Arabs have a saying, "Rest and fat are the great- 
est enemies of the horse." The horse is par excellence the creature of 
motion, and in its feeding and management we should hold this point ever 
in view. The prudent horseman will bear in mind that correlative with 

^Landw. Vers. Sta., 57, 1902, p. 329. ^Okla. Rpt. 1898. 

34 Ann. Sci. Agron., 1888, 2, p. 276. w The Horse, 1905, p. 311. 

<* Utah Bui. 77. 



296 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

liberal feeding there must be hearty exercise or severe labor, and that 
these conditions may be happily balanced. As soon as hard labor ceases, 
or constant and vigorous exercise is over, it will be found absolutely 
necessary to reduce the allowance of food if the proper balance is to be 
maintained. The idle horse should be limited to less than half the grain 
given while on regular duty, and in some instances it were better to give 
none, provided the roughage supplied be of good quality. 

A colt fed heavily on suitable nutrients will grow rapidly and develop 
good bone and strong muscle, provided at all times there be a proper 
balance between exercise and feed. The highly fed colt should be out of 
doors from 8 to 10 hours a day, and should move several miles each day 
either in the field, on the track, or both. A mature horse should be in the 
open air not less than 4 or 5 hours a day, and should travel from 10 to 15 
miles daily, to maintain health. 

467. The stable. — Proper ventilation of the stable is most important 
in maintaining the health of the stabled horse. Cool, well-ventilated 
quarters are far preferable to warm, close stables. Captain Hayes ;iS 
states that in some large city stables of Russia the temperature is often 
kept 80° F. above that of the outside air in winter. Under these conditions 
trouble from influenza, inflammation of the eyes, and diseases of the respi- 
ratory organs are common. On the other hand, in the cavalry remount 
stables, roomy, clean, and well-ventilated, the horses keep in excellent 
health. He further states that previous to 1836, the mortality of horses 
in the French army was enormous, the annual loss varying from 180 to 
197 per 1000 animals. Enlargement of the stables and better ventilation 
reduced this mortality to less than one-seventh the former figures. In 
all cases horses should be protected from drafts, and judgment must be 
used in blanketing them in extreme weather. 

468. Blanketing and clipping. — Horses at work prove more efficient and 
last longer when reasonably protected against sudden changes in tempera- 
ture and cold rains. It is important to blanket the horse in cold weather 
whenever his work ceases and he is forced to stand in the cold for even 
a short time. Stable blankets keep the coat in better condition, but when 
they are used it is especially necessary to protect the horse when stand- 
ing idle out of doors. 

The heavy coat which the horse grows for winter protection has cer- 
tain disadvantages with the work animal under his artificial conditions. 
The horse with a long coat sweats unduly at work and his system is 
thereby enervated and relaxed, rendering him especially subject to colds. 
As it is difficult to completely dry such a horse after a day's work, it may 
often be advisable to clip him early enough in the fall to permit the 
growth of a lighter coat for protection before severe weather begins. 
However, he should not be fall clipped unless he is carefully protected 
from cold at all times when not Avorking. Horses are often clipped in the 
spring after the shedding process has begun, but before the new coat has 
M Stable Management and Exercise, 1900, p. 198. 



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 297 

started, thus, it is claimed, preventing as great a draft on the animal's 
system and certainly obviating the annoyance of the shedding coat, es- 
pecially disagreeable in the case of gray horses. 

469. Grooming. — As the horse at severe labor gives off several pounds 
of perspiration daily, when this evaporates considerable solid waste ma- 
terial is left on the animal 's coat. Thoro and careful grooming is neces- 
sary to remove such body waste and keep the pores open and the skin 
healthy. Aside from the better appearance which results, proper groom- 
ing pays in the greater efficiency of the hard-worked animal. It is best 
to groom the work horse at night after a severe day's work, so that he may 
rest more comfortably. As idle horses running at pasture sweat little, 
consume green grass and other laxative foods, and have abundant op- 
portunity to roll, grooming is unnecessary. While grooming should be 
thoro, a dull currycomb is preferable to a sharp one, and a brush should 
be used on the tender head and legs. 

470. Care of teeth. — The teeth of the horse often wear irregularly as 
they elongate, especially those of old horses, leaving sharp points and 
ragged edges that cause pain, prevent proper mastication of food, and in 
extreme cases actually cause starvation. Many horses that are poor in 
flesh and wear staring coats, despite a reasonable supply of food, owe 
their condition to poor teeth alone. The teeth should therefore be fre- 
quently examined and cared for, the irregularities being removed by a 
float or guarded rasp. The first, or milk teeth, are also apt to remain too 
long in the young horse 's mouth, causing crooked permanent teeth ; such 
should be removed with forceps. 

471. General hints. — To be most efficient in converting the energy of 
his feed into useful work, the horse must labor in a properly fitting har- 
ness. The collar needs special attention, for the capacity of many a horse 
is decreased because he wears an ill-fitting collar. It is vitally important 
that his feet be properly shod, so that the weight and wear are evenly dis- 
tributed on the joints of the ankle. The other mechanical principles 
which determine the efficiency of work, such as the correct use of eveners, 
the proper adjustment of traces and of line of draft, the distribution of 
the load on the wagon, and the influence of size of wheel, width of tires, 
and character of road bed must all be given due consideration. In start- 
ing the day the horse should be gradually warmed to his work, so that his 
collar will be shaped to his shoulders, his muscles in proper trim, his 
bowels relieved, and breathing and heart action quickened before he is 
put to extreme exertion. It is likewise well to cool him off gradually at 
the end of a trip or of the day's work before returning to the stable. 
That he may rest in comfort, his stall should be well bedded. 

No other farm animal is so strongly the creature of habit as is the horse, 
and in no way is he more so than in the matters relating to food and its 
administration. Sudden changes in quantity and variety should be 
avoided. A quick change from oats to corn may bring on colic, but 
changing from corn to oats is less dangerous. An abrupt change from old 



298 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to new hay, or from late to early cut hay, may bring trouble. Wilted 
grass or new mown hay is more dangerous than fresh grass. Horses are 
especially susceptible to poisoning thru eating moldy grain or forage. 
(397) Any unusual feeding stuff, such as silage, roots, apples, etc., 
should be given in small quantities at first, and changes in kind and 
quantity of any food should be made gradually. It is best to mix and 
feed several kinds of concentrates together rather than feed them sepa- 
rately. As a rule some hay should be fed at the same time the concen- 
trates are given, in order to distend the stomach and intestines properly. 
As is shown in the following chapter (492), more horses are injured by 
gorging on hay than by being given too little. 

472. Supervision of feeding. — In stables where many horses are main- 
tained, a group or row of animals should remain in the care of the same 
attendant, the whole establishment being under the watchful supervision 
of the superintendent. While we can estimate quite closely the amount 
of food to be given a hundred or a thousand horses, there should always 
be modifications and concessions to individual members of the establish- 
ment to be recognized and provided for by the guiding mind, — one horse 
should have a little more than the regulation allowance, and the next pos- 
sibly a little less, the object being to keep each in the desired condition. 
Usually it is not well to leave the feeding of horses to their own driver, 
for he has likes and dislikes, and the favorites are quite certain to receive 
more than their proper allowance of grain, while the others suffer. 
A watchful superintendent must ever be on the alert to see that each ani- 
mal secures the needed provender. 



CHAPTER XIX 

FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

At any point of observation we usually find the common ration for the 
horse restricted to one or two kinds of grain and the same limited number 
of roughages. In the northern Mississippi Valley states the ration is 
quite generally confined to timothy hay and oats. In the South, Indian 
corn is the main concentrate, fed with dried corn leaves, legume hay, and 
other roughages. Where sugar cane is grown, blackstrap molasses is an 
important source of energy for work animals. On the Pacific coast 
crushed barley is the common grain, with hay from the cereals. Passing 
to other countries we find an interesting array of articles in the diet of 
the horse, tho usually no large number in any one locality. In Europe 
various oil cakes and beans often form part of the concentrate allowance. 
In some districts stock bread is commonly employed. Thruout Arabia, 
Persia, Egypt, and Algeria the only grain is barley, usually mixed with 
barley or wheat straw which has been thoroly broken by the native 
threshing machine. In northern India and Bombay, a sort of pea, called 
gram, is the usual food. Bamboo leaves are fed 1 as a complete substitute 
for ordinary grass and hay in the hill districts of eastern Burmah. In 
France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes and grape 
vines, the tops of acacia, and seeds of the carob-tree are all employed. "In 
some sterile countries," according to Loudon, 2 "horses are forced to sub- 
sist on dried fish, and even vegetable mould. In parts of India, salt, 
pepper, and other spices are made into balls, as big as billiard balls, with 
flour and butter, and thrust down the animal 's throat. ' ' 

With this brief survey of some of the foods employed in the nourish- 
ment of the horse, let us consider in detail the feeding stuffs of impor- 
tance in the United States. 

473. Oats. — No other grain is so keenly relished by horses of all classes 
and ages and so prized by horsemen as the oat, the standard of excellence 
with which other concentrates are compared. Oats are the safest of all 
feeds for the horse, in part because the adherent hull, tho of low nutri- 
tive value, gives such bulk that not enough of this grain can be eaten at 
one time to cause serious troubles from gorging, and so there is little 
danger from possible errors in measuring the grain allowance. (223) On 
account of the hulls there is, likewise, less tendency than with corn for 
this grain to pack in the horse 's stomach where there is much less churn- 
ing or mixing motion than with the ruminants. (39) 

1 Hayes, Stable Management and Exercise. 

2 Encyclopedia of Agr., 1886; Article, Feeding of Horses. 

299 



300 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

For mature horses with good teeth and ample time for masticating 
and digesting their food, it will hardly pay to grind or crush oats. They 
should be thus prepared, however, for horses with poor teeth, for foals, 
and often for hard-worked horses. New and musty oats should be 
avoided. A safe rule is to feed 1 quart or 1 pound of oats daily for each 
100 lbs. of horse — more for the hard-worked and less for the idle. 

Even oats do not always form a perfect concentrate, for Axe :! states 
that the strongest advocates of this feed in England recognize that for 
hunters and for other horses in severe weather the ration is improved by 
the addition of beans. 

474. Substitutes for oats. — Because of their universal favor and the 
wide demand for them, oats are rarely an economical grain where ex- 
pense must be considered. Fortunately, both practical and scientific 
trials alike teach that other single grains or mixtures of concentrates may 
be substituted for oats without injury to the condition, wind, endurance, 
or even the spirit of the horse. 

The Arab steed, so renowned for mettle and endurance, is fed no oats, 
but chiefly barley. After experiments covering 35 years, involving the 
feeding of 16,000 omnibus horses in Paris and some 17,000 French army 
horses, Lavalard, 4 the great French authority on the nutrition of the 
horse, concluded that the substitution of other feeds for oats, while ef- 
fecting a great saving, had not in the slightest lowered the productive 
power of the horses. 

The entire success attained with grain mixtures containing no oats, but 
properly balanced in nutrients and having the requisite bulk, shows that 
in making up the ration for the horse, just as with other animals, the 
prices of the various available feeds should always be considered. The 
many grains and by-products which may be successfully fed to the horse 
in place of oats are discussed in the following articles. From these studies 
and a knowledge of ruling market prices for feeds each feeder may deter- 
mine for himself the most economical rations to employ. 

475. Indian corn. — Next to oats, Indian corn (maize) is the common 
grain for horses in America, being most largely used in the middle and 
southern portions of the corn belt and southward in the cotton states. 
Millions of horses and mules on American farms and plantations get 
their strength from corn, scarcely knowing the taste of oats. While corn 
does not have all of the superlative qualities of oats, nevertheless, because 
of lower cost and higher feeding value, it will always be extensively used 
in this country wherever large numbers of horses must be economically 
maintained. (201) 

When corn forms a large part of the concentrate allowance, the ration 
should be balanced by concentrates or roughages rich in protein and 
mineral matter, in which this grain is deficient. As corn is a heavy, high- 
ly concentrated feed, care must also be exercised in limiting the amount 
fed to the needs of the animal. To neglect of these principles may be as- 

3 The Horse, etc., 1907, Vol. 8, p. 347. 4 Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 13. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 



301 



eribed the unfavorable results that sometimes follow the feeding of this 
grain. 

In all cases changes from oats or other feeds to corn should be brought 
about gradually. New corn may produce indigestion. Ear corn is safer 
to feed than shelled corn, for the grain keeps best on the cob and the 
horse eats corn on the cob more slowly and chews the grain more com- 
pletely. Unfortunately it is often difficult to secure good ear corn in the 
city, due to its bulk. 

Altho thruout the corn belt the grain is usually fed on the cob or 
shelled, various authorities 5 recommend grinding, especially for hard- 
worked horses. Finely ground corn meal fed alone, however, may form 
an adhesive mass in the stomach, difficult to digest, and cause colic. If it 
cannot be fed on the cob it is safer to grind coarsely, or if fine, it should 
be mixed with chaffed hay or straw. The Paris Omnibus Company 6 
found it advantageous to feed corn-and-cob meal, holding that the fiber 
of the cobs made the ground material more like ground oats in fiber con- 
tent. In experiments at the North Carolina Station 7 with 3 teams of 
mules and 1 team of horses Burkett found corn-and-cob meal as valuable 
as an equal weight of shelled corn. The economy of grinding corn will 
depend on the cost and trouble involved; generally it will not pay. (423) 

476. Corn with carbonaceous hay. — Since a ration composed of corn and 
carbonaceous roughage, as timothy or prairie hay, is deficient in protein, 
even for work animals, it will be improved by the addition of some 
nitrogenous concentrate. This is shown by the following results secured 
by McCampbell at the Kansas Station 8 in a 140-day trial with artillery 
horses, performing more severe labor than the average farm horse : 



Feeding a nitrogenous supplement with 


corn and carbonaceous hay 


Average ration 


Initial 
weight 


Gain or loss 
in weight 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Daily cost of 
feed per 1,000 
lbs. live wt.* 


Lot I, 76 horses 
Oats, 12 lbs. 

Prairie hay, 14 lbs 


Lbs. 
1,131 

1,181 
1,159 


Lbs*. 
16.3 

—29.3 
3.9 


1 :7.9 
1 : 11.5 

1 :8,4 


Cents 

20 3 


Lot II, 76 horses 
Shelled corn, 12 lbs. 

Prairie hay, 14 lbs 


17 5 


Lot III, 22 horses 
Shelled corn, 6 lbs. 
Wheat bran, 3 lbs. 
Linseed meal, 1 lb. 

Prairie hay, 14 lbs 


16 7 







* Oats, SO. 385 and shelled corn, 
hay, S12.50 per ton. 



.55 per bu.; wheat bran, S20.00, Unseed meal, 



.50, and prairie 



In the winter when the weather was cold and the work moderate there 

was no apparent difference between the horses in Lots I and II. However, 

as the weather grew warmer and the work more severe, the corn-fed 

horses began to lose weight, tho their endurance, wind, or spirit was not 

Stewart, Feeding Animals, 1886, p. 384; Burkett, Farm Stock, 1909, p. 72. 

6 Centbl. Agr. Chem., 1881, p. 767. 7 N. C. Bui. 189. 8 Kan. Bui. 186. 



302 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



injured. The well-balanced ration fed Lot III was fully as satisfactory 
as the oat ration and more economical than the straight corn ration. The 
objections often raised against corn — that horses fed corn lack nerve and 
action, sweat easily, and wear out earlier — are doubtless due to feeding 
an excess of this grain or failure to balance the ration properly. 

Hooper and Anderson of the Kentucky Station 9 report that corn with 
timothy and oat hay maintained mules, working on an average 6 hours a 
day, in good condition, but that the skin and hair of the corn-fed mules 
were not so soft and glossy as with those fed a mixture of 3 parts corn, 1 
part wheat bran, and 1 part oil meal. 

Beginning in 1874, the Paris Omnibus Company, employing nearly 
10,000 horses averaging about 1200 lbs. each, conducted extensive feeding 
trials with Indian corn. Feeding corn exclusively with hay from the 
grasses was found to depress the spirits of the horses, and accordingly a 
mixture of 6.6 lbs. of corn and 12.1 lbs. of oats was adopted, varying 
somewhat with different horses. Lavalard 10 states that thru this com- 
bination the company effected a saving of from $200,000 to $300,000 
yearly. The Paris Cab Company, also beginning at about the same time 
to feed corn in place of oats, had such satisfactory results that it almost 
entirely ceased feeding oats. 

From these trials, and others with some 17,000 French army horses, 
Lavalard writes : ' ' Experiments have demonstrated that corn can re- 
place oats in the ration of both army and cavalry horses, and if substi- 
tuted weight for weight, it increases the nutritive value of the ration. 
.... The horses fed the corn ration were used the same number of 
hours in military drill, and in the maneuvers were ridden at the same 
gait as those fed oats, and it was practically impossible to perceive the 
least difference in the 2 classes. The army officers, prejudiced as they 
naturally were, were forced to admit that all the horses showed the same 
energy and vigor. Careful records kept show that sickness and mortality 
were the same for the horses on the 2 rations. ' ' 

477. Corn and legume hay. — "With legume hay, which supplies the lack- 
ing protein and ash, for roughage, corn may be successfully fed as the 
only concentrate to mature horses at general farm work. Carmichael 
fed one horse in each of 3 farm teams at the Ohio Station 11 shelled corn, 
and the other one oats with mixed clover and timothy hay for roughage. 
The trial lasted 48 weeks, with the following results : 



Ear corn vs. oats with mixed clover and timothy hay 



Average ration 

Corn-fed horses 
Ear corn, 14.9 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 16.0 lbs.. . . 
Oal-fed horses 
Oats, 14.8 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 17.3 lbs.. . . 

Corn, $0.40, and oats, $0.30 per bu. 



Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 



1,525 



Gain or 

loss in 

weight 

Lbs. 



1,424 

hay $8.00 per ton 



Work 
per 
day 
Hrs. 



5.4 



5.3 



Daily cost 

of feed* 

Cents 



15.0 



20.8 



Ky. Bui. 176, 1913. 



,0 Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 14. 



Feed cost 

per hour 

of work* 

Cents 



3.3 



4.5 



Ohio Bui. 195. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 303 

The corn-fed horses received about the same weight of ear corn, in- 
cluding cob, as their team mates did of oats, and ate less hay, yet they 
practically maintained their weight. Substituting ear corn for oats re- 
sulted in a saving of over one-fourth in cost of feed. 

Trowbridge fed one mule in each of 2 farm teams at the Missouri 
Station 12 shelled corn and the other one oats, all receiving mixed clover 
and timothy hay, for 364 days, when the rations were reversed and the 
feeding continued for another 364-day period. The mules fed corn main- 
tained their weight slightly better than those fed oats and at 21 per 
ct. less expense for feed, with oats at $0.40 and shelled corn at $0.50 
per bushel. Both Carmichael and Trowbridge report that the corn-fed 
animals endured hard work during hot weather as well as those fed oats, 
and that the corn was not detrimental to health or spirit. 

478. Barley. — This grain is extensively employed for horse feeding 
in Africa, in various parts of the Orient, and in Europe. In this country 
it is used on the Pacific coast, especially in California. Shepperd of the 
North Dakota Station 13 found that for hard-worked horses barley was 
not quite so valuable, pound for pound, as oats. Lavalard also con- 
cludes from 20 years' experience that to replace oats a slightly greater 
quantity of barley must be fed, especially when rations are calculated 
as closely as they are with army horses. Where the horses' teeth are 
good and their labor not severe, barley may be fed whole, but it is usual- 
ly best to grind or, better, roll it. Barley meal forms a pasty, unpleas- 
ant mass when mixed with the saliva in the mouth. This can be largely 
avoided by crushing the grain to flattened discs between iron rollers. 
(226) 

479. Wheat. — Altho the price of sound wheat usually prohibits its use 
as a horse feed, that which has been frosted or otherwise damaged, if not 
moldy, may be fed with economy. Wheat should preferably be rolled 
and fed in moderate amounts only, mixed with a bulky concentrate, such 
as bran, or with chaffed forage to avoid digestive troubles and skin 
eruptions. 14 (215) 

480. Rye. — In Germany, according to Pott, 15 many work horses are fed 
2 to 6.6 lbs. of rye per day in combination with oats or other concentrates, 
the grain preferably being rolled or bruised and mixed with cut straw. 
The change to rye must be gradual or colic may result, especially if the 
grain is not well mixed with cut fodder. The bad results reported with 
rye are probably due to grain of poor quality, or that containing impuri- 
ties. (232) 

481. Kafir; milo. — In the regions where they flourish, the seeds of the 
various sorghums are extensively employed for horse feeding, tho some- 
what less valuable than corn. Being small and hard, they should be 
ground or chopped, and if possible mixed with bran or middlings, for 
they tend to produce constipation. These grains may also be fed un- 

12 Mo. Bui. 114. 13 N. D. Bui. 45. 

"Shepperd, N. D. Bui. 45; Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 445. 

l5 Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 449. 



304 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

threshed in the heads along with the forage. Morrow of the Oklahoma 
Station 16 reports the successful feeding of kafir to farm mules and horses. 
(235-42) 

482. Cane molasses. — Thruout the sugar-cane districts cane molasses is 
often the most economical source of carbohydrates for work animals. 
Dalrymple 17 of the Louisiana Station, collecting data from 47 Louisiana 
sugar plantations employing over 5,000 work animals, chiefly mules, 
found that an average of 9.5 lbs. of cane molasses was fed daily to each 
animal, the maximum being 21 lbs. The molasses was usually mixed 
with corn (ground with both cob and husks), other concentrates, or cut 
hay, but was sometimes fed separately in troughs or poured on 'uncut 
roughage. The ration was usually balanced with legume hay or cotton- 
seed meal. Planters held that the use of molasses reduced digestive dis- 
turbances and improved the health and endurance of the animals, with 
a saving of 10 to 50 per ct. in cost of feed. No scouring, such as would be 
produced by large quantities of beet molasses, was noted. Berns 18 re- 
ports improvement in the condition of 100 heavy truck horses in New 
York on feeding 1 quart of molasses daily, diluted with water and mixed 
with grain and cut hay. Dalrymple and Berns both obtained satisfactory 
results on feeding molasses to driving horses. 

Because of its high price molasses is rarely an economical source of 
carbohydrates in the northern states, tho a quart or more a day may 
often be profitable as an appetizer or tonic with horses out of condition. 19 
(279) 

483. Beet molasses and molasses mixtures. — Because of its laxative prop- 
erties, beet molasses must be fed only in limited amounts, but when not 
given in excess, it has given satisfactory results and is well liked by 
horses. (276) It may be thinned with warm water and mixed with 
cut fodder or fed in such mixtures as molasses-beet-pulp, alfalmo, etc. 
(280) In trials with 130 hard- worked horses of a Budapest transporta- 
tion company, Weiser and Zaitschek 20 obtained entirely satisfactory re- 
sults for months with a ration, per 1000 lbs. live weight, of 4.1 lbs. beet 
molasses mixed with 5.6 lbs. wheat bran and fed with 5.7 lbs. corn with 
an unlimited allowance of hay. One lb. of molasses replaced 0.78 lb. of 
corn. When the molasses was increased to 5.5 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live 
weight no injurious effect on the health of the animals was observed, but 
the molasses-bran mixture proved too sticky to be palatable. Pott 21 
mentions the successful use of various molasses mixtures and cites in- 
stances where 2 to 3 lbs. of peat-molasses successfully replaced an equal 
weight of grain. 

10 Okla. Rpt. 1898. 

1T La. Bui. 86, 1906; Breeder's Gaz., 48, 1905, p. 277. 

ls Amer. Vet. Rev., 26, 1902, pp. 615-623. 

10 Lindsey, Mass. Bui. 118, 1907; Gay, Productive Horse Husbandry, 1914, p. 238. 

2 "L,andw. Jahrb., 37, 1908, pp. 138-149. 

21 Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 336. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE " 305 

In trials with 15,000 horses of the Paris Omnibus Company Lavalard 22 
fed as high as 4.4 lbs. of peat-molasses daily with fewer digestive disturb- 
ances than on a ration containing no molasses. 

Molasses and many of the molasses mixtures on the market are car- 
bonaceous feeds, deficient in protein, and at the high prices often asked 
are uneconomical sources of carbohydrates. 

484. Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Sugar, fed in small 
amounts, has been recommended for horses. On feeding one lot of 18 
artillery horses oats and prairie hay and another lot the same ration, 
except that 0.5 lb. of sugar was substituted for 2 lbs. of oats, McCamp- 
bell 23 of the Kansas Station found that the sugar-fed horses sweat more 
easily than the others, altho showing excellent coats of hair and good 
appetites. He concludes that while a small amount of sugar may be fed 
as a conditioner, it is not an economical substitute for the various grains 
ordinarily available. (281) 

Rough rice is an economical feed for horses and mules in the southern 
states, when low in price compared with other cereals. In trials with 2 
mules at the Louisiana Station Dalrymple 24 gradually substituted rough 
rice for an equal weight of cracked corn, feeding as high as 8 lbs. per day 
with good results. (234) 

Dried beet pulp is often refused by horses when fed alone, but when 
mixed with other concentrates may well be used as a portion of the ra- 
tion. In Hanover, Germany, 5.5 to 6.6 lbs. per head daily are often fed 
to work horses. 25 (275) 

II. Nitrogenous Concentrates 

485. Leguminous seeds. — Like the horse bean and other varieties of 
beans, so widely fed in Europe, the field pea in the northern states and 
the cowpea and soybean farther south are useful in supplementing rations 
deficient in protein. (256, 261-2) At the North Carolina Station 26 Bur- 
kett obtained satisfactory results in feeding cowpea meal as one-third to 
two-thirds the grain allowance for mules getting corn-and-cob meal and 
meadow or oat hay. All these leguminous seeds should be ground, and on 
account of their protein-rich nature should not be fed as the sole concen- 
trate. Lavalard 27 states that when beans replace oats only half the 
quantity should be used. 

486. Wheat bran. — Bran is one of the most useful feeds for the horse, 
because of its bulky nature and mild laxative properties. (218) If not 
more freely provided, its use once a week, preferably in the form of a 

- Deutsche Landw. Tierzucht, 1902, p. 986. 

23 Kan. Bui. 186, 1912. 

24 La. Bui. 122. 

25 Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 310. 

26 N. C. Bui. 189. 

27 Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 15. 



306 ' FEEDS AND FEEDING 

mash, wet or steamed, is desirable for its beneficial action on the alimen- 
tary tract. As the immediate effect of the laxative mash is somewhat 
weakening- 8 it should be given at night and preferably before a day of 
rest. 

When low in price, bran may profitably be fed in larger amounts as a 
partial substitute for oats. Burkett fed 2 1220-lb. farm work horses a 
ration of 7 lbs. of oats and 7 lbs. of corn with 12 lbs. of timothy hay dur- 
ing the summer at the New Hampshire Station, 29 while in the ration of 2 
others 7 lbs. of bran was substituted for the oats. The horses fed bran 
worked on the average 0.7 hour less per day than those fed oats but made 
an average gain of 113 lbs. during 26 weeks, while the oat-fed horses 
gained only 28 lbs. After repeating the trial during the winter with sub- 
stantially the same results, Burkett concludes that when fed in this 
combination bran can replace an equal weight of oats. As bran is low in 
lime, when heavy allowances of bran are used feeds should be given which 
are high in lime, or lime should be added in the form of ground lime- 
stone, etc. (98) After years of experience Shepperd of the North Dakota 
Station 30 concludes that a mixture of equal parts by weight of bran and 
shorts, fed with prairie hay, is equal to the same weight of oats for farm 
work horses, tho not quite so palatable. Pott 31 holds that feeding over 1 
lb. of bran per day to horses worked at a rapid pace tends to make them 
indolent. 

487. Wheat middlings; shorts. — Tho furnishing more nutriment than 
bran, middlings or shorts are not as desirable for the horse, because of 
their heavier character. When fed to horses they should be mixed with 
bulky feed and given in relatively small amount, as they tend to produce 
colic, the danger being great with some horses. (220) 

488. Dried brewers' grains. — This by-product may often be substituted 
for oats with economy. At the New Jersey Station 32 in a trial with 4 
teams of 1000-lb. street car horses, fed a ration of 8 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. wheat 
bran, 4 lbs. shelled corn, and 6 lbs. hay, Voorhees substituted an equal 
w r eight of dried brewers ' grains for the oats in the ration of one horse in 
each team. The change produced no ill effects on the horses, which trav- 
eled not less than 24 miles per day. The conclusion was reached that 
pound for pound good quality dried brewers' grains were fully equal to 
oats. Voorhees reports 33 that a gardener living near the Station, guided 
by its teachings, successfully fed a ration of dried brewers ' grains, corn, 
and hay to 8 animals, with a saving in yearly feed bills of about $150 
over the previous cost. Not being particularly palatable, dried brewers' 
grains should be mixed with other concentrates. Hooper and Anderson 34 
of the Kentucky Station report the grains somewhat constipating for 
horses and mules. (228) 

;s Burkett, Farm Stock, 1909, p. 73. ■ N. J. Rpt. 1892. 

2U N. H. Bui. 82. 33 N. J. Rpt. 1893. 

80 N. D. Bui. 45. 34 Ky. Bui. 176. 

3I Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 159. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 307 

489. Linseed oil meal or cake. — Linseed meal, with its high protein con- 
tent and its tonic and somewhat laxative properties, is an excellent 
nitrogenous supplement for the horse. McCampbell of the Kansas Sta- 
tion 35 compared the value of linseed meal and wheat bran in a 110-day 
trial in which 1170-lb. artillery horses were fed a ration of 12 lbs. prairie 
hay, 4 lbs. oats, 6 lbs. corn, and either linseed meal or wheat bran, as 
shown in the table : 

Linseed meal vs. wheat bran for horses 

Daily cost per 
Av. loss in wt. 1,000 lbs. 

Daily supplement allowance per head live wt. 

Lbs. Cents 

Lot I, 77 horses, Linseed meal, 1 lb 2.5 17 .0 

Lot II, 75 horses, Wheat bran, 4 lbs 6.7 18 .8 

In this trial 1 lb. of linseed meal was as effective in balancing the ra- 
tion as 4 lbs. of bran, for the horses in Lot I lost slightly less in weight 
than those in Lot II and showed better coats of hair, indicating a thriftier 
condition. The endurance and spirit of both lots were entirely satis- 
factory. With linseed meal at $35.50 and bran at $20.00 per ton, the sub- 
stitution of the meal lowered the feed bill about 10 per ct. 

In a trial at the Iowa Station 38 with 3 teams of farm horses Kennedy, 
Robbins, and Kildee found a mixture of 1 part oil meal and 10 parts 
shelled corn, fed with timothy hay, too laxative for horses at hard work in 
summer. A mixture of 1 part oil meal, 4 parts oats and 12 parts corn, 
proved as satisfactory as one of 6 parts oats and 4 parts corn. Substi- 
tuting oil meal for a large part of the oats saved 1.6 cents in daily cost 
of feed. Altho Pott 37 reports the satisfactory use with work horses of 
3 to 4 lbs. of linseed cake in combination with other feeds, not over 1 
to 1.5 lbs. per head daily should ordinarily be given. A pound or less a 
day of linseed meal is a helpful conditioner for run-down horses with 
rough coats, and is excellent in spring to hasten shedding of the hair and 
as a laxative with constipated animals. In fitting horses for show or sale 
it gives bloom and finish. (254) 

490. Cottonseed meal. — While it is not safe to feed cottonseed meal in 
large amounts to horses or mules, good results are secured when this feed 
is properly used. Being a heavy concentrate, not particularly relished by 
these animals, it should be mixed with some well-liked bulky feed. At the 
North Carolina Station 38 Curtis found it impracticable to feed mules on 
cottonseed meal and ear corn. Altho fairly satisfactory, a mixture of 1 
part cottonseed meal with 6 parts shelled corn was less relished than 1 
part of meal with 3 of corn-and-cob meal, the remaining corn being fed 
on the cob. The meal may also be mixed with whole or crushed oats, dried 
brewers ' grains, or cut hay. It is claimed by some that crushed or ground 
unhusked corn gives excellent results as a basal feed when using cotton- 

33 Kan. Bui. 186. "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter.. III. 1909, p. 25. 

30 Iowa Bui. 109. M N. C. Buls. 215, 216. 



308 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

seed meal. Burkett 39 suggests sprinkling the meal on silage, or on hay 
or stover moistened previous to feeding. Louisiana planters attribute 
their success in feeding cottonseed meal largely to the fact that they 
mix it with blackstrap molasses. 

Curtis states that the meal fed daily should rarely exceed 2 lbs. per ani- 
mal, a safe rule being 0.2 lb. for every 100 lbs. live weight of animal. 
For work horses the cottonseed meal fed should not exceed 15 or, better, 
10 per ct. of the total ration by weight. Horses should be started on 
cottonseed meal gradually, not over one-fourth lb. being given at each 
feed for the first 2 or 3 weeks. When the maximum amount of meal is 
fed it should be distributed equally in the 3 daily feeds. Against the 
claim that work stock fed on cottonseed meal suffer from short wind and 
weak eyes, Curtis reports that trials covering 3 years showed no such 
harmful effects. Judge Henry C. Hammond of Augusta, Georgia, 40 re- 
ports that for 5 years he fed 10 pleasure and work horses each 1 lb. of 
cottonseed meal daily without a single sick animal or one not ready for 
work, due, he holds, to the fact that the meal was always mixed with some 
light concentrate. 

In a 154-day test at the Iowa Station 41 with 3 work teams fed timothy 
hay, 6 per ct. of cottonseed meal proved as effective as 8 per ct. of linseed 
meal in balancing a grain mixture of 15 per ct. oats and the remainder 
corn. Burkett 42 found a ration of cottonseed meal, corn, and corn stover 
satisfactory in winter for horses and mules doing moderate work. Like 
linseed meal, cottonseed meal is useful in conditioning horses and im- 
proving their coats. 43 (246-50) 

491. Miscellaneous nitrogenous concentrates. — Oil cakes and meals from 
sunflower seed, rape seed, peanut, cocoanut, sesame, etc., are fed to horses 
in different parts of Europe in quantities of 2.2 to 4.4 lbs. per horse daily 
with good results. 44 The French war department 45 found cocoanut meal 
equal to the same weight of oats for army horses. (258-60) 

Gluten meal was found by Kennedy, Robbins, and Kildee at the Iowa 
Station 46 to be rather unpalatable when 1 part was fed with 8 of corn 
meal, altho this mixture fed with timothy hay maintained the weight of 
farm horses as well as a mixture of 1 part linseed meal and 15 of 
corn. (211) 

Dried distillers' grains fed by Lindsey 47 at the Massachusetts Station 
as one-fourth of the concentrate allowance to horses gave excellent results. 
Fed by Plumb 48 at the Indiana Station as one-third of the grain allow- 
ance, these proved fairly satisfactory with some horses, but unpalatable to 
others. (282) 

so N. C Bui. 189. 

40 Pamphlet "Cottonseed Meal for Horses and Mules"; private correspondence. 

"Iowa Bui. 109. 

42 N. C. Bui. 189. 

43 Curtis, N. C Bui. 215, 1911; Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 110. 
""Kellner, Ernahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 456. 

45 Milch Zeit, 1883, p. 517. 4B Iowa Bui. 109. 47 Mass. Bui. 99. 4S Ind. Bui. 97. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 309 

Tankage and Mood meal were found by Burkett at the North Carolina 
Station 40 to be useful for run-down, thin horses, 1 to 2 lbs. of tankage or 
1 lb. of blood meal being employed. Pott™ states that blood meal has 
given excellent results in horse feeding. La Querriere 51 states that boiled 
meat meal mixed with hay and straw is excellent for horses. The Arabs 
feed their horses camel's flesh mixed with other feed in the form of cakes. 
(270) 

III. Carbonaceous Roughages 

492. Excess of roughage injurious. — We have seen previously that 
borses can not live on concentrates alone, even on oats with their straw- 
like hulls. (107) An excess of roughage, on the other hand, is also in- 
jurious. When we recall that the stomach of the horse has a capacity 
of only 19 quarts (35), while the 4 stomachs of a cow may hold 267 
quarts, it is evident that the horse at hard work cannot well derive most 
of its nourishment from roughage. Thru carelessness or mistaken kind- 
ness the mangers are often kept filled with hay, especially in the case of 
farm horses. The horse then gorges himself on this provender, with a 
staring coat, labored breathing, and quick tiring as the least serious, tho 
probably the most noticeable results. For this animal there should 
always be a definite, limited daily allowance of hay, given mostly at night 
when there is ample time for its mastication and digestion. Many di- 
gestive disturbances are caused by forcing the horse to work with his stom- 
ach distended by coarse feed. More horses are injured by feeding too 
much than too little hay. On feeding 1 horse in each of 2 teams doing 
ordinary farm work all the timothy hay they would eat, in addition to 
oats, while the others were given about two-thirds as much hay, Clark 52 
at the Montana Station found that those fed the smaller amount had more 
life and sweat less. In another trial a horse receiving 7.5 lbs. of grain 
daily was allowed all the early cut timothy hay it wished, and ate so 
much that it failed to gain in weight, had a staring coat, and lacked life 
and vigor. 

493. Timothy hay. — Altho not rich in digestible nutrients, timothy hay 
is the standard roughage for the horse thruout the northeastern United 
States. The freedom from dust of good timothy hay commends it as a 
horse feed, and it is an excellent roughage for animals whose sustenance 
comes mostly from concentrates. While timothy cut too green makes 
"washy" hay, it should not be allowed to stand until it becomes woody 
and indigestible. A reasonable allowance of timothy hay is 1 lb. daily per 
100 lbs. of animal. So far as possible the other roughages here considered 
will be compared with timothy hay as the standard. (312) 

494. Cereal hay. — On the Pacific coast, especially in California, the 
cereal hays — barley, wild oat, wheat, etc. — are extensively employed as 
roughages for horses. The excellence of the speed horse and the endur- 
ance of the work horse of the coast region attest the merits of these feeds. 

49 N. C. Bui. 189. 51 Milchzeitung, 1881, p. 753. 

^Handb. Eraahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 515. 52 Mont. Bui. 95, 1913. 



310 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In some cases where racing horses have been sent to the East cereal hay 
was forwarded with them for their nourishment. Thruout the Rocky 
Mountain region oat hay is of considerable importance. Cereal hay may 
often be advantageously employed for horse feeding in the eastern United 
States. At the North Carolina Station 53 Burkett found that hay from 
oats cut in the milk stage compared favorably with clover and cowpea ha % y 
for horses. (318) 

495. Prairie hay. — Thruout the western states prairie hay from the 
wild grasses forms an excellent roughage for the horse. From trials 
lasting 110 to 140 days with 453 artillery horses, McCampbell 54 of the 
Kansas Station concludes that timothy hay is slightly more valuable than 
prairie hay, since the horses fed timothy maintained their weight rather 
better than those fed prairie hay. However, he holds that when timothy 
hay costs 10 per ct. more than good prairie hay, the latter is more eco- 
nomical. (325) 

496. Brome hay. — This hay, common to the northern plains region, 
proved fully equal to timothy in a trial at the North Dakota Station in 
which Shepperd 55 fed 1 horse in each of 2 work teams brome hay and oats, 
while their team mates received timothy and oats, as the following shows : 

Brome vs. timothy hay for horses 

. Daily gain in weight Daily work 

Average ration * Lba H * urg 

Lot I, Brome hay, 22 .2 lbs. Oats, 14 .5 lbs .77 5.2 

Lot II, Timothy hay, 21 .9 lbs. Oats, 14 .5 lbs .42 5.2 

The horses getting brome hay gained slightly more in weight than those 
fed timothy. (316) 

497. Southern hays. — To determine the value of Johnson grass, Ber- 
muda, and lespedeza hay compared with timothy or alfalfa hay Lloyd of 
the Mississippi Station 56 conducted trials with 5 lots of 4 to 5 growing 2- 
to 3-yr.-old mules for 89 days, the animals being fed under shelter and 
allowed the freedom of a yard. The mules in each lot were given a grain 
allowance of 2 lbs. oats, 4 lbs. corn-and-cob meal, and 0.5 lb. cottonseed 
meal, with hay as shown in the table : 

Comparison of southern hays 

Av. daily Feed per 100 lbs. gain Cost per lb. 
Average allowance of hay gain Concentrates Hay gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cents* 

Lot I, Johnson grass hay, 11.3 lbs.. . .44 1,558 2,520 36 

Lot II, Bermuda hay, 11 .3 lbs 0.43 1,607 2,601 37 

Lot III, Timothy hay, 11 .3 lbs .44 1,573 2,545 48 

Lot I V, Lespedeza hay, 1 1 . 3 lbs ... . 0.67 1 ,038 1 ,680 27 

LotV, Alfalfa hay, 11.3 lbs 0.86 812 1,313 21 

* Johnson grass and Bermuda hay $11, timothy hay $20, and lespedeza and alfalfa hay $15 per ton. 

This trial shows that hay from Johnson or Bermuda grass is as valu- 
able for horses or mules as timothy hay. (320-1) Lespedeza and alfalfa 

B3 N. C. Bui. 189. 05 N. D. Bui. 45. 

w Kan. Bui. 186. M Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOK THE HORSE 311 

hay are of still higher value for growing animals on account of their rich- 
ness in protein and ash. With lespedeza and alfalfa hay at $15 per ton 
and Johnson grass and Bermuda hay at $11, the legume hays produced 
gains at a considerably lower cost. 

498. Millet hay. — Hay from Hungarian grass, Japanese millet, etc., 
may often be advantageously fed to horses, provided the allowance is 
limited. Hinebauch of the North Dakota Station" found that, fed ex- 
clusively to horses for long periods, millet hay caused increased action of 
the kidneys, lameness and swelling of the joints, infusion of the blood into 
the joints and finally destruction of the texture of the bones, which were 
rendered soft and less tenacious so that movements of the animal would 
sometimes cause the ligaments and muscles to be torn from them. Since 
the millets are among the oldest and most widely grown of all agricultural 
plants, it is but fair to hold that good millet hay, fed in moderation, or 
with other roughage and always with some concentrate, should prove 
satisfactory and produce no unfavorable effects. (317) 

499. Sorghum hay. — Forage from the sweet sorghums, when properly 
cured, is superior to corn forage for horses. It usually deteriorates rapid- 
ly in value after midwinter unless well cured and kept in a dry place. 
Moldy, decaying sorghum forage is especially dangerous to horses. Kafir, 
tho not quite so palatable as the sweet sorghums, is extensively and profit- 
ably used for horse feeding over a large region in the southwestern 
states. The Oklahoma Station 58 found kafir stover equal to corn stover in 
feeding value. (308) 

500. Corn fodder and corn stover. — Thickly grown fodder corn and corn 
stover, when properly cured and cared for, are among the best of rough- 
ages for the horse. Corn leaves are usually quite free from dust, palat- 
able, and full of nutriment. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses, and 
growing colts good corn forage is usually a most economical and helpful 
substitute for timothy ha}'. When the yield of fodder corn and its feeding 
value are compared with that of the timothy hay from a like area, the use- 
fulness and economy of this much neglected forage is apparent. The 
cured corn plant should be much more generally used in America for 
horse feeding than it now is. (294-7) 

That the entire roughage fed farm horses during the winter when at 
light work may advantageously consist of corn stover is shown in a trial 
by Burkett at the New Hampshire Station 59 with 2 lots each of two 1225- 
lb. farm horses fed the following rations for 73 days from January to 
April. 

Corn stover vs. timothy hay for horses 

Average Av. work 
Average ration gain per day 

Lbs. Hours 

Lot I, Corn stover, 12 lbs. Corn, 7 lbs. Oats or bran, 7 lbs.. . 3 3.4 
Lot II, Timothy hay, 12 lbs. Corn, 7 lbs. Oats or bran, 7 lbs. . . 18 3.3 

57 N. D. Bui. 26. M Okla. Rpt. 1899. M N. H. Bui. 82. 



:i • 



i ri'i> ; \\i» i'i;i:i)i\(j 



Since the stovoi' I'od hocsos did n littlo move worl< limn the others und 
gfliucd ''Hi :.h"liil\ in. ;. cut ((Mil stovoi 1 nui.'i l)e rogui'dod us otpml to lini 

olh\ li.n in I Inn I ruil. Willi liuiollis lm\ ii:.ii:iI!\ selling lor'.' [,Q I tunes 
UN niiuli UN Nl-OVl 'i'. I llO ,",ie.il 01 01 Will \ <>l I lie l.iller i:: ;i p| >;i ivnl 

501i Slr.'iw :'h.i\\ ■ mil .1 in:, miieli 111)01' fllld its IllflStiofltlon find dlgOS 

1 1. mi \>\ | ho horse coll for ti largo amount of onorg^ . which uppottrs us hoiit, 

llierel>\ Wfll'llliug Hie l>od\ Ilio not | >|'Ol I n, i ng USci'llI WOVlt (78 BO) Rfl 

ctuisc ol! i in;.. 1 1" i '•<•■• doing lit t ! » * or no work in winter and h living ample 
i niic for chewing und digesting their food m:i\ often bo profitably win 

lered l:ii".'l\ i<\\ hlMglll slr.iw AI.iiin I II ll'SOS :i re led » « >;| I \ h;i\ in winter 
when stl'flW, 0OIM1 foddoi', 01' coin stOVOT would pi'OVO Slltisl'flOtOl^ fllld 
inih li elie.i[<er In I'luropo no;iil\ ;dl I'fltioUS I'OT llOl'HOS CO 11 tail) Stl'flW, 

those hardest worked receiving the least in t'ooding value the straws 

r.iiil, in |,ho lollow in,-"; order o;il. l>;iile\. wlie:il. i\e, the l.i:;| ii.'iuiod li.n 

in" i>iii slight viilue l'':iini horses should nol he wintered in the burn 
viird on Mtniw und corn stover only, without an,> groin, for tlu\> will nol 
ho in condition to endure I. lie severe labor upon the sudden opening up o\' 
work in the spring (888 0) 

:»(»" Oorii stover mitt straw loduoo food lulls. The sfl.\ ing which may ho 
inndo thru the use *>\' such ohonp I'ougluigos as corn stover nud straw in 
phico of fl largo nil i*l o( (ho timothy ha,\ . und of substitutes for outs is well 

iIIiinI r.Mlod in fl Iri.d l>\ Norton 111 lljO M1clligfl.ll .d;ilion"" in wlueli '. , lots, 

ouch of (5 r.irni horses doing moderate work, were fed the following 
rations for 10 weeks in winter IjoI i was fed exclusively on high-priced 
imioili.\ li:i\ and outs (with ;i light \\w\ ol" hrun once .-i week), while in 
ihr ration led hoi 1 1 shredded covn stover ond oat si caw were substituted 
poi" .i hirgo purl ^\ Ihe liuioth,\ hfl t > . und roots, oov corn, und :i mixture of 
ooiuil purls of brim, dried hoot pulp, ii.nd linseed oil cuke for most of 

I ho o:i!n. 



/ ,'s.s-, •..,,• ..". , .... ..' Ufn o/ own sloth >■ (M/</ atmw 



I , , ,1m.' lull 
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17 V 



Duving the Iviul the horses in Ijo1 I, fed the rut ion of tiiiiothj huj nnd 
outs, costing 2!), I) cents n dny, cflch lost un »ver»go of M lbs in weight 



M loll Uol ' v 't 



i'i:i:i>;; kok THE MORBE 313 

On ii"' other hand those getting the cheaper but well bo-lanced ration 
(rained 1 I Ibi. each at ;• Peed cosl oil 17.7 centi per day ;■ laving <>r 10 
per ot. 

50.'i. CiiiIioiiiiccoii:; ioii|;lni[;c<| k(|iiiic ::iip|)l»nirii I,. II mIioiiM |,c r<m<m 

bored that hay t'rotn the grasses, corn fodder, corn stover, sorghum and 
kaflr Porages, and straw are all low In protoixj Therefore, when these 
roughagos are used exclusi el . protein rich concentrates should l><' ded 
i<> balance the r;iii<>n This Pact, which has already been brought out 
(476), is also shown in other trials by MeCampbell" 1 in which horses Ped 
corn jiimI prairii hay only <m<i not thrive as well as others Ped corn and 
oats, or corn, bran, and linseed meal with the prairie hay. 



IV. hi.1.1 ,11. Hay 

504. i,c['iimic ii:iy. 1 * 1 < n m r 1 v cured hay Prom the iegumes is usually 
more palatable to horses than other roughage j hence ii they are allowed to 
1 .ii .ii will, there is even greater danger of their consuming an e cess than 
uiiii hay Prom Hm-khihwh, Numerous experiments show that to maintain 
iIm- weight of horses ii is not necessary to Peed as great a weight of the 
Legume hays, which are more like concentrates in their nature These 
protein rich hays are admirably suited i" balance com or other concen 
trates low in protein As Hi«' legumes are more difficult to cure than the 
grasses, there is more danger of hay Prom them being loaded with dust or 
otherwise damaged in quality. The prejudice againsl legume hay Por 
horse Peeding, ■•" frequently encountered, is largely due to the Pact that 
these rich roughages have been given In excess or that hay of poor quality 
Iuik been used. 

h<)'.). (iiovr liny. I '.''MiiHe clover hay isoften carelessly made and load 
ed with dust, thereby tending to produce heaves, ii is disliked by many 
horsemen, particularly Por Peeding roadsters This objection, however, 
hIiouM not apply to clean, properly cured clover hay. Roberts" 2 suggests 
thai Por 'in viii," horses clover hay be mi ed wil ii bright straw and the mass 
dampened; Hum forms ;• satisfactory roughage Por all but Past drivers. 
Gay advises ili«' use of mixed clover and timothy hay instead of clover 
alone.' 8 For horses al ordinary Parm work, clover is of ten used as the sole 
roughage Terry, 04 the conservative, reliable Parmer-writer, kept •> me 
dium .■.'■ii'iii Parm vori team Por ■> number '»r years in prime condition 
solely "ii well made clover hay To compare the yalue of clover and tim 
othy hay, Obrecht" 8 fed I horse in <;><-ii of ( > teams of 1 100 lb Parm 
horses ;>' the Illinois Station clover hay with the grain allowance shown 
on the nexl \>-i'."-, while its team mate was Ped timothy hay with the same 
grain allowance. After L96 days tjie rations were reversed and the trial 
conl inued P01 50 1 1 ! 1 

" k;.m Bui L86 H '>'" Farming, p 137. 

■ 'i 1,. Hoi 1 . p 282. ' hi Bui 160 

'•' Produ< 1 iv ii-. 1 •( 1 in ibandi /. 1914, p 240 



314 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Clover vs. timothy hay for horses 

Gain in Daily 
Average ration weight work 

Lbs. Hours 

Clover-fed horses 

Corn, 6 .9 lbs. Oats, 7 .3 lbs. 

Oil meal, 0.46 lb. Bran, 0.61 lb. 

Clover hay, 15 .6 lbs 15 .5 7 .3 

Timothy-fed horses 

Corn, 6 .8 lbs. Oats, 7 .2 lbs. 

Oil meal, 0.53 lb. Bran, 0.60 1b. 

Timothy hay, 15 .6 lbs 3.0 7.3 

Altho most of the teamsters were prejudiced in favor of timothy hay 
at the beginning, they later reported that they could observe no difference 
in the spirit of the horses or their ability to endure hot weather. The 
horses fed clover hay had glossier coats and their bowels were looser, but 
not objectionably so for doing hard work. (347) 

Wilcox and Smith 06 state that second-crop clover hay is frequently 
accused of causing slobbering. The reason is unknown, but some horse- 
men state that the addition of bran or apples to the ration tends to 
prevent the trouble. 

506. Alfalfa hay. — Because it is cheap and abundant this legume hay 
furnishes the sole roughage for horses upon tens of thousands of farms 
and ranches in the West. With the increasing culture of alfalfa in other 
sections of the country more and more alfalfa hay is likewise being fed to 
horses in these districts. It is therefore important to learn the conditions 
essential to its successful use. When the horse is allowed to gorge on al- 
falfa hay, in addition to having his stomach over-distended with the bulky 
feed he receives an excess of highly nitrogenous material. This must be 
excreted thru the kidneys, overworking them, and even, according to Mc- 
Campbell, 67 leading to a chronic inflammatory condition if excessive feed- 
ing is long continued. The alfalfa allowance for horses should therefore 
be limited, McCampbell advising that those at work receive not more than 
1.2 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight. The hay should be free from dust, mold, 
and smut, and should not be cut until quite mature, for hay from early- 
cut alfalfa, as commonly advised for cattle, is too "washy" for horses. 

In view of the prejudice among liverymen and owners of driving horses 
against alfalfa, a 140-day trial was conducted by McCampbell 68 with ar- 
tillery horses, doing more hard work than the average farm team thruout 
the year, a considerable portion at a trot and no small amount at a gallop. 
The horses in Lot I were fed alfalfa hay with 2 lbs. oats and 8 lbs. corn, 
while those in Lots II and III received prairie or timothy hay. with half 
as much corn and 4 times as much oats. 

00 Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, 1908, p. 323. 
67 Kan. Bui. 186. 
08 Kan. Bui. 186. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 



315 



Alfalfa vs. prairie and timothy hay for horses 

Av. gain or Daily cost of feed 

Initial loss per Nutritive per 1,000 lbs. 

Average ration weight head ratio live wt.* 

Lbs. Lbs. Cents. 

Lot I, 17 horses 
Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 8 lbs. 

Oats, 2 lbs 1,163 25 .6 1:5.8 12 .95 

Lot II, 74 horses 
Prairie hay, 14 lbs. 
Corn, 4 lbs. 

Oats, 8 lbs 1,185 —12 .9 1 : 8.9 18 86 

Lot III, 76 horses 
Timothy hay, 14 lbs. 
Corn, 4 lbs. 
Oats, 8 lbs 1,159 — 7.7 1:9.0 19.21 

♦Alfalfa hay, $10; prairie and timothy hay, $12.50 per ton. Corn $0.55 and 
oats $0,385 per bu. 



The alfalfa-fed horses in Lot I, getting 16 per et. less grain and 28 per 
ct. less hay than the others, showed no shortness of wind, softness, lack of 
endurance, or excessive urination. They gained over 25 lbs. each during 
the trial, while those fed timothy or prairie hay lost in weight. 

Obrecht found at the Illinois Station 69 that farm horses fed alfalfa hay 
when doing hard work maintained their weight on 20 to 22 per ct. less 
grain than others fed timothy hay. Similar favorable results with alfalfa 
hay are reported by Merrill 70 (Utah Station), Faville 71 (Wyoming Sta- 
tion), and Gramlich 72 (Nebraska Station). (339) 

At the Utah Station alfalfa formed the sole roughage for all the work 
and driving horses for 12 years, except during brief periods when they 
were on other experimental fodders. During all that time not a horse was 
lost either directly or indirectly from alfalfa feeding. It was found that 
horses fed timothy hay voided an average of 16 lbs. each of urine daily, 
and those on alfalfa 27 lbs., early-cut alfalfa hay causing a greater ex- 
cretion than late-cut. This increased excretion of urine did not seem to 
injure the horses in any way. 

In the West alfalfa hay, often with straw in unlimited amount, is a 
common maintenance ration for idle horses. Merrill found 20 lbs. of 
alfalfa hay sufficient to maintain a 1400-lb. horse when not working, while 
Emery 73 at the Wyoming Station found that 13.8 lbs. of alfalfa hay and 
2.25 lbs. of oat straw would maintain a 1000-lb. idle horse. 

507. Alfalfa meal. — To compare the value of alfalfa meal and bran Mc- 
Campbell 74 fed 2 lots of 1170-lb. artillery horses as shown in the table 
for 110 days. The data for a third lot of similar horses fed for 140 days 
on uncut alfalfa hay are included for comparison. 



••111. Bui. 150. 
70 Utah Bui. 77. 
71 Wyo. Bui. 98. 



72 Nebr. Exten. Bui. 
73 Wyo. Rpt. 12. 
74 Kan. Bui. 186. 



28. 



316 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Alfalfa meal compared with ivhcat bran and alfalfa hay 

Daily cost of feed 
Gain or loss per 1,000 lbs. 
Average ration in weight live wt.* 

Lbs. Cents 

Alfalfa meal, 152 horses 
Oats, 4 lbs. 
Corn, 6 lbs. 
Alfalfa meal, 4 lbs. 

Prairie or timothy hay, 14 lbs — 2.6 17 .96 

Wheat bran, 151 horses 
Oats, 4 lbs. 
Corn, 6 lbs. 
Bran, 4 lbs. 

Prairie or timothy hay, 14 lbs — 0.3 18 .78 

Alfalfa hay, 17 horses 
Oats, 2 lbs. 
Corn, 8 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs +25 .6 12 .95 

*Alfalfa meal, $14; alfalfa hay, $10; timothy or prairie hay, $12.50, and bran 
$20 per ton. Corn $0.55 and oats $0,385 per bu. 

For maintaining the weight of the horses a pound of alfalfa meal was 
practically equal to a pound of wheat bran, when fed in a ration contain- 
ing 10 lbs. of corn and oats. McCampbell states, however, that alfalfa 
meal is dusty and disagreeable to handle. If fed dry this dust irritates 
the air passages of the horse and may cause serious trouble. This objec- 
tion may be overcome by wetting the meal, which should be done immedi- 
ately before feeding to avoid souring or molding, but this involves con- 
siderable time and inconvenience, especially in winter. 

When uncut alfalfa hay constituted the sole roughage the horses main- 
tained their weights better, altho receiving less grain and hay, and the 
ration was less expensive. McCampbell states that when good quality hay 
is properly fed, little, if any, is wasted, and concludes that alfalfa meal is 
neither desirable nor economical when good alfalfa hay is obtainable. 

508. Cowpea hay. — In a feeding trial at the North Carolina Station 
Burkett 75 found that cowpea hay combined with corn-and-cob meal made 
a satisfactory work ration, and that cowpea hay with a reasonable quan- 
tity of corn could be substituted for bran and oats. (357) 



V. Pasture and Other Succulent Feed 

For horses receiving but little exercise succulent feeds are especially 
beneficial on account of their "cooling" and laxative effect. A limited 
amount of succulent feed is often employed thruout the year in Europe 
for work horses and even for drivers. 

509. Pasture. — Horses at pasture not only obtain succulent feed, but 
must exercise to secure it. Good pasture will maintain idle horses satis- 
factorily ; for those at hard work pasture without grain is insufficient. Not 
only do the various tame and wild grasses furnish pasture for horses, but 
"N. C. Bui. 189. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 317 

as these animals are not subject to bloat, they may graze the legumes as 
well. City horses are often turned on pasture so that their feet may re- 
cover from the ill effects of hard pavements. 

510. Corn silage. — Until the past few years little corn silage has been 
fed to horses and mules, but it is now being fed with success on a large 
number of farms. It is preferable not to feed it as the sole roughage, 
rather using it as a partial substitute for hay. Nourse of the Virginia 
Station 70 fed 6 mules and 2 horses during winter on hay, corn, and from 
50 to 200 lbs. of corn silage per head weekly. The conclusion was that 
corn silage is a good roughage for horses when combined with hay, corn 
stover, and grain. Nourse holds that most of the troubles caused by feed- 
ing silage to horses come from not gradually accustoming the animals to 
this feed, from feeding too heavily, and from not realizing that silage 
often contains much corn. In trials at the North Carolina Station 77 Bur- 
kett found that 2 lbs. of silage replaced 1 lb. of clover or oat hay when fed 
in properly balanced rations to horses or mules. As shown in the follow- 
ing chapter (533), corn silage may be satisfactorily employed in fleshing 
horses for market. Trowbridge of the Missouri Station 78 states that ac- 
cording to successful horsemen, good legume hay and corn silage is a 
satisfactory ration for wintering mature in-foal mares. He points 
out that horses at hard work cannot be expected to consume heavy allow- 
ances of silage, on account of its bulky nature. Pearson 79 of the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania, investigating an outbreak where 5 horses suddenly 
died, found that moldy silage had been fed. On feeding half a bushel of 
the moldy silage paralysis of the throat occurred, followed by death. 
When water which had percolated thru this moldy silage was given to a 
horse it likewise proved fatal. Wing so reports the death of 8 horses from 
eating waste silage thrown into yards from racks where lambs were being 
fed. In view of such remotely possible troubles, silage should be fed to 
horses only where intelligent supervision insures the use of good material 
given in moderation to animals gradually accustomed thereto. (411) 

511. Roots; tubers; fruits. — The only importance of roots for horse 
feeding in most sections of this country is as an aid to digestion, for the 
cereals generally furnish nutriment at lower cost. (365) Carrots, es- 
pecially relished by horses, are great favorites with horsemen when cost 
of keep is not considered. They are most helpful when it is necessary to 
carry horses along in high condition, as in stallion importing establish- 
ments. (372) Parsnips rank next in value. (373) In his extensive 
studies of roots for the horse Boussingault found 81 that it required 400 
lbs. of rutabagas (swedes) or somewhat over 350 lbs. of carrots to re- 
place 100 lbs. of good meadow hay. (370) 

Boussingault found that artichokes were eaten greedily and with good 
results by horses, about 275 lbs. of the tubers replacing 100 lbs. of hay. 

76 Va. Bui. 80. 79 Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 886. 

77 N. C. Bui. 189. 80 Breeder's Gaz., 45, 1904, p. 568. 

78 Mo. Cir. 72. 81 Rural Economy, p. 400. 



318 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

(375) Potatoes, according to Pott, S2 may be fed raw or cooked in amounts 
as high as 17.5 lbs. per day along with suitable dry feed. Larger quanti- 
ties sometimes cause digestive disturbances. Boussingault states that 280 
lbs. of cooked potatoes mixed with cut straw replaced 100 lbs of hay. (374) 
As horses are usually fond of fresh fruit it may sometimes be profitably 
fed in moderate allowance when there is no market for it. Dried fruits, 
slightly injured and thereby unsalable, have been successfully fed to 
horses. (384) 

512. Wet beet pulp. — Wet beet pulp is unsuited for work horses, ac- 
cording to Pott, 83 altho it may be fed to idle horses at the rate of 22 to 44 
lbs. per head daily. Larger quantities are said to be injurious. Clark 84 of 
the Utah Station reports that colts were allowed constant access to pulp 
at a sugar beet factory for several years without trouble arising. He fed 
as much as 20 lbs. of fermented pulp daily to work horses without injury, 
altho in later trials horses took to the pulp reluctantly and their appetite 
gradually decreased. 

VI. Cost of Keep 

513. Feed consumed yearly. — Only a limited amount of data are avail- 
able relating to the total annual feed consumption of horses. During 2 
years Burkett at the New Hampshire Station 85 recorded all feed eaten, 
water drank, and hours of work performed by 5 farm horses, averaging 
1,230 lbs. They worked on the average 2,146 hours a year, or about 7 
hours for each working day — a large aggregate for farm horses. The fol- 
lowing table shows the amount and cost of the feed consumed annually 
per horse : 

Feed consumed annually by the horse 

Yearly consumption Cost of 
per horse feed 

Lbs. Dollars 

Concentrates 

Oats, 36 cents per bu 1,004 11 .30 

Corn, $16 per ton 2,557 20 .46 

Wheat bran, $17 per ton 1,071 9 .10 

Gluten feed, $18 per ton 153 1.38 

Linseed meal, $28 per ton 144 2 .02 

Cottonseed meal, $26 per ton 23 .29 

Total concentrates 4,952 44 .55 

Roughages 

Timothy hay, $16 per ton 3,654 29 .23 

Corn stover, $5 per ton 219 .55 

Total roughages 3,873 29.78 

Total feed 8,825 74 .33 

Water drank 27,992 

Each horse consumed 4,952 lbs. of concentrates and 3,873 lbs. of rough- 
age per year, or about 13.6 lbs. of concentrates and 10.6 lbs. of roughage 
per day. The water drank averaged nearly 80 lbs. per head daily. With 

82 Handb. Erna.hr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 368. 84 Utah Bui. 101. 

83 Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 299. S5 N. H. Bui. 82. 



FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 319 

feeds at the prices given, the keep of each horse cost $74.33 per year, or 
3.4 cents for each hour of work. 

Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 80 reports that each of the 
19 station horses consumed during a year an average of 6,225 lbs. of meal 
or grain and 5,500 lbs. of hay. The average cost of feed per horse was 
$99.80 per year, or 27.3 cents per day. It may therefore be held that a 
1200 to 1400-lb. work horse will consume from 2.5 to 3 tons of concen- 
trates — grain, meal, etc. — and from 2 to 3 tons of roughage — hay, straw, 
etc. — annually. 

'"Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1902. 



CHAPTER XX 

FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 

With the brief bill of fare usually adopted for the horse the adminis- 
tration of feed would seem a simple matter. It is, however, far from such. 
Given two grooms with similar conditions as to horses to be cared for, 
work performed, and feed bins to draw from, widely different results are 
shown. In one case the team emerges from the stable with an action and 
style which at once announces it in the best of condition. In the other 
the lagging step, dull eye, and rough coat tell better than words the lack 
of judgment in feeding and management. The unsatisfactory condition 
has not necessarily been brought about by any saving at the feed bin 
and hay mow. Indeed, the poorer groom usually makes the more fre- 
quent requests for supplies. The indescribable qualities which, rightly 
commingled, mark the good feeder, cannot be acquired from lectures or 
books, but must, in a large measure, be born in the horseman. Study and 
observation will add to the ability of the alert feeder, but all that may be 
written will not make an adept of one who does not take to the work 
naturally. 

No one can study the practices of successful horsemen without being 
strongly impressed with the fact that there are several ways of reaching 
the desired end of high finish and fine action with the horse. The skill of 
the "artist" horse feeder enters, along with the food he supplies, into 
the very life of the creature he manages. If the reader finds the counsel 
here given on feed and management not entirely to his satisfaction, let 
him remember that we have chosen a rational and generally applicable 
course, conceding that good results may also be obtained by following 
other systems. 

I. The Brood Mare, Foal, and Growing Horse 

514. Feed and care of brood mare. — It has been estimated that only 60 
per ct. of the mares that are bred each year produce living colts. 1 Yet 
the greater part of this enormous loss can be prevented by proper feed, 
care, and management of the brood mare. Idleness, the bane of horse 
breeding, should be avoided. (Ill) Working mares are more certain of 
bringing good foals than idle ones, but judgment must always be used 
in working them. Pulling too hard, backing heavy loads, wading thru 
deep mud, or other over-exertion must be avoided. When not working, 
the mare should be turned out daily for exercise. As foaling time ap- 

1 McCampbell, Kan. Bui. 186. 

320 



FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 321 

proachcs, the work should be lightened, and preferably discontinued 3 
days to a week before foaling, altho in many instances mares have been 
worked up to the day of foaling without harm. 2 When laid off, she should 
not stand in the stall without exercise. A roomy, well-lighted, well- 
ventilated box stall with wide doorway and ample bedding is none too 
good at such times. Mares heavy in foal are apt to be cross and quarrel- 
some, but they should always be handled gently. 

The feeding of the working brood mare is easier than that of the idle 
one. The essentials are a well-balanced ration of good feeds, containing a 
liberal supply of protein, lime, and phosphorus. An abundance of these 
is especially needed by immature pregnant mares and pregnant mares 
which are suckling foals, since in addition to the demand from the de- 
veloping fetus there is the draft for the growing body of the mother in 
the one case, and for milk secretion in the other. (113, 120, 150) All feeds 
should be free from dust, mold, or decay, which might cause abortion. 
Mares used only for breeding purposes do well without grain when on 
nutritious pasture. With insufficient pasture and in winter some grain 
should be given. The feed should not be concentrated in character, but 
should have considerable bulk or volume. The bowels should be kept act- 
ive thru a proper combination of such feeds as bran, linseed meal, 
roots, etc. 

515. Gestation period and foaling time. — The average period of gesta- 
tion for the mare is about 11 months, or 340 days, tho it may vary quite 
widely. William Russell Allen of Allen Farm, 3 Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 
from records of 1,071 foals produced by trotting mares during 15 years, 
found the maximum gestation period 373, the minimum 319, and the 
average 340 days. A wider range was observed by Tessier, 4 who reports 
that the shortest gestation period of 582 mares was 287, the longest 419, 
and the average, 330 days. 

Only the quick-maturing draft filly should under any circumstances be 
bred as a 2-year-old; all others when past 3 years. If the desire is to 
improve the strain of horses, one should not attempt to breed even the 
draft filly at 2 years of age, but when market draft horses are wanted it 
may prove economical and will not injure the filly to any noticeable de- 
gree if she is well-grown for her age and is properly fed and cared for. 

Shortly before foaling the grain allowance should be decreased and 
laxative food more freely used, since it is advisable to keep the bowels 
somewhat loose rather than otherwise. When wax forms on the mare's 
teats, or dugs, the foal may be expected in 3 to 4 days. To avoid infection 
which may cause navel and joint disease, the stall should be thoroly dis- 
infected before the foal is born. Alexander 5 advises removing all litter, 
scraping the floor, and scrubbing it and the walls with a good disinfect- 
ant. The ceiling should be cleaned, and freshly made whitewash, to each 
gallon of which has been added one-third pound of chlorid of lime, applied 

- Harper, Management and Breeding of Horses, p. 284. 

3 Catalog, 1905. 4 Farmers' Cyc, Johnson, p. 562. 5 Wis. Cir. 13. 



322 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to both walls and ceiling. The floor should be covered with fresh, clean 
straw, as tree as possible from chaff and dust, and all manure removed 
as soon as dropped. 

As foaling time approaches, the mare should be watched so as to render 
assistance, if necessary, yet she must not know that anyone is on guard, 
for often a mare will not give birth to her foal when persons are present, 
if she can delay it. The mare should be given a half bucket of water be- 
fore foaling, and when on her feet again she will need a drink of water 
or, better, of gruel made from half a pound of fine oatmeal in half a bucket 
of lukewarm water. A light feed of bran is good for the first meal, and 
this may be followed by oats, or by equal parts, by bulk, of corn and bran. 
After foaling the mare should be confined for a few days, her ration being- 
simple and not too abundant. With favorable conditions, after 4 or 5 days 
she may be turned to pasture, and in about 2 weeks, or even before if 
work is urgent and the mare has fully recovered, she may go back to light 
work, for a part of the day at least. 

516. Fall foaling. — Altho the natural and customary foaling time is in 
the spring, where the mare must do a hard season's work or when she 
docs not get in foal from spring service she may be bred to foal in the fall. 

517. The foal. — It is of the highest importance in horse rearing that the 
foal start life in full health and vigor, and to this end it should, im- 
mediately after birth, take a good draft of the colostrum, or first milk, of 
the dam, which possesses regulating properties that tend to relieve the 
alimentary tract of fecal matter collected therein before birth. (115) If 
this result is not accomplished naturally, a gentle purgative of castor oil 
or a rectal injection is necessary. On account of the great danger from 
navel and joint disease the navel cord should receive attention immedi- 
ately after birth, and the stump be carefully disinfected. To prevent 
germ infection of the intestinal tract of the foal, which causes scours, it 
is well to wash the udder of the mare with a. lukewarm 2 per ct. solution 
of coal-tar disinfectant and then rinse it off with warm water before al- 
lowing the foal its first meal. The tail and hind parts of the mare should 
likewise be washed once a day for the first week. 

Some dams, more frequently those with their first foal and those too 
hard- worked, fail to supply the proper amount of nourishment, and the 
young languish. In such cases the mare should be provided with food 
which will stimulate the milk flow. Good pasture grass is, of course, the 
best, but in its absence concentrates should be given in the shape of oats, 
rolled barley, wheat bran, etc., with an equal weight of corn. Sometimes 
the foal suffers from an over-supply of nourishment, or because the milk 
is too rich, and the indigestion resulting may terminate in diarrhea. In 
such cases the dam's ration should be reduced and some of her milk 
drawn, remembering always that the last portion carries the most fat, 
which is usually the disturbing element. 

518. Weight and gains of foals.— Allen 6 found from the records for 
1,071 trotting-bred foals that the weight of the fillies at birth ranged from 

ft Allen Farm Catalog, 1905. 



FEEDING AM) CAltJNG FOR THE HORSE 323 

74 to 144 lbs., averaging 109 lbs., while the males weighed from 66 to 152 
lbs., averaging 111 lbs. The average birth weight was 110 lbs. During 
the first year they gained 534 lbs., or nearly 5 times their birth weight. 
For the second year the average gain was 264 lbs., the third, 118 lbs., and 
the fourth, 76 lbs., bringing the total at the end of 4 full years up to 1,102 
lbs. These colts made more than half their growth during the first year 
of their life. 

Data on the gains of 35 draft colts, from high-grade or pure-bred mares 
averaging 1.700 lbs. ami sired by stallions averaging nearly 2,000 lbs., 
have been compiled by the Breeder's Gazette. 7 The birth weights of the 
foals were not reported, but the weights and gains after the first month 
were as follows: 

W( ights and gains of draft foals from birth to two years 

Period Wt. at end Daily gain Period Wt. at end Daily gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Birth— 1 mo 345 ... 6—7 months. . 890 2 .0 

1—2 months 465 4.0 7— 8 months. . 960 2.3 

2—3 months 570 3.5 8—10 months. . 1,085 2.1 

3— 4 months 675 3.5 10— 12 months. . 1,170 1.4 

4— 5 months 760 2.8 12— 18 months. . 1,445 1.5 

5—6 months 830 2.3 18—24 months. . 1,590 .8 

These colts were well fed with the intention of making them as large as 
their parents. Some were given grain and cow's milk before weaning, 
while others had only hay and good pasture until after weaning. The 
figures show that at 12 months a well-fed draft colt weighs more than half 
as much, and at 24 months about three-fourths as much as at maturity. 
The daily gains were by far the largest before weaning and gradually de- 
creased as the colts matured. If the foal is to reach full development it 
must not be stunted during the first year of its life. 

519. Feeding the foal. — By placing the feed box low, when 3 or 4 weeks 
old the foal will begin nibbling from the mother's supply and will soon 
acquire a taste for grain. The earlier the foals so learn to eat, the more 
independent they become, and the mare will then be able to do more work. 
Crushed oats or oatmeal, with bran, are excellent feeds, as is a mixture of 
4 parts of crushed corn, 3 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal. Colts should be 
given good clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay as soon as they will eat it. 
and all the clean, pure water they want. Watchfulness should always 
detect the first appearance of ailment. Diarrhea brought on by over- 
feeding or exposure must be checked by giving parched flour, rice-meal 
gruel, or boiled milk ; and constipation, the other common evil, may be 
relieved by castor oil and injections of warm water, flaxseed tea, sweet 
oil, etc., administered preferably with a fountain syringe having a small 
hard rubber nozzle. Harm may be done by injecting a large quantity of 
strong soapy warm water with an ordinary "horse" syringe. In all cases 
of derangement the food for both dam and foal should at once be lessened, 
since nothing aids nature more at such times than reducing the work of 
the digestive tract. 

breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 1223. 



i 'i ri'i'h:. \\i> I'l'i'hixc 

^ hen the nmro is worked, the coll should he Kit in a oool, dark atall 
during the day, whore he will he safe and ool he bothered b,^ flies, rather 
than allowed to follow the dam ahoul the field The mare should be 
hroughl to the ham to au< kle the coll in the middle of the forenoon and 
afternoon Phe eolt should not he allowed to drain the odder v\ hen bursl 
in- lull .'i 'hoi milk. ,i'. 1 11. 1 • ti< i and seours are apt to follow Mlow the 
mare to cool otf, and perhap draw some of the milk i'\ hand before turn 
in- hei into the stall with the foal Brood mares al work and nursing 
strong foals should be heavil,\ fed to sustain .1 good milk flow \t the 
m. iu- is worked during the >l.n i1 is well to nun both dam and foal 
onto grass pasture i\1 night, and in addition feed a tiheral allowance oi 
grain ( 150 1 

When dams and foals are running al pasture, a creep should be eon 
strueted whereby the foals can have access to a separate supply of grain 
Build .1 pen in the pasture oear where the horses are inclined to loiter, 
making il ao high thai the mares will uo1 trj to jump it, and with suf 
11, 1, m: apace from the ground to the bottom rail i>» allow the foals to pass 
under I'm in a hand) gate or bars, then an ample feed trough kfter 
the mares and foals have eaten together within the pen .1 few times, the 
foals will visil 1 he place regularly after their dams are shul oul Po in 
duce (li> v dams to loiter about, il is well to keep a targe lump of rock sail 
11, -,ii i'\ and occasionally give a feed of oats at the pen [f flies torture the 
foal, u is bettm to keep the mare and foal in a darkened stall during the 
,i.i\ and turn to pasl are onlj a1 oight 

880 i\i:n,-'-. milk Mare a milk is white or bluish in color with an am 
matic, sweetish, slightly hit-to] taste &s the following table* shows, i1 is 
uuu,- watery than avei ige cow ■■ milk, and while i1 contains more sug 
it is decidedly poorei in casein, albumin, and ash v u;> N 

■ -. ' . I I ■ ' s 

-,,-v ..( . ■. -. . ,(,,-. 

w V-ti ., u\ 

r, . . | ivr ,-,. Wx ,-\. r,i ,-i r. 

VI -,- --Ml', • 00 18 3.05 lis 1,8 1 034 

Oo\> mUk,. 05 '■ ; ; " - I W I 1,0313 

Voce ■ ■ I 1 mtuu,' r. us. in. iu mares sometimes remain in milk 

. |yi -. producing I40to tOOlbs of milk annual!) beyond the require 

ments of their foals \ miir-' reports thai good Russian milking inarms 

when milked 5 times a daj hepractiee <rield 4 to 5 quarts of milk 

kiu- foal m.i\ be taughl to drink cow's milk i\\ pouring 11 upon meal 
riK- yow y eats • ttoned feed, and h % \ tipping the pan 

- .-., teams to drink the milk M the fowa Station w ilson R»d Ourtiss 
1 u,-n-,-. Phem \ ; iin v, ,;,- M, U, pp 80 ' 

■ 1 ,--.-.- :, u-., h\\ irtaoha p <• ■ 

, \ I •.■•-.■ ■ 

w lowa r.ui is 



i''i<;i':i>i,\<; a\i> UARINC1 FOR TUB [lOXiH-N 



.;.-., 



successfully Pod whole milk, and later separator skim mill* bo Imported 
Perchoron, Shire, and Fronoh-Ooaoh weanling (il lies shortly after their 
arrival from abroad and while out of condition in changing from whole 

i" separator sk nilk the amounl was reduced Cor a day or two to pre 

veul sc in- Ten lbs of soparator skim milk was Pound equal to i lb 

« p| groin Grattan 1 ' reports favorably on the me ol skim milk Cor CoalSi 

even when the milk In r or lobberod MaoNeilage 1 " objects to the use ol 

oovi 's milk Por Poals, ola g M no better means of manufacturing wind 

suckers was ever devised, and H Is rare thai yearlings so broughl <>m 
•■"mil Por much as 2-year-olds and 3-year-olds" a timely warning 
againsl I he too Proe use of I his Pood 

581 Railing ths orphan. 1 1 the mare dies or has n<> milk the Coal may, 
with proper care, be raised on cow's milk (885 8) Choose the milk Prom 
n Presh cow, If possible, and preferably Prom one giving milk low "i fat 
To ii tablespoonful of sugar add warm water to dissolve, then :; i<> '■> table 
spoonfuls of lime water, which tends to correct digestive troubles, and 
onough Presh milk to make a pint Feed aboul one Pourth pint every hour 

for the first Pow days, always war ig to blood heal A satisfactory 

thod of Peeding the r<>. ! ii Is to use an ordinary nursing bottle with '• 

large nipple, tho, as Johnsl ' ' suggests, an «>i<i ir.'i|>«»i may be used, over 

the spout of which the thumb of i Id kid glove, pierced with boles by q 

darning needle, has been tied Whatever utensil Is used, >i should be 
i iiomi) cleansed and scalded before each meal Such feeding means much 
bother, bul manj foals have been killed by uegleol <>i these Important <!<• 
tails \-- the Poal grows, the amounl of milk may i"- gradually Increased, 
the period between feedings lengthened, and whole milk substituted 
Aiiiiii Pey days 6 feedingsaday will suffice and later only I \i 3 to I 
weeks of age the use ol sugai maj be stopped bu1 ii Is well to continue the 
lime water in ■> or •• weeks sweel skim milk may be gradually substi 
i ii in i for whole milk, and after 3 months the coll may be given all >i will 
drink 3 times ;i day [f allowed to suok tho attendanl 's fingers the Poal 
w ill soon learn to drink Prom b pail The bowels should move Preely, t m ■ i 
If goours occur at any time Alexander 1 " advises giving 2 to I tablespoon 
Pull of ii mixture of sweet <>ii and pine castor <>ii shaken up In milk, and 
stopping tho footling of milk Por 2 or 3 meals, allowing Instead only 
swoetoned warm water with lime water added ai the earliosl possible 
age the Poal should be Ped solid Pood, such as oa1 meal, crushed oats, corn, 
bran, and o little oil meal and legume haj For exorcise lei the orphan 
run in ^ lot or grass paddock 

588. Weaning. ai Prom I to 8 months of age, depending on oondil s, 

ih. Coal should '"• weaned When the mare Is i>i<'<i soon after Poaling, or 
If Cor hii\ reason the dam and Poal are no1 doing well, ii Is besl i<» wean 
comparatively earlj <>" the other hand, If the mother has ;> good milk 
flow, 'Hi'i her services are no1 needed, the Poal maj well be allowed to 

"Breeder's Qas., 0. L884, i» 70(1 "iii.- Hone Book 

'•Trans High! and kgv] Boo . L800, p LBS ' Wis Oh I : 



! - - ' r 

. . . _ . . . . s> ... 
- . ....... J 

si- 

5: - . . s s 

• - . 

. ; . m^^ : 

> . . ■ - . « . n.- e : 

: 

« ; 

. - - ? 

: . . . ^ 

. ! 
: . . : . . . - . 

. . - 

. - 

$•32 . * ? . . . . . - : 

_ 5 . . ....... 

. - - - 

: . . - . . . . 
. 

- - ■ - ~ 

. * - - ! 

. : . 

. . 5 
... • :■ ' • ' 
. - 

. . . . • - 

■ . . - ~ - 

■ - 
- 

> ■ • 

■ - 



. - ' 



! 



■ 



. . > - . 



FEEDING AND CARING FOR TILE EORSE 327 

seed meal. On account of limited pasture an unusually large allowance 
of grain was necessary during the summer. 

Feed eatoi and gains made by draft foals 

Average ration Total gain Daily gain 

Lba. Lbs. 

First winter, 168 days 
( train mixture, 5 .8 lbs. 

Hay 10 .6-13. 1 lbs.; or corn silage 8 .2 lbs. and hay 

7.4 lbs 244 1.45 

Summer, 196 days 
Grain, 6.7 lbs. 
I lav, 6.0 lbs. 

Pasture 264 1.34 

Second winter, 16S clays 
Grain, 9.2 lbs. 

Hay, 17.1 lbs 219 1.30 

In this trial no effort was made to secure extreme weight, the colts be- 
ing merely kept in good growing condition. It will be noted that the 
gains gradually decreased as the colts approached maturity. The aver- 
age cost of feed was $53.97 per head for the first year after weaning, or 
$92.96 during the entire 18 months. 

524. Substitutes for oats. — To determine the value of a mixture of 14 
parts corn, 5 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal as a substitute for oats, Mc- 
Campbell 1 ' of the Kansas Station fed 2 lots of high-grade draft colts as 
shown below for an entire year, beginning in January of their first year. 
The cost figure includes feed, labor, and veterinary service for a year. 

Substitutes for oats in feeding colts 

Feed per colt during year Total gain Daily gain Cost per eolt 

Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I, S colts 
Oats, 2,820 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 2,625 lbs. 

Corn stover, 528 lbs. 

Straw, 1S3 lbs. 

Pasture during summer 459 1 .27 68 .78 

Lot II, 10 colts 

Grain mixture, 2,82S lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 2,625 lbi. 

Corn stover, 528 lbs. 

Straw, 1S3 lbs. 

Pasture during summer 496 1 .38 62 .22 

The colts in Lot II made larger gains and at a lower cost, showing that 
the grain mixture used was entirely satisfactory as a substitute for oats, 
as well as less expensive. (474) During the summer it was necessary to 
feed more grain than usual on account of scant pasture. 

That colts may make fair gains when fed no grain after the first winter 
is shown in a trial by Synder 18 of the North Platte Station, Nebraska, in 
which 3 lots of foals were fed for 3 years after weaning. The colts were 
fed as shown in the table, all receiving grain during the first winter only, 
when 4 lbs. per head daily was fed. 
17 Information to the authors. 18 Nebr. Bui. 130. 



328 



KUKDS AND h'KMDINd 



h'car'nui culls with but little <iraiii 



Vvoi ubo gain Filial \vl . 

I b« Ll)N, 



Air.ill'.i ii:iy in winter, alfalfa pasture in niiiiiiimt 

All.'ill:i Ii.iv in winlcr, unlive paStlll'O in kiiiiiiimt 

Prairie and sorghum liay in winter, native pasture in 

111111111 i 



CVS 

Oil 



MO 



1,208 
1 ,228 

1.158 



Tho colls fed alfalfa hay in winlcr and grazed on alfalfa pasture in 

summer triad G fcllG lai'gGSt gaillS. Snyder eoneludes thai Willi plenty 01 

native pastu ro available, ii did tiol pay under Lis conditions l<» pasture 
ihe alfalfa in summer. However, ii paid bo Peed alfalfa liay in winter 
rather than prairie and sorghum hay. (506) 

525. Forcing draft fouls. During 2 winters Fuller 10 fed s total of li 
pure bred draft foals al the Wisconsin Station for periods panging from 
110 to 223 days all they would eal of ;i mixture of ground o.-ds 60, corn 
meal 15, bran LO, and cut alfalfa hay 15 per ct. Al the beginning of the 
lirsi trial uncut alfalfa ha.y was offered in addition, bul very little was 
consumed. The foals ate on the average I <'.- r > lbs, ;i day of this mixture and 
made ,";;iins averaging C -M Mis. per day. On this ration fchoy weighed 
from L000 to L200 lbs. al the ago of ;i year, with an estimated cost of 

$51.66 for feed Tor II ntiro year. Such heavy feeding of grain as this 

will usually prove profitable only in tho case of high grade or pure bred 

To; I Is. 

526. Cost of raising horses. The ;iver;i;'e total COSt of raising COltS on 

farms i«> the age of - ; years, according l<> estimates received from over 
lo,ooo farmers in various sections of tho United States by the Bureau of 
Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture, 80 is $104.06. [f we 
deduct the value of Hi<' work done by the average coll before his third 
year the not cosl is $96.54, or 70.9 per ct. of the estimated selling price, 
$136.17. The cosl in different sta,tes varied from $69.50 for New Mexico 
and $71.59 for Wyoming, to $149.98 for Connecticut and $156.60 for 
Rhode [sland. The average cost is distributed as follows: 



Cost of raising colls to 3 years of agt 



Service too 

'rime lost by brood mare 

Breaking to halter 

« !aro and sholter 

( !ost of grain fed 

< !ob1 of nay Fed 

( lost of pasl uro 

Veterinary and miscellaneous, 



First voir Second yoar Third your Total oosl 
Dollars Dollars Dollai 



12 o. r > 

L0.06 

. . >. , 

4.98 
l 98 

l ll 
•J.. r )C> 



. r , 36 
7 I I 
i.l 
5.41 



Dollan 
L2 Of) 

10 00 

6.35 16 69 

9 56 '2\ .68 
8 is 19,23 

6.21 II is 

7.05 

$101 06 



It is shown thai aboul M per ct. <>i* tho total cosl of raising the 3 yc-.w 
old was for feed and 10 per ct. for care and shelter. 
IU *W1b. Bul. 240, "<!;iy. Productive Horse Husbandry, 



PEBDI] [Q ,\:.b CARING FOR 'i HE HORSE 329 

1 1. The ."/) A.LLIO] - 

w?J. Importance of exerciie, in the care of the stallion nothingso vital 
to hii wi-ii being is more generally neglected than propei e ercise (111) 
Often his time i i spent in idleness, in a poorly ventilated boa stall, a vay 
from his kind, [Jnder such conditions it i i no wonder that I)': may con 
tract vices, become unruly or even vicious, and get only a small per cent of 
coifs. The best exercise is honest work, and there is no better advertise 
ment of a itallion than letting him be seen at work on the farm or road 
i. □ during the breeding season a half day's work each day is benefl 
rial. Manifestly, judgment must be used in accustoming "soft" stallions 
t'» continued hard work. When real work in impossible he should \><- 
exercised on the road each day. The draft horse nnder ordinary circum 
stances should travel at least ^ miles a day, while the light horse may jog 
and trot 6 miles or- more. 

528. FwJin^ t.h» : sUllion. TIk- n.l.ion of Uio -billion liiould consist of 
first class, wholesome feeds, supplying ample protein and mineral matter 
for thrift and vigor The choice of feeding stuffs will depend on the 
particular locality, the same principles applying as in the ease of the 
workhorse. A few combinations given bj McCampbell 23 as atisfactory 
in practice may pro ie i igge itive. 

1 . Oats ; t imothy or prairie hay. 

2. Oats, 4; com, ( i; and bran, '■'• parts by weight; timothy or prairie 
hay. 

.'5. Oats, 4: corn, f i; linseed meal, 1 part; timothy or prairie haj 

4. Corn, 7; bran, '■',-, linseed meal, 1 part; timothy or prairie hay 

o. Corn; alfalfa hay L/3 and prairie hay 2/3. 
o specific directions can be given as to the total amount of feed re 
quired, since this depends on the exerci le the animal gets and whether he 
is a "hard" or "easj ;i keeper, A safe rule is to keep the stallion In 
good flesh, but oof. "hog fat," for this will injure his breeding powei . 
.'.I',.' horsemen advi .<• that in the breeding season he be kept gaining just 
a Inf., rather than allowed to run down in flesh. While some recommend 
feeding '■'> times a day, 4 is preferred bj others In either ease no more 
should be ^-'\ than will be promptly cleaned np, 

520, General hints. On the care of the stallion '. 
"Anything that adds tqgthe health, strength, and vigor of the horse will 
increi rirility or sexual power, simply because the sexual organs 

will partake of the general tone of th< and on the contrary, what- 

ever tends to impair the health and vigor of the general system will have 
a deleterious effect npon tl The stall should be kept 

clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. As a horse likes companionship, 
•':ll to have the stallion's stall near those of other horses If" should 
be regularly and thoroly groomed and frequent attention should be given 
his feet. The idea that di trums, or stock foods are necessary to 

•Kan. f iu ) lit "Horn Breeding pp 144 146 



330 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

increase the ability of the horse to get foals is sheer nonsense. The most 
successful grooms utilize only good food, carefully and regularly ad- 
ministered. 

It is important to conserve the energies of the stallion by regulation of 
the services, as many horses are otherwise injured. No definite rule can, 
however, be given, as the number of mares that can be bred will depend 
on many factors. 

III. "Work Horse and Mule-; Fattening and Fitting Draft Horses 

530. The work horse. — Under favorable conditions the regularity in 
work, feeding, and rest brings comfort and long years of usefulness to 
the work horse. The general principles which govern the production of 
work by the horse, the factors influencing his efficiency as a machine for 
work, and the various feeds employed for his maintenance have been dis- 
cussed in detail in the preceding chapters. The ration to be fed will de- 
pend upon the size of the animal and the nature and severity of the 
work, as has been shown before. (450-6) As a rule from 10 to 18 lbs. of 
concentrates should be fed daily, the total allowance of grain and hay 
ranging from 2 to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs. of horse. The ratio of concentrates 
to roughage will be governed by the severity of the work. (457) The 
morning meal should be comparatively light, and mostly grain. From 
half to two-thirds of the concentrates should be fed with a peck of mois- 
tened chaffed hay at this time. The mid-day meal is sometimes omitted, 
especially with horses on the street all day, tho most horsemen hold that 
some grain should be given then. Most of the roughage should be fed at 
night. (492) On idle days the concentrate allowance should always be 
decreased. There is no more common error in the management of horses 
than on this point. Girard 23 found that when hard-worked horses getting 
19 quarts of oats with 14 lbs. of hay and straw without limit were stopped 
from work for 3 days and fed the same ration, paralysis, resulting in 
death, would often occur. By reducing the ration during idle days to 6 
quarts of oats at noon and 6 quarts of bran mash both night and morning, 
with roughage as before, the trouble ceased. 

On coming to the stable at noon, the work horse should have a drink 
of fresh, cool water, care being taken, if he is warm, that he does not 
drink too rapidly or too much. Before going to work he should be water- 
ed again. (463-4) The harness should be removed so he can eat his meal 
in comfort and rest easily. If possible, an hour should be given for the 
mid-day meal. When the horse comes in after the day's labor, after 
giving him a drink, unharness at once, and when the sweat has dried 
brush him well. (468-70) 

Many rations successfully fed to work horses have been given and dis- 
cussed in Chapter XIX, but it will also be suggestive to study the fol- 
lowing rations which have been employed with good results in different 
parts of the country. 

^Langworthy, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 125, 



FEEDING AND CARLXG B^OR THE HORSE 



331 



Rations for various classes of work horses * 

Omnibus horaea 



Paris, France, wt. 12Jfi lbs. 
Corn, 10.8 lbs. 
Oats, 8.1 lbs. 

Hay, 8.7 lbs. 

Straw, 8.2 lbs. 

Fire company horses 

Boston, Mass., wt. 1400 lbs. 
Ground grain, 9 .4 Lbs. 
Hay, 18.0 lbs. 

Chicago, III, wt. 1350 lbs. 
Oats, 4.0 lbs. 
Hay, 15.0 lbs. 

St. Louis, Mo., wt. 1350 lbs. 
Oats, 10.0 lbs. 
Bran, 2.5 lbs. 
Hay, 7.0 lbs. 

New York, N. Y., wt. 1350 lbs. 
Oats, 12 .0 lbs. 
Hay, 9 .0 lbs. 

Express horses 

Richmond, Va., summer, wt. 1400 lbs. 
Corn, 4.7 lbs. 
Oats, 5 .3 lbs. 
Bran, 0.8 1b. 
Corn meal, 4.2 lbs. 
Hay, 15.0 lbs. 

Richmond, Va., winter, wt. llfiO lbs. 
Corn, 4.4 lbs. 
Oats, 7 . 5 lbs. 
Bran, 0.8 1b. 
Corn meal, 0.2 1b. 
Hay, 16 .0 lbs. 

Jersey City, N. J., wt. 1325 lbs. 
Corn, 2.0 lbs. 
Oats, 19 .0 lbs. 
Bran, 1 .5 lbs. 
Hay, 9.5 lbs. 

Boston, Mass., wt. 1325 lbs. 
Corn, 12.0 lbs. 
Oats, 5 .3 lbs. 
Hay, 20 .0 lbs. 

Cab horses 

New York, N. Y., wt. 1200 lbs. 
Oats, 14.0 lbs. 
Hay, 10.0 lbs. 

Washington, D. C, wt. 1200 lbs. 
Oats, 10.0 lbs. 
Corn. 5.0 lbs. 
Hay, 23 .0 lbs. 



Cab horses, cont. 

San Francisco, Cal, wt. 1350 lbs. 
Oats, 8.0 lbs. 
Hay, 16.0 lbs. 

Horses at severe work 

Chicago, III, daily, wt. 1500 lbs. 
Oats, 7.5 lbs. 
Hay, 20.0 lbs. 

Chicago, III, holiday, wt. 1500 lbs. 
Oats, 2.0 lbs. 
Bran, 2 .5 lbs. 
Oil meal. 0.2 1b. 
Hay, 20.0 lbs. 

South Omaha, Nebr., wt. 1500 lbs. 
Oats, 15.0 lbs. 
Hay, 12.0 lbs. 

New York. N. Y '., wt. 1600 lbs. 
Oats, 23 .0 lbs. 
Hay, 12.0 lbs. 

Washington, D. C, summer, wt. 1600 lbs. 
Oats, 19.0 lbs. 
Hay, 13.0 lbs. 

Washington, D. C, winter, wt. 1600 lbs. 
Oats, 12.5 lbs. 
Corn, 6.8 lbs. 

Mixture — bran 2, corn meal 1 .6, cut 
hay 4 parts — i lbs. 
Hay, 10.0 lbs- 
Farm horses, Stations 

New Hampshire, wt. 1235 lbs. 
Bran, 2.0 lbs. 
Corn, 6.0 lbs. 
Gluten meal, 6 .0 lbs. 
Hay, 10.0 lbs. 

Massachusetts, wt. 1100 lbs. 
Oats, 3.3 lbs. 
Crushed corn, 2.7 lbs. 
Provender, 6 .0 lbs. 
Wheat bran, 2 .0 lbs. 
Hay, 18.0 lbs. 

New Jersey, wt. 1150 lbs. 
Corn meal, 6 .3 lbs. 
Dried brewers' grains. 6 .2 lbs. 
Hay, 8 .0 lbs. 

Utah, wt. 1120 lbs. 
Bran and shorts (1:1), 12 .6 lbs. 
Alfalfa hay, 16 .0 lbs. 

Utah, wt. 1230 lbs. 
Oats, 12.0 lbs. 
Timothy hav, 13.0 lbs. 



* Collected by Langworthv and preserved in "A Digest of Recent Experiments 
on Horse Feeding." U. S. Dept. Agr., 1903, Office Expt. Sta., Bui. 125. 



332 FWKDS AND FEEDING 

531. Wintering the farm horse. — It has already been shown that the 
farm horse when idle during the winter may be economically wintered 
wholly, or in part, on roughages. (448) Rather than keep the idle horse 
too closely confined at such times it is preferable to turn him out daily 
into a lot, protected from the wind. (466) At shedding time, feed some 
grain even if the horses are idle. Light grain feeding, together with 
light work, should begin a few weeks before the spring work starts, for 
horses are soft after a winter of idleness. 

532. The mule. — It is often stated that mules require less feed than 
horses to do a given amount of work. Riley- 4 concludes, from long expe- 
rience with thousands of army mules, that there is no foundation for this 
statement. At 3 years of age, when shedding his milk teeth, the mule is 
especially susceptible to digestive disorders. However, he is an excellent 
feeder, as a rule being more sensible in eating and less likely to gorge 
himself with feed than the horse, and hence less subject to colic or foun- 
der. Indeed, mules are often fed at troughs, like cattle, and allowed to 
eat all they desire. The mule is not fastidious in his taste and consumes 
roughages which the horse will refuse. He also endures hot weather 
better, and because of the peculiar shape of the foot and its thick, strong 
wall and sole is less subject than the horse to foot lameness. However, 
the lack of weight and the small size of his foot somewhat unfit the mule 
for heavy draft in the city, as he does not get a good hold on the pave- 
ments. 

Tho the mule will endure more neglect than the horse, good care and 
feed will prove profitable. For feeding the mule the same feeds are 
available as in the ease of the horse, and the same principles apply in 
suiting the feed to the size of the animal and the severity of the work 
performed. 

533. Feeds for fattening horses. — As the markets demand draft 
horses in high flesh, in certain districts their fattening has become an 
important industry. The horses are usually purchased in the fall after 
farm work is over and gradually accustomed to a heavy grain ration, 
getting all they will clean up when on full feed. At this time some of the 
heaviest feeders will consume nearly twice as much as when at hard work, 
or about 2 lbs. of grain for every 100 lbs. live weight. The feeds utilized 
are usually corn, oats, and clover or alfalfa hay. 

With 3 expert horse dealers for counsel, Obrecht 25 fattened 13 eastern 
"chunks" at the Illinois Station to determine the relative value of corn 
and oats and of clover and timothy hay, obtaining the results shown in 
the following table, in the test which lasted 84 days. Lot I was fed a mix- 
ture of corn, wheat bran, and oats and Lot II a mixture of corn, oats, 
bran, and oil meal, both being fed clover hay. Lot III was fed the same 
concentrate mixture as Lot II, but with timothy hay. 

24 Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, 1908, p. 346. 

25 111. Bui. 141. 



FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 



333 



Rations for fleshing horses for market 



Average ration 



Lot I, 5 horses 
Corn, 17.7 lbs. 
Wheat bran, 2.4 lbs. 
Oil meal, 0.4 1b. 

Clover hay, 13.9 lbs. 

Lot II, 4 horses 
Corn, 8.G lbs. 
Oats, 8.G lbs. 
Wheat bran, 2.4 lbs. 
Oil meal, 0.4 lb. 

Clover hay, 13.7 lbs. 

Lot III, 4 horses 
Corn, 8.4 lbs. 
Oats, 8.3 lbs. 
Wheat bran, 2.G lbs. 
Oil meal, 0.4 lb. 

Timothy hay, 14.7 
lbs 



Daily gain 



1,1, .. 



2.3 



3.0 



1.9 



Total gain 



Lbs. 



192 



250 



Feed for 100 lbs. gain 



Concentrates Hay 



Lbs. 



Si) I 



G74 



158 1,040 



Lbs. 



G07 



4G1 



781 



Cost, of 1 
lb. gain - ,; 



Cents 



13.9 



12.4 



20.0 



Value of 1 
lb. gain * 



Cents 



2G.6 



19.5 



22.2 



*Corn $0.05 and oats $0.55 per bu.; bran $20.00, oil meal 
hay $12.00 per ton. 



32.00, clover hay $11.00, and timothy 



Clover hay proved much superior to timothy hay, the horses in Lot 
II, fed clover, making 58 per et. larger gains than those in Lot III, fed 
timothy, and at a lower cost. Even when fed with clover hay and wheat 
bran and oil meal, oats and corn produced larger gains than corn alone. 
In a second trial 3 parts corn and 1 part oats proved more economical 
than half corn and half oats, when fed with clover hay. When much bran 
was fed with clover hay the combination proved too laxative. It will be 
noted that these fattening horses required about the same amount of 
feed as fattening cattle for a given gain in weight. (Chapter XXVII.) 

The value of corn silage and of cottonseed meal for fattening horses is 
shown in the following trial by Cochel 20 at the Pennsylvania Station in 
which 1455-lb. light draft horses, or chunks, were fed for 84 days. 

Com silage and cottonseed meal for fattening horses 



Average ration 

Lot I 

Cottonseed meal, 1 .4 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 12.3 lbs. 
Corn silage, 1G .9 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 10 .5 lbs 

Lot II 

Cottonseed meal, 1 .5 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 13 . 1 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 18 . 1 lbs 

Lot III 

Oats, 8 .0 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 9.2 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 17 .7 lbs 

♦Corn $0 . 50 and oats $0 . 35 per bu. ; cottonseed meal 

J, Penn. Bui. 117. 



Daily gain Cost of 100 lbs. gain* 



Lbs 



1.59 



1.78 



1.64 



Dollars 



13 .40 



13.90 



17.80 



J2, mixed hay $12, and corn silage $2.50 per ton. 



334 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Lot I, getting silage, consumed slightly less grain, and made some- 
what cheaper tho slightly smaller daily gains than Lot II. The silage- 
fed horses were sleeker and better finished than those in either of the 
other lots. Cottonseed meal and corn produced larger and more eco- 
nomical gains, and better finish than oats and corn. For a few days it 
was necessary to substitute linseed meal for the cottonseed meal with 
some of the horses which at first refused the latter. 

Gramlich 27 reports that many Nebraska feeders have obtained exceed- 
ingly satisfactory results in feeding alfalfa hay to horses that were being 
fattened. 

534. Hints on fleshing horses. — Formerly fattening horses were usually 
confined to stalls and not exercised, as larger gains are then made. 
Obrecht found that horses getting no exercise gained 24 per ct. more 
than those walking 2.8 miles daily. Those in single stalls gained 8 per 
ct. more than others in box stalls, which had more opportunity to move 
about. If exercise is begun a few days before horses are marketed, a 
slight physic should be given to get the muscles in trim and the grain al- 
lowance cut in half to avoid digestive trouble, later again being gradu- 
ally increased to the former amount. When clover or alfalfa hay is fed, a 
bran mash twice a week is usually all that is necessary to keep the legs 
of these idle horses from becoming stocked. In some cases it is advantage- 
ous to give a dose of Glauber or Epsom salts twice a week. 

During the last few years many feeders are following the more natural 
plan of allowing the fattening horses to exercise at will in paddocks. 

Altho some feed the horses 5 or 6 times a day, others secure just as good 
results with 3 feeds. Water should be supplied freely at least twice a day. 
Usually no feed is administered between 5 or 6 o'clock at night and 6 
the next morning. Grooming and blanketing aid in producing a soft, 
shining coat which increases the selling price. (468-9) It is important to 
keep mangers and feed boxes clean, and to see that the teeth and feet of 
the animals are in good condition. (470-1) With such feeding and care, 
surprising gains are sometimes made. Craig and Bretell 28 report that one 
horse gained 5.5 lbs. per day for 50 days. Gramlich 29 states that one 
feeder reports a daily gain of 4 lbs. each on 150 head fed for 2 months. 
While it is recognized that horses must be thus fed to top the market, such 
rapid and excessive fattening is of little benefit and may even be injur- 
ious. When put to hard work the horses quickly lose most of the soft 
flesh acquired by such forcing. 

On fattening horses, Cochel 30 writes : "The cost of gains is not the only 
factor which determines the profit or loss from the operation. Market 
values fluctuate quite widely during the time necessary for feeding, hence 
there may be considerable profit or loss due entirely to this factor. Horses 
that are kept in idleness are quite apt to become blemished or injured on 
account of playfulness in the stable. The risk of sickness is greater than 
with cattle, sheep, and hogs. Many horses are unable to stand a long 

"Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28, 1914. '-"Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28, 1914. 

28 Breeder's Gaz., 35, 1899, p. 781. : '° Penn. Bui. 117. 



FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 335 

period of forced feeding because of constitutional weakness. Good judg- 
ment in buying and selling is necessary. All other conditions being equal, 
a close study of the selection of rations and methods of feeding will deter- 
mine the success or failure of those who finish horses for market. ' ' 

535. Fitting for shows. — All show horses should be in good flesh, draft 
classes especially. The advice above given for fattening horses will apply 
to fitting draft horses for show, except that they must be exercised daily 
to keep their muscles in good trim. All show horses should be carefully 
fed, groomed, and exercised to bring them into proper "bloom." Train- 
ing also counts for much in the show ring. 



IV. Feed and Care of the Light Horse 

536. Feeding the carriage and saddle horse. — Style and action are pri- 
mary requisites with these horses, economy of feeding standing second. 
Good drivers in this country still assert that the oat-fed horse exhibits 
mettle as from no other feed. Tho oats easily excel any other single grain 
or concentrate, there are numerous instances in which a properly com- 
bined concentrate mixture has given just as good results, as is shown in 
the preceding chapter. From 8 to 10 lbs. of oats or their equivalent, di- 
vided into 3 feeds, should suffice for concentrates, the evening meal being 
the largest. In case the horse is at all constipated, a bran mash should be 
given. The hay is usually fed long, for the carriage horse has ample time 
for his meals. From 10 to 12 lbs. of hay is a liberal allowance, bringing 
the total ration within 20 or 22 lbs. The carriage horse must be trim in 
body, and so cannot consume much bulky food, yet we should not forget 
that the ration must have volume in order that the digestive functions 
proceed normally. (107) With this class of horses the feeder must also 
guard against undue feeding of laxative foods, such as clover and alfalfa 
hay, or bran. Carriage horses are usually overfed and exercised irregu- 
larly or too little, and mainly for these reasons their period of satisfactory 
service is often brief. (466) On days when they are not driven, oats 
should be fed only at noon, with a bran mash morning and evening, no 
difference being made in the quantity of roughage fed. 

537. Feeding the trotter. — The single requisite of speed makes the 
carrying of every pound of useless body weight, and more especially of 
feed, a. serious matter in the management of the trotting horse. There is 
also to be considered the effect of the food on the character of the muscles 
formed from it, and especially on the nerve and mettle of the horse. All 
horsemen agree in regarding oats as the one grain suitable for animals 
where speed is sought regardless of cost of food. While this opinion pre- 
vails in this country, we should remember that the Arab horse usually 
subsists upon barley. 

For information on feeding the trotter we can draw from no better 
source than Hiram Woodruff, 31 whose advice is here condensed. 

After weaning, trotting bred colts should be fed about 2 lbs. of oats per 
31 The Trotting Horse of America, pp. 90-105. 



336 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

day with an unlimited allowance of hay. As the colt grows older the 
amount of oats should be increased to 4 lbs. for the yearling, 6 lbs. for the 
2-yr.-old before training, and 8 to 12 lbs. for the colt 2 to 3 years old in 
training, an unlimited allowance of hay being given all this time. 

When going into winter quarters, the feed of the trotter should be re- 
duced fully one-half in order to prevent fattening. A few carrots may be 
given and a bran mash occasionally, with good clean, sweet hay. Horses 
whose legs must undergo blistering or firing should have more cooling 
feed, as mashes and carrots, with less oats, in order to reduce the tendency 
to feverish, inflammatory symptoms. Care must be taken not to permit 
the animal to get flabby or washy by too much soft food while undergoing 
treatment. Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats twice a day, 
for the exposure to the severity of the weather increases the need of heat- 
giving food. In the spring when shedding, bran mashes are in order to 
keep the bowels open, but not flax seed or linseed meal, which have a ten- 
dency to relax the system too suddenly and to cause the old hair to come 
away before the new coat is well started. 

With the beginning of the season the feed should be increased to 8 to 10 
lbs. of oats daily, in which case the horse wants less hay, but may still have 
all he will clean up unless he is a glutton. It is necessary to muzzle some 
horses to prevent their eating the bedding, long before the time for the 
race. No carrots or corn should now be given, unless it is necessary to 
induce a light feeder to eat his oats by mixing a handful of corn with 
them. 

During the jogging and after preparation, a bran mash about once a 
week, depending on the condition of the horse's bowels, will be proper. 
The trainer must never relax his vigilant observation, or let his judgment 
sleep. During the fast work, preparatory to the coming trial, the horse 
will be put upon his largest allowance of strong food. Some will not eat 
more than 8 or 10 lbs. of oats a day ; and it is necessary that such light 
feeders be not over worked. A good feeder ought to have about 12 to 13 
lbs. of oats with a fair amount, say 6 to 8 lbs., of hay. Some will eat 16 
lbs. of oats a day. Splan 32 states that the famous trotter Rarus consumed 
15 lbs. per day in the hottest part of summer. Woodruff, however, holds 
that any amount over 13 lbs. does more harm than good. 

538. Army horses. — Oats, hay, and straw are the standard feeds used 
for army horses by the great nations, since they best fill the following 
rigid requirements : All provender for such purposes must not only be 
palatable and safe, but also widely known articles of trade, easily collec- 
tible in vast quantities, readily inspected, and generally uniform in 
quality; moreover, they must not be subject to excessive waste or dete- 
rioration during storage and transportation. 

In the United States army the daily allowance of grain is 12 lbs. per 
head for horses weighing 1,050 to 1,125 lbs., and 9 lbs. for mules averag- 
ing about 1,025 lbs. Under unusual exposure, 3 lbs. of additional grain 
32 Life with the Trotters. 



FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 337 

daily may be issued. The standard allowance of hay for both horses and 
mules is 14 lbs., with 100 lbs. of straw for bedding per month. 

In Great Britain the ration is 12 lbs. of hay and 10 to 12 lbs. of oats. 
Eight lbs. of straw per day is fed horses when at the garrison. In the 
French army a smaller allowance of hay, 6.6 to 8.5 lbs., is given with an 
allowance of oats ranging from 10.4 lbs. for light horses in time of peace 
to 14.7 lbs. for the heavier horses in war time. The German army uses 
cut straw generally in the ration, the roughage ranging from 7.8 lbs. 
straw and 5.6 lbs. hay in the garrison to only 3.9 lbs. straw and 3.3 lbs. 
hay when in the field. The allowance of oats ranges from 9.5 lbs. on a 
light ration in the garrison to 12.6 lbs. on a heavy ration in the field. 33 

With the army horse it is often necessary to use substitutes for the regu- 
lation concentrates and roughages. General Carter 34 writes that oats, 
corn, bran, and sometimes barley, especially in the southwestern states, 
form the concentrate allowance for the horses of the United States army. 
Palay, or unhulled rice, was the main reliance of the cavalry horses in the 
Philippine Islands during the early days of the insurrection. Pott 35 men- 
tions that a stock bread, made of coarsely ground oats, peas, barley, and 
linseed, with a little salt added, was employed by the Russian cavalry 
during war time. The kind of hay fed will vary according to the district. 
Carter writes that besides the common cultivated grasses, there have 
been accepted at various times in the United States army, hay from gram- 
ma, grass, bunch grass, and other wild western grasses, various reed grass- 
es, wild oats, and "pulled" corn fodder. 

33 Langworthy, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 125. 

34 Horses, Saddles, and Bridles, 1902, pp. 357-379. 
"Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., I, 1907, p. 329. 



CHAPTER XXI 

GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 

I. The Dairy Cow as a Producer of Human Food 

Tho the use of milk and dairy products for food dates back to anti- 
quity, dairy farming as now practiced is of recent origin. In the early 
days cows freshened in the spring, yielded their milk on pasture in the 
summer, and were "roughed" thru the winter on any forage that was 
available. 

Monrad, 1 a most reliable dairy authority, tells us that in the mountain 
districts of Norway, in the dawn of dairying, cows on small farms were 
wintered on straw, birch leaves, reindeer moss, and horse dung, cooked 
and given as a mash mixed with chaff and leaves, while on large farms 
the mixture was fed uncooked. As late as the close of the last century, 
herring hauled inland and stored in snow banks were boiled with horse 
dung and shavings of mountain ash and birch bark for feeding goats, 
sheep, and young cattle. Along the coast even now herring, fish offal, 
seaweed, and ocean algae are fed in springtime if the hay gives out. The 
butter yield on the summer mountain pastures in the early times was 
from 24 to 48 lbs. per cow for the season, and the annual yield of milk 
from a good cow ranged from 1,600 to 1,800 lbs. While the changes from 
such primitive conditions have been great, the cow has generously re- 
sponded to every advancement in feed and care. 

539. Dairying and maternity. — When a steer is fattening, the process 
goes on rapidly at first, but after a time it is accomplished only at a high 
cost for the feed consumed. How different is the dairy cow which uses 
her food, not for the formation of fatty tissue to be stored within her 
own body, but in making food for nurturing her young ! 

The basis of modern dairying is the maternity of the cow, and success 
in this art depends upon rationally recognizing this great basic fact. 

Whoever will study dairying from this standpoint, first prominently 
brought to public attention by W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin, 2 will come to 
regard the cow in a new light and grow into a better dairyman. 

540. Economy of the dairy cow. — As land, labor, and feed increase in 
price, the dairy cow will more and more displace the strictly meat pro- 
ducing farm animals, for she produces human food with far greater 
economy than does the steer, sheep, or pig. That this change is taking 
place is brought out plainly by the census statistics, which show that 
from 1900 to 1910 the number of dairy cows in the United States in- 

1 Hoard's Dairyman, April 16, 1909. 
2 Wis. Farmer's Inst. Bui. 1, and elsewhere. 

338 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 339 

creased about 20 per ct., tho the total number of all cattle actually de- 
creased. The following table, adapted from Lawes and Gilbert, 3 well 
shows the relative economy of the dairy cow and the steer as producers 
of human food : 

Relative returns by the cow and the fattening ox in one week 

Mineral Total dry 

Protein Fat Sugar matter matter 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Weekly returns from cow when yielding: 

20 lbs. milk daily 5.11 4.90 6.44 105 17 50 

30 lbs. milk daily 7.67 7.35 9.67 1.57 26 25 

50 lbs. milk daily 12.78 12.25 16.12 2.61 43.76 

Weekly returns from ox when gaining: 

10 lbs. weekly 0.75 6.35 0.15 7.25 

15 lbs. weekly 1.13 9.53 0.22 10.88 

The fattening ox, when making the substantial gain of 15 lbs. weekly, 
produces in that time 1.13 lbs. of protein or nitrogenous substance, 
mostly in the form of water-free lean meat. In the same time the cow 
yielding 30 lbs. of milk daily produces 7.67 lbs. of casein and albumin, 
or nearly 6 times as much nitrogenous substance. While the ox is lay- 
ing on 9.53 lbs. of fat, the cow puts 7.35 lbs. of fat into her milk. She also 
secretes 9.67 lbs. of milk sugar, against which there is no equivalent sub- 
stance produced by the ox. Changing this sugar to its fat equivalent 
(70), the cow is shown to yield somewhat more fat or fat equivalent 
than the ox. The ox stores 0.22 lb. of ash, or mineral matter, largely in 
his bones, while the cow puts into her milk 1.57 lbs. of ash, or over 6 
times as much, during this time. 

A better measure of the relative economy of the cow and other farm 
animals in converting the products of the fields into human food is the 
amount of edible solids yielded for each 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients 
consumed. As has already been pointed out (133), the dairy cow returns 
about 6 times as much edible solids in her milk for each 100 lbs. of digest- 
ible nutrients consumed as the steer or sheep yields in its carcass. 

541. Cow and steer further compared. — Trowbridge of the Missouri Sta- 
tion analyzed the entire body of a 1250-lb. fat steer fed at that Station. 
At the same Station a Holstein cow gave in one year 18,405 lbs. of milk. 
The following table by Eckles 4 shows the total nutrients in the milk 
yielded by the cow during the year and in the entire body of the steer : 

Dairy cow vs. steer as producer of human food 

Dry matter in Dry matter in 

18.40S lbs. 1,250-lb. 

milk steer 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Protein substance 552 172 

Fat 618 333 

Sugar 920 None 

Mineral matter 128 43 

Total 2,218 548 

= Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, Eng., 1895. 'Hoard's Dairyman, Feb. 25, 1910. 



340 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The steer's body contained about 56 per ct. water, leaving 548 lbs. 
of dry matter, which included not only the edible dry lean meat and fat, 
but also all other parts of the body — horns, hoofs, hair, hide, bones, 
tendons, and internal organs. In one year the cow produced 2,218 lbs. of 
dry matter which was wholly digestible and suitable for human food. In 
that time she produced enough protein to build the bodies of 3 such 
steers, fat sufficient for nearly 2, and mineral matter enough for 3, be- 
sides 920 lbs. of milk sugar, which is as nutritious as the same weight of 
cane sugar. 

Eckles writes: "These figures show the remarkable efficiency of the 
cow as a producer of human food. It is because of this economical use of 
food that the dairy cow and not the steer is kept on high-priced land. 
When land is cheap and feed abundant the meat producing animals pre- 
dominate, but when the land becomes higher in value and feed expensive, 
the farmer turns to the dairy cow." (199) 

542. Disposition of feed. — In extensive trials covering 9 years Haecker 
of the Minnesota Station 5 found that cows averaging 910 lbs. in weight 
and yielding about 24 lbs. of milk daily, containing approximately 1 lb. 
of butter fat, utilized the digestible nutrients in their feed as follows : 

Utilization of daily feed by the dairy cow, per 1000 lbs. live weight 

Total digestible Per ct. of 

nutrients nutrients 

Lbs. Lbs. 

For maintenance of the body 7 .92 46 .5 

For manufacture of milk 4 . 15 24 .4 

In milk produced 4 .95 29 . 1 

Total in feed consumed 17.02 100.0 

It is shown that a well nourished dairy cow uses about 47 per ct. of the 
food she consumes to support her body and 24 per ct. in the work of con- 
verting food into milk, and that about 29 per ct. finally appears as milk. 
This shows the cow to be a more efficient machine than either the horse 
or the steam engine. (146) 

543. Dairy vs. beef type. — When in full flow of milk a high producing 
dairy cow is generally spare and shows an angular, wedge-shaped form, 
a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large udder. This con- 
formation is in strong contrast to that of the low-set, blocky, beef animal, 
with its compact, rectangular form, and broad, smooth back. These two 
types are the result of careful breeding with opposite objects in view. 
The beef animal has been developed to store in its carcass the largest 
possible amount of meat. On the other hand, for generations the dairy 
cow has been bred for the primary object of producing large yields of 
milk and butter fat. The great improvement in productive capacity in 
each breed of dairy cattle has come thru long-continued selection based 
on performance at the milk pail. As a result, tho a good dairy cow may 
put on flesh when she is dry, on freshening the impulse to milk pro- 

5 Minn. Bui. 140. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 



341 



duetion is so strong that she uses all the feed she can consume for the 
manufacture of milk. Even under liberal feeding she shows little or 
no tendency to fatten, but rather grows spare and lean as the lactation 
period progresses. 

To determine whether cows of dairy type were more economical pro- 
ducers than those of the beef type, Haecker of the Minnesota Station 6 
divided the Station herd into 4 groups, the first including cows of the 
beef type ; the second, those showing less tendency to beefiness ; the 
third, spare cows lacking in depth ; and the fourth, spare cows with deep 
bodies and of distinctly dairy type. The returns from cows of the dif- 
ferent types are shown in the following table : 



Economy of cows of dairy and beef types 



Type 



No. of 
animals 



Av. live 
weight 



Dry matter consumed 



Daily 



Dailv per 
1,000 lbs. 
live wt. 



Per 

lb. fat, 



Feed 
cost of 
1 lb. fat 



Beef type 

Less of beef type 

Spare but lacking depth of body 
Dairy type 



3 

4 

3 

12 



Lbs. 

1,240 

945 

875 

951 



Lbs. 

20.8 
20.4 
20.0 
21.9 



Lbs. 

16.7 
21.0 
23.0 
23.6 



Lbs. 

31.3 
26.4 
25.5 
21 .2 



Cents 

17.5 
15.1 
14.6 
12.1 



The table shows that as the cows approximated the distinctly dairy 
type the amount of dry matter consumed and the feed cost per pound 
of butter fat decreased in a marked manner. In view of the widely 
differing nature of the functions of milk and flesh production, it is not 
surprising that both can not be developed to the highest degree in the 
same animal. "With Smith 7 we must conclude that the most perfect 
beef cows are not economical milkers, and the best dairy cows are not 
satisfactory beef makers. 

544. Good and poor producers. — To determine the relative economy of 
high and low yielding cows for producing milk and butter fat, Carlyle 
and "Woll, at the Wisconsin Station, 8 studied the food consumed by and 
the returns from 33 cows, covering 88 lactation periods extending thru 
the entire winter. The herd was divided into the following classes 
according to their productive capacity. 

Feed eaten and returns by cows of different quality 





Wt. of 
cows 


Dry 

matter 
eaten daily 


Daily production 


Dry matter eaten per — 


Character of cows 


Milk 


Fat 


1,000 lbs. 

live wt, 


lOOlbs. 
milk 


l lb. 

fat. 


High producers 

Medium producers. . . . 
Low producers 


Lbs. 

956 
1,133 
1,012 


Lbs. 
25.3 
24.7 
21.1 


Lbs. 
26.6 

21.5 
14.6 


Lbs. 

1.2 
0.9 
0.7 


Lbs. 

27.0 
21.4 
21.1 


Lbs. 

102 
119 
149 


Lbs. 
22 
27 
32 



G Minn. Bui. 35. 



Profitable Stock Feeding, p. 38. 



s Wis. Bui. 102. 



342 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The high grade producers ate much more feed for their weight than 
the others, yet they required only 102 lbs. of dry matter for 100 lbs. of 
milk, while the low-grade cows, which ate less feed, required 149 lbs., or 
almost 50 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. of milk. 

545. Profitable vs. unprofitable cows. — Beach of the Connecticut 
(Storrs) Station found the cost of feed and the returns from the 5 best 
and the 5 poorest cows in the Station herd for 5 years to be as shown 
in the following table : 

Comparative returns from profitable and unprofitable cows 



Cost of 
feed 



Yield of 
fat 



Margin over Feed cost of 
Cost of feed 1 lb. of fat 



First year 
profitable cows . . . 
profitable cows . . . 
Second year 
profitable cows . . . 
profitable cows 

Third year 
profitable cows . . . 
profitable cows .... 

Fourth year 
profitable cows . . . 
profitable cows .... 

Fifth year 
profitable cows. . . 
profitable cows 



Dollars 

56.54 

52.02 



Pounds 

304 
189 



00.30 

45.38 

53.24 
43.38 

59.52 
51.45 

59.46 
56.11 



377 
164 

375 
217 

376 
237 

366 
269 



Dollars 

26.91 

4.09* 

43.27 
5.75* 

44.25 
15.68 

43.71 
13.71 

40.23 

17.67 



Cents 

18.6 

27.5 



16.0 

27.7 

14.2 
20.0 

15.8 
21.7 

16.2 

20.9 



5 most 
5 least 

5 most 
5 least 

5 most 
5 least 

5 most 
5 least 

5 most 
5 least 

* Loss. 

The table shows that the good cows ate more feed but gave better 
returns over cost of keep than the small producers. During the first 2 
years the 5 poorest cows did not pay for their feed. By gradual elimin- 
ation the net loss of about $4 for each of the poorest cows the first year 
was changed to a gain of $17 per head for the 5 poorest animals in the 
herd during the fifth year. 

Fraser of the Illinois Station 10 reports a cow in the Station herd 
that in 12 years gave 87,102 lbs. of milk, containing fat sufficient to 
make 4,318 lbs. of butter. During 3 years a certain cow gave 11,930 
lbs. of milk annually, containing 405 lbs. of fat, and returned $42.60 per 
year over cost of feed. Another with the same feed and care gave in the 
same time only 3,830 lbs. of milk annually, containing 138 lbs. of fat, 
and failed by $5.62 per year of paying for her feed. 

546. Causes of inefficiency of dairy cows. — Observing a striking differ- 
ence in the productive capacity of 2 Jersey cows at the Missouri Sta- 
tion, whicb were raised under the same conditions and were more than 
half' sisters, Eckles and Reed 1X conducted the following trial to find the 
explanation. During their first 2 lactation periods the better cow had 
produced 2.8 lbs. of milk and 3.9 lbs. of fat for each pound produced by 

"Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29. "111. Cir. 106. "Mo. Res. Bui. 2. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IX DAIRY HUSBANDRY 343 

the other. In the third lactation period the cows, calving 3 days apart, 
were fed the same feeds supplied in the same proportions, the amount 
fed being so adjusted that neither cow gained nor lost in weight. Both 
were kept farrow and complete records kept and analyses made of the 
feed consumed and milk produced for the entire lactation period. During 
the year the better cow consumed 1.75 lbs. of feed for each pound eaten 
by the other, but produced 2.67 lbs. of rnilk and 2.77 lbs. fat for each 
pound yielded by the poorer cow. When dry the better cow required 
more feed to maintain her weight than the poor one. Her greater effi- 
ciency was therefore not due to a lower requirement for maintenance. 
She digested a slightly larger percentage of her ration, but there was far 
too little difference to explain her much greater economy in production. 
There was practically no difference in the amount of milk or fat pro- 
duced by the cows from each 100 lbs. of feed which they ate in addition 
to the maintenance requirement. The real cause of the greater efficiency 
of the better cow was that she was able to consume and utilize a much 
larger amount of feed above that needed to maintain her body, and 
hence had more feed available for milk production. The good producer 
secretes an abundance of milk, on account of her strong inherited im- 
pulse to milk production. To replace the nutrients she puts into her 
product she has a keen appetite and consumes a heavy ration. 

547. The basis of profitable dairying. — Good authorities estimate that 
even in the leading dairy states from one-fourth to one-third of the dairy 
cows do not pay for their care and feed. 12 The chief reason why such a 
condition is found now, when the principles of successful selection, feed- 
ing, and care of dairy cattle have long been established by scientists and 
practical dairymen, is that the owners do not know which of their eows 
fail to yield enough milk to pay for their feed and care. They do not 
realize that tho the gross income from their herd would be reduced by 
wading out the ''boarders," their net profits would be materially in- 
creased. 

Since the basis of profitable dairying is the individual cow, the 
question arises as to how the dairyman can select the animals to be re- 
tained and those, if any, which should be culled out. Competent judges 
can usually distinguish a cow of very low productive capacity from one of 
high efficiency by her conformation. However, even experts are often 
unable to foretell a cow's yield from her appearance alone. The only 
reliable index to the value of a cow as a profitable producer is the record 
of the actual amount of milk and fat she has yielded, which record may 
now be readily secured by the combined use of the Babcock fat test and 
the milk scales. "With records of the production of each cow and the 
approximate amount of feed she has consumed, the dairyman is in 
position to eliminate the unprofitable animals and proceed to build up a 
herd of high producers at little expense by using a bred-for-production 
sire and retaining all heifer calves from the most profitable cows. 

"Woll and Harris, Wis. Bui. 228. 



344 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

II. Milk ; Factors Influencing Its Composition and Yield 

548. Composition of milk. — As we shall see later (551-72), the chem- 
ical composition of cow's milk varies considerably, depending especially 
on the breed, the individuality of the cow, and the length of time she 
has been giving milk. The average composition of milk in several coun- 
tries, as presented by Wing, 13 is as follows : 

Average composition of cow's milk 

American English German French 

(Babcock) (Oliver) (Fleischmann) (Cornevin) 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Water S7.17 87.60 87.75 87.75 

Fat 3.69 3.25 3.40 3.30 

Casein 3.02 3.40 2.80 3.00 

Albumin 0.53 0.45 0.70 

Sugar 4.88 4.55 4.60 4.80 

Ash 0.71 0.75 0.75 0.75 

100.00 100.00 100.00 99.60 

It has been pointed out in previous chapters (115, 150) that milk is 
rich in crude protein and ash, especially lime and phosphoric acid, and 
that hence the ration for the cow should furnish an abundance of these 
nutrients. Attention has been called to the fact that colostrum, the milk 
produced by the cow immediately after freshening, differs from ordinaiy 
milk in being higher in protein and ash. (115) 

549. Milk of the various breeds. — The milk of different breeds of cows 
varies considerably in composition, as is shown in the following table, 
chiefly from Wing, 14 which summarizes data from various American 
stations. 

Solids Fat 

Breed Per ct. Per ct. 

Jersey 14.70 5 .35 

Guernsey 14.71 5.16 

Devon 14.50 4.60 

Shorthorn 13.38 4.05 

Brown Swiss 13 .27 4 .24 

Ayrshire 12 .61 3 .66 

Holstein-Friesian 11 85 3 .42 

It is shown that the Jersey and the Guernsey breeds give the richest, 
and the Ayrshire and the Holstein-Friesian the poorest milk. However, 
the breeds which give the richest milk usually yield a smaller quantity, 
so that the total quantity of solids and fat is nearly the same for all 
dairy breeds. 

Eckles and Shaw 15 have shown that the sugar and albumin content of 
milk varies but little with either breed or individual, while there is a 
greater range in the percentage of casein. Milks rich in fat are generally 
high in casein, but the casein content does not increase in the same ratio as 
the fat content. According to Hart and Tottingham, 16 for each 100 lbs. 

13 Milk and Its Products, p. 17. 35 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 156. 

"Milk and Its Products, p. 33. 10 Agricultural Chemistry, p. 291. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 345 

of fat in Jersey or Guernsey milk there are as a rule 55 to 65 lbs. of case- 
in, while in Ayrshire and Holstein milk there are 65 to 75 lbs. The ratio of 
fat to casein shows considerable variation among cows of the same breed. 
These facts are important in cheese making since the yield of cheese de- 
pends not only upon the amount of fat in the milk but also upon its 
casein content. A milk testing 6 per ct. of fat will not make twice as 
much cheese as one testing 3 per ct. Hart of the Wisconsin Station, 17 
who has invented a simple casein test, advises paying for milk at cheese 
factories on the basis of the content of both fat and casein. 

550. Fat globules. — Collier of the New York (Geneva) Station 18 placed 
the average secretion of milk by the cows of the station herd at 0.7 lb., or 
19.6 cubic inches per hour. He found that the one-thousandth part of a 
cubic millimeter of average milk contained 152 fat globules, and accord- 
ingly that the average station cow secreted 138,210,000 fat globules each 
second thruout the day of 24 hours while giving milk. Babcock 19 tells 
us that a quart of average milk contains not less than 2,000,000,000,000 
fat globules. These figures are beyond comprehension and should inten- 
sify our interest in the marvelous processes of life. They lead us to 
ponder on the infinite division which food must undergo during digestion 
before it is useful to animal life. 

The fat globules of Jersey and Guernsey milk are considerably larger 
than those in Holstein and Ayrshire milk, while the size of the globules 
in Shorthorn milk ranges between. This fact is of practical interest, for 
cream rises more rapidly in milk containing large fat globules. 

551. Influence of individuality. — Individual cows of the same breed 
differ from one another not only in the amount of milk and fat they pro- 
duce but also in the composition of their milk, especially the percentage 
of fat. Indeed the difference in fat content of milk from individuals of 
the same breed may be as great as the difference between the grand 
averages for the different breeds. As Eckles 20 points out, the cow that 
gives the richest milk does not necessarily produce the largest total yield 
of fat. He holds that as a rule the highest annual productions of butter 
fat are generally secured with milk carrying the average percentage of 
fat for the breed or even less. 

The composition of the milk from an individual cow often varies con- 
siderably from day to day, due to such causes as changes in the health 
of the animal, change in milkers, excitement, variations in the weather, 
and to some extent to changes in feed. 21 

To determine the variation in the percentage of fat in single milkings 
of individual cows, Anderson of the Michigan Station 22 studied 200 
seven-day records made under ordinary herd conditions where regular 
feeding and milking were practiced, and 2000 seven-day records of 

17 Wis. Buls. 156, 197. 1S N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1892. 19 Wis. Bui. 18. 

"Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 133-4. 

21 Eckles and Shaw, U. S. D. A., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 157. 

2S Mich. Spec. Bui. 71. 



346 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

official Advanced Registry tests. From these 'data he draws the following 
conclusions: One may expect that during 7 consecutive days about 30 
per ct. of a herd of cows will show a range in the percentage of fat in 
the milk at different milkings of 1 per ct. or less ; 50 per ct. of 1.1 to 2.0 
per ct. ; 14 per ct. of 2.1 to 3.0 per ct. ; and the remaining 6 per ct. of 
the herd even a greater variation. In other words, 6 per ct. of the cows 
might yield milk testing 3 per ct. of fat at one milking during the week 
and at some other milking produce milk containing 6 per ct. of fat or 
over. The fluctuation in the composition of the milk from the same cow 
is thus much greater than has often been assumed. 

552. First and last drawn milk. — At the New York (Geneva) Station 23 
Van Slyke analyzed the successive portions of milk drawn from a Guern- 
sey cow with the following results : 

Composition of the successive portions of milk as drawn 

Weight of milk Fat Casein Albumin 

Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

First portion 3.2 0.76 2.67 0.62 

Second portion 4.1 2 .60 2 .57 .64 

Third portion 4.6 5.35 2.49 0.61 

Fourth portion 5.8 9 .80 2 .39 .58 

We learn that the first milk drawn is very poor in fat, each succeeding 
portion increasing in richness of fat, while the casein and albumin show 
little change. Those who let the calf have the first milk drawn and re- 
serve the strippings keep the richest milk. 

553. Effect of period between milkings. — When the intervals of time be- 
tween milkings are unequal, other conditions being the same, cows gener- 
ally yield a smaller amount of milk after the shorter period, but this milk 
is usually richer in fat. For this reason the evening milk is generally the 
richest in fat and total solids. With equal intervals between milkings 
there is no uniform variation in the fat content of the different milkings. 
When cows are milked 3 times daily at equal intervals, the mid-day 
milking is usually slightly the richest. 24 

554. Effect of age. — From a study of all the data bearing on the effect 
of age of the cow on the yield and fat content of milk Eckles 25 concludes : 

"A dairy cow on the average as a two-year-old may be expected to 
produce about 70 per ct. ; as a three-year-old around 80 per ct. ; and as 
a four-year-old about 90 per ct. of the milk and butter fat she will pro- 
duce under the same treatment when mature. 

' ' The richness of milk remains practically constant from year to year, 
except that after the third milking period there is a slow, gradual decline 
with advancing years. 

"Probably the majority of dairy cattle are rejected from the herd on 
account of failure to breed, or from udder trouble, before the effect of 

"Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 30, p. 1173. 

24 Eckles and Shaw, U. S. D. A., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 157. 

25 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 153. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 347 



advancing years can be observed to any marked extent. It is a fact 
often observed that a cow may make her best record when 10 or 11 years 
old, altho as a rule she does her best rather earlier. If a dairy cow 
continues to breed, she usually shows no marked decline until at least 12 
years old. Occasionally a cow continues to breed until she is 16 or 18 
years old." 

555. Effect of advancing lactation. — Woll of the "Wisconsin Station 26 
has condensed, in the table following, the findings of the New York 
(Geneva) Station with 14 cows of 6 breeds, giving the dry matter con- 
sumed and the yields of milk and fat, month by month, from freshening 
until the cows went dry : 

Effect of advancing lactation on economy of milk production 





Daily yield 


Fat 


Dry matter 
eaten daily 


Dry matter eaten to produce: 


Month 


Milk 


Fat 


100 lbs. 
milk 


l lb. 

solids 


l lb. 

fat 


First month 

Second month 

Third month 

Fourth month 

Fifth month 

Sixth month 

Seventh month 

Eighth month 

Ninth month 

Tenth month 

Eleventh month .... 


Lbs. 

25.1 
26.0 
23.8 
21.2 
19.6 
19.8 
19.0 
16.0 
12.5 
9.4 
5.6 


Lbs. 
0.98 
0.95 
0.84 
0.79 
0.73 
0.75 
0.72 
0.60 
0.48 
0.41 
0.26 


Per ct. 
4.02 

3.74 
3.71 

3.84 
3.87 
3.90 
3.94 
3.89 
3.92 
4.19 
4.58 


Lbs. 
23.6 

27.0 

28.9 
29.0 
28.5 
29.3 
28.5 
28.0 
28.0 
26.5 
24.3 


Lbs. 

94 
104 
122 
137 
146 
148 
150 
175 
224 
282 
436 


Lbs. 

7.1 
8.2 
9.5 
10.5 
11.1 
11.2 
11.2 
13.0 
16.1 
19.4 
28.1 


Lbs. 
24.1 
28.6 
34.4 
36.8 
39.3 
39.4 
39.7 
46.5 
58.3 
65.3 
95.5 



Immediately after freshening the cows gave richer milk than later. It 
then grew poorer for a month or two, and after that slowly increased in 
richness until they became dry. The changes in fat content as the lacta- 
tion period progresses often seem to follow no definite law, so that gener- 
alizations on this point are difficult. The table shows that during the first 
month after a cow freshens a given quantity of feed gives greater returns 
in milk product than later, and that the further advanced a cow is in 
lactation the more food she requires for a given quantity of milk. "When 
fresh the cow usually draws on her own body substance for nutrients 
used in milk production, and later she is nurturing an unborn calf. 

On studying the monthly records of 323 cows entered in the Wisconsin 
Dairy Cow Competition and tested by the Station of that state, Woll 27 
found that the average percentage of fat did not vary over 0.08 per ct. 
during the first 6 months of lactation. After this the fat content in- 
creased gradually up to the ninth month, and more rapidly thereafter. 

The combined studies of Carlyle and Woll at the Wisconsin Station, 28 
Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station, 29 Linfield at the Utah Sta- 
tion, 30 and the results of the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition 31 show 



^Wis. Bui. 116. 
:7 Wis. Res. Bui. 26. 



2S Wis. Bui. 102. 

20 Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29. 



30 Utah Bui. 68. 
::l Wis. Res. Bui. 26. 



348 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

that the normal monthly decrease in the yield of milk, fat, and total 
solids in well-managed herds is about as follows: From the second to 
the seventh month the shrinkage varies irregularly, ranging from 4 to 9 
per ct. per month, based on the yield of the previous month. The average 
monthly decrease during this period is about 6 to 7 per ct. After this 
the decrease becomes more rapid, being 9 to 11 per ct. for the eighth 
month, 12 to 18 per ct. for the ninth month, and 12 to 23 per ct. for the 
tenth month, after which the cows are generally dried off. 

556. Period of greatest yield. — Haecker of the Nebraska Station 32 
studied 239 lactation periods with cows at the Nebraska and Minnesota 
Stations, the records beginning 4 days after calving. He found that 90 
per ct. of the cows made their best records during the first 10 weeks of 
lactation, and over one-half during the first month. The greatest number 
gave the most milk during the third week, and the most fat during the 
second week after calving. 

557. Influence of condition at calving. — Observing dairymen have for 
some time known that cows calving in a fat condition will sometimes 
yield milk abnormally rich in fat for a short time after calving, losing 
markedly in weight during this period. This fact has been brought to 
public attention by Woll 33 and Eckles. 34 At the Missouri Station 
Eckles fed a mature cow so as to be excessively fat at calving, and there- 
after gave her food sufficient only for a dry cow. Beginning with 21 lbs. 
of milk daily, she was giving 19.5 lbs. at the end of 30 days of such poor 
feeding, during which time she lost 115 lbs. in weight. Eckles estimates 
that the 43 lbs. of fat and 53 lbs. of other solids yielded in the milk 
during this period must have been drawn from her body tissues. During 
this period her milk averaged 6.1 per ct. fat. Within 48 hours after her 
feed was later increased it declined about 1.4 per ct. 

In another trial Eckles fed one heifer liberally on rich rations from 
birth until she calved, while another was kept poor and thin. After 
calving, the milk of the well-fed heifer tested over 4 per ct. fat and that 
of the thin one about 3 per ct. For several weeks after calving the fat 
heifer declined in weight, the fat percentage remaining constant. When 
at length her weight became stationary the percentage of fat declined 
somewhat. The thin heifer did not lose in weight after calving, and the 
fat in her milk did not decrease. In the end the milk of the two heifers 
was about equally rich. 

These trials show that when a cow of good dairy temperament calves 
in high condition, owing to the strong impulse to milk production she 
will withdraw fat from her body and put it into her milk. While she is 
doing this the fat content of her milk will be raised abnormally high. 
This fact is important, for it shows that the total yearly production of 
fat is increased by having cows in good condition when they calve. The 
fat they have deposited on their bodies is not wasted, but is returned in 
the form of the more valuable butter fat. The bearing of this fact on 

32 Nebr. Bui. 76. "Hoard's Dairyman, July 9, 1909; Mo. Bui. 100. 

^Wis. Rpts. 1902, p. 117; 1903, 115. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 349 

the value of short-time tests of dairy cows is obvious, for by having cows 
calve in a high condition a seven-day record of fat production may be 
secured shortly after calving which is no index to their ability as long- 
time producers. Yearly records obviate this criticism. 

558. Loss in weight. — Haecker of the Minnesota Station 35 found that 
cows lose rapidly in weight after freshening. In one case the average 
decrease for 15 cows was 49 lbs. per cow for the first week, with an 
average daily loss per cow of 2 lbs. for the first 7 weeks. During this 
time the cows yielded products in excess of what the food furnished — in 
some instances twice as much. Such excess of yield gradually decreased 
until the eleventh week, when cows of pronounced dairy temperament 
reached equilibrium between the food nutrients consumed and dairy pro- 
ducts yielded, while others required a longer time to reach equilibrium. 

559. Influence of feed on yield of product. — The quantity of milk and 
butter fat the cow yields depends directly on the constitution of the 
animal and her inherent tendency toward milk production. Within these 
inherited limits, however, it is governed directly by feed, care, and en- 
vironment. In a state of nature the cow provides only sufficient milk for 
the nourishment of her young, even tho her feed be abundant. When 
she is liberally fed, the modern dairy cow, produced thru long-time 
selection and breeding, secretes far more milk than her calf can utilize. 
So generous is the dairy cow that few dairymen feed to the limit of profit- 
able production. Within wide limits, then, the quantity of milk a dairy 
cow yields is directly dependent on the feed and care she receives. 

This is shown in a striking manner by a test conducted by Wing and 
Foord at the Cornell Station. 36 For a full year they recorded the milk 
and fat yield of a herd of poorly nourished cows kept by a farmer on a 
New York farm. The herd was then moved to the Station where it was 
liberally fed for 2 years ; then the cows were returned to the farmer who 
fed them poorly as before. Below appear the average returns of 7 cows 
so studied: 

Effect of continued under-feeding on milk production 

First and fourth Second and third 

years on farm years at Station 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Average weekly yield of milk per cow 109 155 

Average weekly yield of fat per cow 4.7 7.1 

Here is an increase thru good feed and care of 42 per ct. in the quan- 
tity of milk and 51 per ct. in the quantity of fat over that obtained by 
the farmer. When again subjected to the hard conditions enforced upon 
them by the poor farmer, the cows fell back to their old record. 

560. Influence of feed on richness of milk. — Down to the most recent 
times it was universally held that milk varied in richness, or percentage 
of fat, from milking to milking, according to the feed and care the cow 
received daily. We have now come to know that the milk of each cow 
possesses a fixed, inherent composition, and that normally the richness 

"Minn. Bui. 79. *N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 222. 



350 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

of milk is not the immediate sequence of feed and care, provided the cow 
receives sufficient nutriment to maintain her body weight. Cows starved 
or greatly underfed may produce milk somewhat lower in fat percentage 
than normal. However, as is shown in the following paragraphs, under 
all ordinary conditions the percentage of fat can not be materially altered 
for any long period of time by the particular kind of feed the cow re- 
ceives. 

The Jersey cow gives milk which is relatively rich in fat, and the Hol- 
stein, milk that is relatively low in fat. No kind of feed or care will 
cause the Jersey to give milk like that of the Holstein, or the reverse. 
Were a piece of skin, clothed with yellow hair, taken from the body of a 
Jersey cow and grafted on the body of a Holstein cow, we should expect 
the grafted portion to continue growing yellow, Jersey-like hair. In the 
same way, were it possible to graft the udder of a Jersey cow on to the 
body of a Holstein, we would then expect the Holstein to give Jersey-like 
milk. It is not the body of the cow or the digestive tract, but the glands 
of the udder which determine the characteristics of the milk yielded by 
each individual cow. This is what we should expect, for if milk varied 
with every slight change of food and condition, the life of the young, 
dependent on such milk, would always be in jeopardy. 

561. Effect of protein-rich rations. — That feeding an excess of protein 
over the actual amount required for body maintenance and milk pro- 
duction tends to stimulate the cow to a greater yield of milk is shown in 
trials by Lindsey at the Massachusetts Station. 37 In one test, supplying 
twice the minimum amount of protein required increased the milk flow 
15 per ct. Owing to this stimulation of the yield very narrow rations, 
i.e., those rich in protein, are commonly employed when cows are being 
forced to maximum production on official tests. While the yield of milk 
may be thus increased by feeding an excess of protein, Lindsey con- 
cludes from 8 trials that varying amounts of protein do not seem to in- 
fluence the percentage composition of the milk, making it richer or poorer 
in fat, for example. On the other hand, the experiments of the Copen- 
hagen Station, 38 covering observations with about 2000 Danish cows and 
extending over ten years, indicate that the fat percentage was possibly 
raised as much as 0.1 per ct. thru the feeding of highly nitrogenous ra- 
tions. Michels of the North Carolina Station 30 found the fat content of 
the milk slightly higher when a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.0 
was fed than when the nutritive ratio was 1 : 5.7. 

562. Effect of feeding fat. — Numerous experiments have been con- 
ducted in this country and Europe to determine the effect on the yield 
and fat content of the milk when various fats are added to the ration. 
After feeding cottonseed-, palm-, corn-, cocoanut-, and oleo-oil, and 
stearin, the solid fat from beef, to cows, Woods of the New Hampshire 
Station 40 concluded that the first effect of such feeding is to increase 

37 Mass. Rpt. 1911, I, pp. 86-121. 33 N. C. Rpt. 1911, pp. 90-97. 

88 Copenhagen Sta. Rpt. 45; Woll, Wis. Bui. 116. 40 N. H. Bui. 20. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 351 

the percentage of fat in the milk, but with the continuance of such feed- 
ing the milk tends to return to its normal composition. Woods holds that 
the increase in the fat percentage is not due to the oils fed, but to the 
unnatural character of the food. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 41 
likewise found that feeding large quantities of oil, either linseed, cotton- 
seed, corn, or soy bean oil, caused a temporary increase in the richness 
of the milk. That the feeding of fat does not always cause a temporary 
increase in the richness of the milk is shown in 2 trials by Wing at 
the New York (Cornell) Station 42 in which tallow was fed to 10 cows 
while on pasture or on winter feed. Beginning with a small amount, the 
allowance of tallow was gradually increased until each cow was consum- 
ing about 2 lbs. daily, this allowance being continued for several weeks. 
The tallow feeding had no uniform effect either on the yield of milk or 
the fat content. During the first 2 or 3 weeks the percentage of fat was 
increased slightly in the case of some animals, but after this the milk 
again became normal in composition. 

563. Effects of feed on fat composition. — The fat of milk is a composite 
of many kinds of fat — palmitin, olein, stearin, butyrin, etc. While the 
kind of feed given the cow does not materially change the percentage of 
total fat in her milk, in some cases it does seem to alter the relative pro- 
portion of the several component fats or otherwise change the character 
or nature of the fat, as shown by the resultant butter. Many years ago 
investigators began to study diligently the influence of various feeds on 
the composition of the fat of milk, and their work is still in progress. 
The results thus far secured are conflicting in some respects, but in gen- 
eral it has been found 43 that feeds rich in vegetable oils (which contain 
a large amount of olein) produce milk fat high in olein. This usually 
tends to make the butter softer, for olein is a liquid fat, but in some in- 
stances this tendency is offset by still other changes in the composition 
of the fat. Cottonseed and cocoanut meal produce firm, hard butter. 
A change from dry feed to pasture generally produces fat higher in olein 
and results in softer butter. 

564. Withholding lime. — At the Wisconsin Station 44 Hart, McCollum, 
and Humphrey fed a 1150-lb. cow producing about 30 lbs. of milk daily 
a liberal ration save that it lacked lime. It was found that there went 
into the milk daily about 20 grams of lime (CaO) and into the solid 
excrement and urine, principally the former, about 30 grams, the latter 
loss being due to the normal changes (metabolism) taking place in the 
body. In all, about 50 grams, or nearly 2 ounces, of lime disappeared 
daily from the body of this cow, only one-half of which could have been 
furnished by the lime in the food. During the trial, which lasted 110 
days, this cow maintained a good flow of milk and continued to put the 
normal amount of lime into it. It was calculated that during the trial 

"Mass. Rpt. 1908, pp. 109-112. 42 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 92. 

43 Lindsey, Mass. Rpt. 1908, pp. 109-112; Hunzicker, Ind. Bui. 159. 
«Wis. Res. Bui. 5. 



352 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

she gave off in milk and excrement 5.5 lbs. more lime than she received in 
her food. It was estimated that her skeleton contained about 24.2 lbs. of 
lime at the start, and this being true, this cow gave up in 110 days about 
25 per ct. of all the lime in her skeleton ! Here is a striking illustration 
of the overpowering force of maternity. (98, 150) 

565. Turning to pasture. — The Copenhagen (Denmark) Station 45 for 
10 successive years studied the changes in milk when cows are turned 
from winter stables to spring pastures. In all 1,961 fall-calving cows on 
8 different farms were used. During the month before turning to pasture 
the average daily yield was 20.7 lbs. of milk, carrying 3.18 per ct. fat and 
8.73 per ct. other solids. For the first month on pasture the average yield 
was 21.2 lbs. of milk, containing 3.37 per ct. fat and 8.92 per ct. other 
solids. Turning to pasture increased the milk flow by over 7 per ct., the 
percentage of fat by about 8 per ct., and the other solids by nearly 2 per 
ct. While the increased milk flow was maintained, the percentage of fat 
fell back to normal after the cows had been on grass about 20 days. The 
small increase in solids not fat seems to have been more permanent. 

Humphrey and Woll 46 state that during each of 9 seasons the per- 
centage of fat and the yield was increased on turning the Station herd 
to pasture. The average increase in percentage of fat was small in all 
the years, ranging from 0.01 to 0.22 per ct. The increase in average 
daily yield of fat ranged from 0.02 to 0.16 lb. per head daily. During the 
first 2 weeks on pasture the herd lost in body weight each season, the 
average decrease in weight ranging from 1 to 95 lbs. 

During 3 of 8 seasons Hills of the Vermont Station 47 found no change 
in the percentage of fat in the milk on turning to pasture, in 4 seasons an 
immediate and marked improvement, lasting 2 to 4 weeks, occurred; 
and in the other, a slight tendency toward increase in fat content. 

Linfield of the Utah Station 48 observed that cows turned on pasture 
early in the season while the grass was soft and lush lost in weight for 
a short time, due probably to the extreme flushing of the system. This 
result, however, had no effect on the milk production. Where the 
grasses were more mature when the cows were first turned on them no 
material loss in live weight was noted. 

566. Temperature and weather. — From 5 tests covering practically the 
entire year and varying conditions of pasture, summer soiling, and win- 
ter barn feeding, Hills of the Vermont Station 49 concludes that the ten- 
dency both in summer and in winter is for cows to give richer milk when 
the temperature falls and poorer milk as it rises. Cows exposed to cold 
rains shrink in milk flow and may yield milk poor in fat. 

567. Effects of drought.— Van Slyke of the New York (Geneva) Sta- 
tion, 60 studying the milk supply of cheese factories during a drought, 
found that the general effect thereof was to diminish the flow of milk 

45 Copenhagen Rpt. 45; Woll, Wis. Bui. 116. 

"Wis. Bui. 217. 47 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 4S Utah Bui. 68. 49 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 

50 N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 68. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 353 

rapidly. The fat increased, while the casein, and especially the albumin, 
diminished. Tho percentagely small, the changes were in the direction 
of giving the milk the appearance of having been watered — a point of 
importance with milk inspectors. 

568. Exercise, work, and grooming. — Dolgich 51 found that moderate 
exercise tended to increase the quantity of milk and all the constituents 
except casein, which was slightly decreased, while excessive exercise de- 
creased nearly all the constituents. Light work decreased the quantity 
of both milk and milk solids, while excessive work decidedly decreased 
the flow and injured the quality, the casein not coagulating and some of 
the food-fat appearing unaltered in the milk. (446) 

Hills of the Vermont Station 52 found from 3 trials that when cows 
were fatigued by being driven a long distance or shipped by rail the 
flow of milk was lessened temporarily. In some cases the fat content of 
the milk was decreased and in others increased. Hills points out the 
folly of testing cows after transferring to new quarters and before they 
have become rested and accustomed to their surroundings. 

In trials in Germany 53 grooming cows caused an increase of 4 to 8 per 
ct. in the flow of milk. Hills of the Vermont Station 54 found no such in- 
crease in yield due to grooming. However, in the Vermont trial the 
ungroomed cows were never allowed to become so filthy as they do on 
many farms in winter. Tho grooming may not increase the yield of milk, 
it does improve its quality by lessening the bacterial content and is also 
said to improve the health of the animals. 

569. Dehorning, tuberculin testing, and spaying. — "Woll and Humphrey 
of the "Wisconsin Station, 55 studying the results at 11 experiment sta- 
tions, conclude that dehorning dairy cows causes a temporary loss of 
about 8 per ct. in yield of milk and only an insignificant loss in yield of 
butter fat. This is repaid a hundred fold in greater comfort of the herd 
thereafter. The wise dairyman will agree with Beach of the Connecticut 
(Storrs) Station 56 who writes after dehorning the Station herd: "The 
worry, pain, and cruelty of animals to their mates is eliminated when 
these instruments of torture are removed, and the lack of fear and the 
quiet contentment of the individuals of the herd are at once noticeable. 
The benefits from dehorning dairy cattle cannot be accurately measured, 
but there is an almost unanimous opinion in its favor among those who 
have practiced it in their herds." 

Studies at the "Wisconsin Station 57 show that subjecting cows to the 
tuberculin test has practically no effect on the yield of milk and butter 
fat. 

Spaying has sometimes been recommended in the case of cows which 
are not to be retained as breeders, it being held that not only is the milk 

"Molkerei Zeitung, 17, 1903, p. 191. 55 Wis. Rpt. 1905. 

M Vt. Rpt. 1907. ""Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1902. 

^Backhaus, Jour. Landw., 41, 1893, p. 332. sr Wis. Rpt. 1905. 

0, Vt. Rpts. 1899, 1900. 



354 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

of spayed cows richer but that the lactation period is also lengthened 12 
to 15 months. Nicolas, 58 after continued experiments with spayed and 
unspayed cows, concludes that such practice is not warranted by the 
results. The quality of the milk from spayed cows is better than that of 
non-pregnant cows, but poorer than that of the pregnant cows. 

570. Milking machines. — Because of the difficulty of securing efficient 
hand milkers, the use of milking machines attracts wide-spread interest. 
The various types of machines have now been improved and long-con- 
tinued trials at various stations 59 show that when cows are milked with 
the best machines by careful operators and with well-adjusted teat cups 
there is no injurious effect on the yield or quality of the milk, or on the 
health of the animals. "While with most cows the machine does not draw 
quite all the milk from the udder and it is necessary to strip by hand, 
nevertheless a considerable saving in time results from the use of ma- 
chines. Hooper and Nutter of the Kentucky Station 00 found at the 
Elmendorf dairy that 2 men required 3 hours to milk 50 cows by hand, 
aided by a boy to carry the milk to the milk house. Using 2 units per 
man the men, aided by the boy as before, milked these cows in 1 hour 
and 15 minutes. Later, using 3 units per man, the 2 men alone milked 
the cows in 1 hour and 45 minutes. When the machines are properly 
cleansed and the rubber tubing kept in an antiseptic solution, the sani- 
tary condition of the milk is improved over that ordinarily obtained by 
hand milking. Owing to the first cost of the machines and the labor 
involved in their operation and cleansing, various authorities consider 
machine milking economical under usual conditions only where at least 
15 to 30 cows are milked thruout the year. 

571. Regularity and kindness. — For the best results with dairy cows, 
as with other farm animals, they should be treated with kindness at all 
times, and regularity in feeding and care should be observed. Many of 
the highest yielding cows are of nervous temperament, and especially 
with such animals any excitement usually causes a sharp decrease in 
yield. Hence cows being driven should not be hurried and attendants 
should never strike or otherwise abuse them. Changes in the daily 
routine which do not unduly disturb cows apparently have no great effect 
on their yield. Carlyle of the Wisconsin Station 01 found that changing 
milkers had no appreciable effect upon the yield of milk or fat. Lin- 
field 62 concludes that any change in milk yield is due to the individuality 
of the milker and not to the mere change of the milkers. Grisdale of the 
Ottawa Experimental Farms 63 found that irregularity in the intervals 
between milkings slightly reduced the quantity and quality of the milk. 

Bs Soc. de L.' Aliment. Rationelle du Betail, 1898. 

B0 Mairs Perm Bui. 85; Price, Tvenn. Bui. 80; Haecker and Little, Nebr. Bui. 
108- Woli and Humphrey, Wis. Res. Bui. 3, also Bui. 173; McMillan, Agr. Gaz., 
N S Wales 22, 1911, pp. 859-868; Smith and Harding, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 353; 
Larsen, White, and Fuller, S. D. Bui. 144; Hooper and Nutter, Ky. Bui. 186. 

60 Ky. Bui. 186. "Wis. Rpt. 1903. 62 Utah Bui. 68. 

63 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpts. 1901, 1902. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 355 

When the changes were not sudden, the effect due to the difference in 
the length of the intervals between the milkings was negligible. 

572. Minor Points.— Lane of the New Jersey Station 64 found that 
cows receiving 3 feeds daily consumed more roughage and gave slightly 
more milk than those getting 2 daily, but the increase barely paid for the 
extra labor and feed. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 65 
found 2 feeds as effective as 3 in maintaining the milk flow. It is reason- 
able to hold that 2 generous feeds daily are sufficient for the dairy cow 
with her roomy digestive apparatus. (35) 

On feeding cows wet and dry concentrates, Grisdale 66 found a small 
difference in favor of the dry feed. 

Hills of the Vermont Station 67 holds that it does not usually pay to 
milk cows thrice daily, tho a temporary increase in milk flow is produced 
thereby. Dean of the Ontario Agricultural College 08 concludes that such 
practice is not profitable except perhaps in the case of very heavy 
milkers. 

The "Hegelund method" consists in so manipulating the cow's udder 
after milking as to bring down all remaining traces of milk. By this 
system, Woll of the Wisconsin Station 69 found that the daily milk yield 
of a herd of 24 cows was- increased 4.5 per ct. and the fat yield 9.2 per ct. 
The average daily gain per cow of 1 lb. of milk and nearly 0.1 lb. of fat 
seemed to be maintained thruout the whole lactation period. Wing and 
Foord at the New York (Cornell) Station 70 found no advantage in this 
method over thoro stripping by the ordinary method. 

Woodward, Turner, and Curtice of the United States Department of 
Agriculture 71 found that when cows which were immune to tick fever 
were infested with ticks the milk yield was reduced 34.2 per ct. on ac- 
count of the depletion of the blood. In tick infested districts they advise 
spraying or dipping with an arsenical solution, at least when animals 
are heavily infested. 

573. Flavor, odor, and color. — Milk and its products possess qualities 
cognizable only to sight, taste, and smell. The Guernsey breed excels in 
producing a milk with a yellow fat. Pasture grass, soiling crops, car- 
rots, and some other feeding stuffs impart a yellowish tinge to milk 
fat. Due to minute quantities of volatile oils they contain, onions, leeks, 
turnips, rape, etc., impart an objectionable flavor to milk, possibly ap- 
parent to all people, while other flavors are detected by some but pass 
unnoticed by many. When cows are first turned to pasture, we at once 
observe a grass flavor in the milk and butter, tho it soon disappears ; but 
whether it has really disappeared or we only fail to notice it, we do not 
know. It is possible that after a time the cow more completely eliminates 
such volatile oils than at first. Bad flavors can be largely avoided by 

64 N. J. Rpt. 1900. 63 0nt. Agr. Col., Rpt. 1898. 

05 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1904. 6!> Wis. Rpt. 1902. 

66 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1901. 70 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 213. 

67 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 71 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 147. 



356 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

feeding whatever causes them immediately after milking so that the 
volatile oils they furnish, which are the source of the trouble, may the 
more completely escape from the body before the next milking. 

It is further possible that the facility with which flavors and odors 
pass from feed to milk or are eliminated from the body when once with- 
in it varies with different cows. The flavors and aroma of butter are 
mostly due to fermentation of milk sugar, so that this matter rests only 
in part on feeding. 

Sometimes when a cow is far along in lactation her milk grows bitter 
and distasteful. Eckles 72 states that so far as he has observed this occurs 
only when the animal is far advanced in pregnancy and rarely happens 
when green feed is supplied. He writes that reducing the grain ration 
and giving 2 or 3 doses of Epsom salts may remove the trouble. 

It is probable that the milk of every cow, aside from the influence of 
feed, possesses a distinctly individual flavor too delicately fine to be ob- 
served by most humans, but plainly noticed by others. It may be that 
in the future, when the grosser problems now perplexing dairymen have 
been solved, it will be found that certain cows yield a peculiarly palat- 
able milk. Should this prove to be the case, then thru selection there 
may be established breeds or families possessing this ultra-refined and 
most desirable quality. 

The whole subject of odors and flavors in milk and dairy products is 
greatly complicated by the fact that there is a wide range in the ability 
of different individuals to detect and distinguish them. Flavors and 
odors plainly evident to one person are unnoticed by another. Often 
odors and flavors charged to feed or cow are due to contamination of the 
milk in the stable or elsewhere, after it is drawn from the cow. 

574. The yellow color of cream and butter. — It is common knowledge 
that cows produce cream and butter which is more deeply colored in 
summer when eating green feeds than in winter, and that Jerseys and 
Guernseys usually produce a yellower product than the other breeds. 
Extensive investigations by Palmer and Eckles at the Missouri Station 73 
have at length shown the cause of yellow color in butter fat. They find 
that the color is due to a substance called carotin, so named because it is 
the coloring matter of the carrot. This compound is commonly found in 
green plants along with the green chlorophyll, which masks its color. 
(8) It was found that animals given feeds poor in carotin for long 
periods invariably produced white cream and butter fat, regardless of 
the breed. This shows that the yellow color of Jersey and Guernsey 
butter is not due to any ability of these breeds to manufacture carotin. 
However, when cows of these breeds are given feeds rich in carotin they 
transfer to their milk a larger part of the yellow coloring matter of the 
feed than do cows of the other breeds, and hence produce yellower but- 
ter fat. Green feeds in general were found to be rich in carotin, as well 

"Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 227. 
73 Mo. Res. Buls. 9, 10, 11, 12; also Cir. 74. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 357 

as hay of a bright green color and new corn silage. Carrots and other 
yellow roots also contain much of this coloring matter. On the other 
hand, bleached hay, dry corn fodder or stover, straw, old corn silage in 
which the carotin had been destroyed by fermentation, corn, both yellow 
and white, and all the common concentrated by-products, such as wheat 
bran, linseed meal, brewers' grains, etc., were found to be poor in carotin. 
This explains why cows usually produce light-colored butter in winter. 
The color of 3'ellow corn is due to a colored substance other than carotin, 
which does not pass into the milk. 

The yellow color of the body fat and skin of Jerseys and Guernseys 
was found to be due to carotin. This shows why cows of these breeds 
yield a highly colored product for a long time after going on winter 
feed. During such periods the yellow coloring matter in their body fat 
is transferred to the milk. Purchasers often discriminate against beef 
having deeply colored fat, yet this tallow is colored by the same substance 
that gives butter the highly desired yellow color. 



CHAPTER XXII 

FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

With the high prices now ruling for feed and labor, studies of the 
cost of milk production reveal that on many farms, even where dairy 
cows of good quality are kept, milk is being produced at little or no 
profit to the owner. Yet by a wise selection of feeds and intelligent 
feeding other dairymen secure goodly profits from cows no better. This 
shows emphatically that the feeding of the herd must be given most care- 
ful study and the system of farming so planned that a ration both well- 
balanced in chemical nutrients and otherwise satisfactory may be pro- 
vided at minimum expense. 

575. Indian corn. — Thruout the corn belt Indian corn, a grain highly 
relished by the cow, is usually the cheapest carbonaceous concentrate 
available for the dairy herd. Owing to its wide nutritive ratio corn 
should be used as the sole concentrate only when leguminous roughages 
supply the lacking protein, and even then more variety in the ration is 
better. (201) At the Illinois Station 1 Fraser and Hay den fed 1 lot of 10 
cows for 131 days on the well-balanced ration shown in the table, in which 
gluten feed and clover hay furnished the protein necessary to balance 
the ground corn and corn silage. Another lot was fed corn as the sole 
concentrate, with corn silage, timothy hay, and a small amount of clover 
hay for roughage, as is indicated in the table : 

Com requires supplement for feeding dairy cows 

Nutritive Average daily yield 
Average ration ratio Milk Fat 

Lot I, Balanced ration Lbs - Lbs- 

Ground com, 3 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 8 lbs. 

Gluten feed, 4.7 lbs. Corn silage, 30 lbs 1:6 30 . 1 .96 

Lot II, Unbalanced ration 

Ground corn, 8 lbs. Timothy hay, 5 lbs. 
Clover hay, 3 lbs. 
Corn silage, 30 lbs 1:11 2U .5 .69 

As soon as Lot II was changed from the excellent ration they had 
previously been fed to the unbalanced ration shown in the table, which 
had a nutritive ratio of 1 :11, they fell off sharply in production. While 
the cows in Lot I were seldom off feed, this occurred frequently in Lot 
II. During the trial the cows in Lot I produced 47 per ct. more milk and 
39 per ct. more fat than those in Lot II. 

At the Maryland Station 2 Patterson fed cows on corn meal with corn 

Mil. Bui. 159. 2 Md. Bui. 84. 

358 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 359 

fodder and soilage corn as the chief roughages during the entire lac- 
tation period, while others were given a well-balanced ration of gluten 
feed, wheat bran, and corn meal, with the same roughages. The next 
year the rations were reversed so that each cow was on both sides of the 
trial. On the unbalanced ration containing corn meal as the sole con- 
centrate the average annual yield of the cows was only 3,150 lbs. of milk 
or 152 lbs. of butter. When the protein-rich concentrate mixture was 
fed the yield of milk was increased 33 per ct. and that of butter over 45 
per ct. These trials show the folly of expecting profitable production 
from such unbalanced rations, even tho they may be palatable. 

576. Corn meal; com-and-cob meal. — Corn is commonly ground for the 
dairy cow (423), but sometimes ear or shock corn is fed. When other 
bulky concentrates are not furnished it may be advisable to feed this 
grain in the form of corn-and-cob meal. Lane of the New Jersey Sta- 
tion 3 secured 9.4 per ct. more milk when feeding corn-and-cob meal as 
half the concentrate allowance than when an equal weight, including 
cob, of ear corn was fed. Cook of the same Station* found corn-and-cob 
meal of slightly lower value than an equal weight of corn meal. (208) 

577. Hominy feed. — This carbohydrate-rich by-product, quite similar 
to corn in composition, compares favorably in feeding value with this 
grain. (213) Like corn it must be supplemented by feeds rich in pro- 
tein. 

578. Wheat. — Wheat, which is usually too high priced for feeding 
except when low in quality, has about the same value for cows as corn. 
This is shown in a trial by Bartlett at the Maine Station 5 in which 6 
cows were fed by the reversal method for three 21-day periods. When 
5 lbs. of wheat meal replaced an equal weight of corn meal in the ration 
the returns in milk and fat were practically unchanged. 

At the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station Friis 6 compared ground wheat 
Math a mixture of equal parts of ground barley and oats in trials on 6 
farms. When fed with a basal ration of 3.3 lbs. wheat bran, 1.8 lbs. oil 
cake, 30 lbs. mangels, 10 lbs. hay, and straw without limit, 5.2 lbs. of 
wheat was fully equal in value to the same weight of mixed barley and 
oats. Wheat should be ground or preferably rolled for cows. (215) 

579. Oats. — This grain, which supplies somewhat more protein than 
does corn or wheat, is an excellent feed for the dairy cow. However, 
owing to the high price of oats, most dairymen cannot economically use 
them in any large way. Usually the various concentrate by-products 
are cheaper sources of crude protein, while corn furnishes carbohydrates 
at less expense. The value of this grain is well shown in the following 
table, which presents the results secured by Woll at the Wisconsin Sta- 
tion 7 on feeding 4 cows for 2 alternate 21-day periods on rations of 6 lbs. 
clover hay and corn stover without limit for roughage, with the concen- 
trate allowances indicated : 

3 N. J. Bui. 84. 6 Me. Rpt. 1895. 7 Wis. Rpt. 1890. 

4 N. J. Rpt. 25, pp. 159-167. "Copenhagen Sta., 34th Rpt., 1895. 



360 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Ground oats vs. wheat bran for dairy cows 

Average daily yield 
Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

I. Ground oats, 10 lbs. Corn meal, 2 lbs 23 .3 1 .03 

77. Wheat bran, 10 lbs. Corn meal, 2 lbs 20 .8 .93 

When fed oats in place of wheat bran, the cows produced 12 per ct. 
more milk and 11 per ct. more fat. It should, however, be remembered 
that bran is much higher in digestible crude protein than oats and hence 
will be more efficient than this grain in balancing a ration deficient in 
this nutrient. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 8 found that when 
fed with a basal ration of 3.2 lbs. bran and 19.1 lbs. mixed hay, 4.5 lbs. 
oats was equal to the same weight of corn meal for milk production. 

580. Barley. — Barley is fed to dairy cows to a considerable extent in 
Europe and has a reputation for producing milk and butter of excellent 
quality. The Danes regard ground barley and oats as one of the best 
concentrate mixtures for dairy cows. Judging from the composition of 
barley and the results of trials with other animals (228), it would seem 
that the value of barley for the dairy cow would be slightly lower than 
that of corn per pound, but the Scandinavians consider these grains of 
practically equal value. 

581. Rye. — Large allowances of rye produce a hard, dry butter, but 
about 2.2 to 3.3 lbs. per head daily mixed with other feeds has given good 
results. 9 At the Pennsylvania Station 10 Hayward fed 3 cows a basal 
ration of 2.5 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2.0 lbs. linseed meal, and 12 lbs. tim- 
othy hay and supplied in addition 3.5 lbs. of either rye meal or corn 
meal during 3 periods of 35 days each. Four per ct. less milk and 5 per 
ct. less butter was produced on the ration containing rye, indicating 
that rye meal is somewhat less valuable than corn meal for the dairy 
cow. (232) 

582. Emmer. — Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station, 11 
when feeding brome hay and corn silage for roughage, found that cows 
produced 1 lb. of butter fat for each 15.5 lbs. of corn or barley meal 
fed, while 17.5 lbs. of ground emmer (spelt) were required, a difference 
of 13 per ct. in favor of barley or corn meal. (233) 

583. Kafir meal. — In a trial with 18 cows for 7 weeks, Cottrell and 
Skinner of the Kansas Station 12 found that 8 lbs. of kafir meal and 
20 lbs. of alfalfa hay made the cheapest dairy ration for Kansas con- 
ditions. When fed with prairie, timothy, or sorghum hay or with corn 
fodder, kafir tends to dry up the cows, and if fed abundantly to fatten 
them, as would be expected from the unbalanced nature of the ration. 

(237) 

584. Sorghum meal.— During three 20-day periods Cook of the New 
Jersey Station 13 fed cows rations composed of 5 lbs. corn stover, 20 lbs. 
wet brewers' grains, 5 lbs. bran, and 9 lbs. of either corn meal or meal 

8 Mass. Rpt. 1913, Part I, pp. 141-153. 
s Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 451. 
10 Penn Bui. 52. 11 S. D. Bui. 81. I2 Kan. Bui. 93. 1S N. J. Rpt. 1882. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 361 

from seed of sweet sorghum, for each 1000 lbs. live weight. "When the 
sorghum meal ration was fed the yield of milk was about 10 per ct. 
less than when the corn meal was supplied. (241) 

585. Dried beet pulp. — This bulky carbonaceous concentrate has be- 
come popular with dairymen, especially those feeding cows on forced 
test, on account of its slightly laxative and cooling effect. At the 
Massachusetts Station 14 Lindsey found 4.3 lbs. of dried beet pulp equal 
to the same weight of corn meal when fed with a basal ration of 2.0 lbs. 
wheat bran, 0.7 lb. cottonseed meal, and 17 lbs. mixed hay. (275) 

Where silage is not available, dried beet pulp, moistened before 
feeding, as it should always be when a large allowance is fed, is a satis- 
factory, tho usually expensive, substitute. This is shown in a trial by 
Billings at the New Jersey Station 15 in which 2 lots each of 2 cows were 
fed the rations shown below alternately for two 15-day periods : 

Dried beet pulp as a substitute for corn silage 

Average daily yield 

Average ration Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 
/. Dried beet pulp, 9 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 10 lbs. Rich concentrates, 10 .5 lbs 33 .6 1 .39 

II. Corn silage, 45 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 5 lbs. Rich concentrates, 10 .5 lbs 30 .2 1 .25 

Where 9 lbs. of dried beet pulp and 5 lbs. mixed hay replaced 45 lbs. 
of corn silage, the cows gave 11 per ct. more milk and butter. 

586. Dried molasses-beet pulp. — Billings of the New Jersey 16 and 
Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 17 found dried molasses-beet pulp 
about equal in feeding value to dried beet pulp for dairy cows. In a 
trial by Billings dried molasses-beet pulp proved almost as valuable as 
an equal weight of hominy meal, the cows eating the dried molasses-beet 
pulp with more eagerness and remaining in better health. The milk 
from cows fed on dried molasses-beet pulp at first had a sweet taste, 
which soon passed away. Since both dried beet pulp and molasses-beet 
pulp are low in protein, they should not be fed as substitutes for protein- 
rich feeds, as has often been done. (277) 

587. Whey. — At the Kiel Dairy Station 18 Schrodt fed cows a ration 
of 11 lbs. clover hay, 5.5 lbs. barley straw, 10 lbs. mangels, 5.5 lbs. wheat 
bran, and 2.2 lbs. palmnut meal. During one period 11 lbs. of sweet 
whey was fed, and during another, 22 lbs. The whey had a favorable 
influence on the quantity of milk yielded, and no deleterious effect on 
the quality of the butter. (268) 



II. Protein-Rich Concentrates 

588. Wheat bran. — This palatable, bulky concentrate is one of the 
most esteemed feeds for the dairy cow, for it is quite high in crude 

"Mass. Rpt. 1913, Part I, pp. 129-140. "Mass. Rpt. 1913, Part I, pp. 129-140. 
15 N. J. Bui. 189. » Jahresber. Agr. Chemie, 1882, p. 441. 

18 N. J. Rpt. 1904. 



362 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

protein, is rich in phosphorus, and has a beneficial laxative effect on 
the digestive tract. (218) Owing to its popularity, bran is usually high 
in price, considering the amount of crude protein it furnishes. Other 
by-products, such as gluten feed, dried brewers' grains, and cottonseed 
meal, which are richer in digestible crude protein, are therefore usually 
more economical sources of protein for balancing the ration. Under 
many conditions it is accordingly best to feed bran only in Limited 
amount for its beneficial effect on the health of the animals, rather than 
as the chief source of crude protein in the ration. This concentrate is 
cspeeially valuable for cows just before and after calving, for those on 
official lest, and for young, growing animals. 

In feeding trials with 447 cows on several Danish farms the Copen- 
hagen Station 10 found wheat bran fed as the sole concentrate fully equal 
to a mixture of equal parts of ground barley and oats. Bran, however, 
should rarely be so fed, but always in combination with some feed rich 
in carbohydrates, such as corn, rye, barley, etc., and with some legume 
roughage to furnish lime, which it lacks. (98) 

589. Wheat shorts; wheat middlings; wheat mixed feed. — Tho higher 
in digestible crude protein than wheat bran, shorts or middlings are less 
palatable and an; heavy, rather than bulky feeds. They should hence be 
led to dairy cows only in limited amounts mixed with other con- 
centrates. The Copenhagen Station 20 secured slightly larger returns 
from wheat shorts than from wheat bran in trials with 240 cows. (220) 

On account of its higher content of digestible protein and carbo- 
hydrates Smith and Deals of the Massachusetts Station'- 1 rate the value 
of a good grade of wheat mixed feed at 10 per ct. more than that of 
bran. 

590. Corn gluten feed. — This by-product, which contains about twice 
as much digestible crude protein as wheat bran and is not a very heavy 
\'cc(\, is a valuable concentrate for the dairy cow. In a trial at the 
Vermont Station 22 with 2 cows fed by the reversal method in 18-day 
periods, Cooke found that when 4 lbs. of gluten feed replaced an equal 
weight of a mixture of wheat bran and corn meal the yield of milk was 
increased 15 per ct. and of fat 16 per ct. (210) 

591. Gluten meal.— Hills of the Vermont Station 23 fed 6 cows for 
20 weeks, comparing gluten meal with a mixture of equal parts of corn 
meal and wheat bran. He found that 100 lbs. of dry matter in the 
form of gluten meal, substituted for an equal amount of dry matter in 
a mixture of equal parts corn meal and wheat bran, increased the yield 
of milk and total solids 12.5 per ct. (211) 

592. Germ oil meal.— In a feeding trial with 4 cows at the Vermont 
Station 21 Hills compared a mixture of equal parts of germ oil meal and 
wheat bran with one composed of 1 part cottonseed meal, 1 part linseed 
meal, and 2 parts wheat bran. In a second trial the germ oil meal and 

'"Copenhagen Sta., Rpt. 1894. M Mass. Bui. 146. 28 Vt. Rpt. 1895. 

=° Copenhagen Sta., Rpt. 1894. !S Vt. Rpt. 1892. ='Vt. Rpt. 1901. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 363 

bran mixture was compared with ground oals. The roughage consisted 
of mixed hay and corn silage. In both trials the returns were in favor of 
the germ oil meal. (212) 

593. Dried brewers' grains. — To compare the value of dried brewers' 
grains and wheat bran Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station- fed a lot 
of 4 cows and one of 3 cows by the reversal method for two 28-day 
periods. All were given a daily roughage allowance of 26.2 lbs. corn 
silage and about 12.4 lbs. bluegrass hay, with concentrates as shown 
below : 

Dried brewers' grains vs. wheat bran for dairy cows 

Average daily yield 

Average ''Jii'-cril r.i I ■• allowanee .Mill J ., i 

Lbs. Lbs. 

/. Dried brewers' grains, 4.3 lbs. Gluten feed, 3.0 lbs.. 21 .4 1.1 

//. Wheat bran, 4 .4 lbs. Gluten fed, 3 ,0 lbs . . 20 .8 1.1 

The results show dried brewers' grains somewhat superior to wheat 
bran for milk production. Hills of the Vermont Station 2 " found dried 
brewers' grains and wheat bran equal in feeding value to a mixture of 
cottonseed meal, linseed meal, and wheat bran. (228; 

594. Malt sprouts. — Tho not especially palatable, malt sprouts may 
be successfully fed to dairy cows when mixed with other feeds, and are 
often a cheap source of protein. When over 2 lbs. daily is fed, they 
should be soaked before feeding in order to avoid digestive disturbances, 
as they swell greatly on absorbing water. 

Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 27 fed 2 lbs. malt sprouts against 
1.5 lbs. gluten feed to cows getting a basal ration of 10 lbs. of Kentucky 
bluegrass hay, 10.4 lbs. rowen hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, and 1 lb. eorn 
meal, with the following results : 

Malt sprouts vs. gluten feed for dairy cows 

Average raii'.u 

Ration I. Malt sprouts, 2 .0 lbs. Basal ration 

Ration II. Gluten feed, 1 .5 lbs. Basal ration 



Average daily vield 
Milk Fat 
Lbs. Lbs. 


18.1 


0.89 


18.2 


0.91 



It will be seen that 2 lbs. of malt sprouts were about equal to 1.5 lbs. 
of gluten feed. Lindsey 28 states that an exeess of malt sprouts should 
be avoided as they are deficient in lime and also may cause abortion 
when fed in large amounts. According to Pott 29 feeding over 3.3 lbs. 
per head daily may impart an aromatic, bitter taste to the milk. When 
making up half to two-thirds the concentrate allowance Hills of the 
Vermont Station 30 found malt sprouts of lower value than oats. 

595. Buckwheat middlings. — Hills of the Vermont Station 31 reports 
that cows fed buckwheat middlings produced 8 to 11 per ct. more milk 

"Mass. Bui. 94. "Mass. Rpt. 1911, Part II, p. 83. 

M Vt. Rpt. 1903. "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 225. 

"Mass. Bui. 94. M Vt. Rpt. 1902. 31 Vt. Rpts. 1900, 1907. 



364 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

than on an equal weight of a mixture of equal parts corn and wheat bran. 
When fed as the sole c< ncentrate, the cows did not usually relish 
buckwheat middlings, and the quality of the butter was somewhat im- 
paired. Hayward and Weld of the Pennsylvania Station 32 found buck- 
wheat middlings and dried brewers' grains equally valuable for dairy 
cows when judiciously fed as part of a balanced ration. When thus fed 
neither of these feeds had a detrimental effect upon the flavor or quality 
of the milk or butter. (244) 

596, Cottonseed meal. — Experience has shown that cottonseed meal 
may be fed to dairy cows in properly balanced rations for years with no 
ill effects. This is most fortunate since this highly nitrogenous feed is 
usually the cheapest source of protein in the South and often likewise 
in the North. Since cottonseed meal is constipating it should be fed 
with laxative concentrates, such as linseed meal or wheat bran, or with 
succulent feed, such as silage or roots. The milk of cows heavily fed 
on cotton seed or cottonseed meal yields a hard, tallowy butter, light in 
color and poor in flavor. If a moderate allowance is fed in a properly 
balanced ration the quality is not impaired and may even be improved 
if the other feeds tend to produce a soft butter. (562) This feed is used 
as the sole concentrate on many southern farms, a practice which is 
safe when only a limited allowance is given. Soule of the Georgia Sta- 
tion 33 reports that for several years the station dairy herd has been fed 2 
to 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily with Bermuda grass pasture 
in summer and corn and sorghum silage in the winter with satisfactory 
results. The custom has been to feed 2 lbs. to a 700- to 800-lb. cow 
giving 1.5 to 2 gallons of milk and somewhat more to the heavier pro- 
ducers, but rarely is over 3 lbs. of meal fed. Michels and Burgess of 
the South Carolina Station 34 found cottonseed meal and corn silage by 
far the cheapest ration available for dairy cows under prevailing con- 
ditions. 

Since cottonseed meal is a highly nitrogenous, heavy feed, when a large 
allowance is given the meal should be mixed with feeds which are bulky 
and lower in crude protein. McNutt of the North Carolina Station 35 
found a mixture of equal parts cottonseed meal, dried beet pulp, and 
dried distillers' grains highly satisfactory when fed with corn silage. 
A mixture of cottonseed meal, corn meal, and wheat bran was also satis- 
factory, but more expensive. During 4 years McNutt fed as much as 
6 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily to large cows for extended 
periods, without any unfavorable results when it was given in such a 
mixture as this and with silage for roughage. At the Texas Station 36 
in trials lasting 56 days with 18 cows Soule found that 6 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal fed daily as the sole concentrate proved more effective and 
gave larger profits than allowances of 7 to 10 lbs. (250) 

32 Penn. Bui. 41. 35 Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1914. 

" Breeder's Gazette, 62, 1912, p. 217. sa Texas Bui. 47. 

M S. C. Bui. 131. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 365 

597. Cottonseed meal vs. other concentrates. — At the South Carolina 
Station 37 Michels and Burgess fed 21 cows for 3 alternate 27-day periods 
on a ration of 32 to 35 lbs. corn silage (all they would consume) with 
wheat bran and cottonseed meal in addition as is indicated in the follow- 
ing table. In Period II, 5.1 lbs. of cottonseed meal was fed as the sole 
concentrate, while in Periods I and III, 3.4 lbs. of wheat bran replaced 
1.7 lbs. of cottonseed meal. 

At the New Jersey Station 38 Lane fed 4 cows for 66 days on a ration 
of 36 lbs. corn silage and 6 lbs. corn stalks, with either cottonseed meal 
alone or a mixture of equal parts of wheat bran and dried brewers' 
grains for the concentrate allowance, as shown in the table : 

Cottonseed meal vs. wheat bran and dried brewers' grains 

Average daily yield 
Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

South Carolina Station 

Cottonseed meal, 5 . 1 lbs 16 .4 .71 

Wheat bran, 3 .4 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3 .4 lbs 15.9 .68 

New Jersey Station 

Cottonseed meal, 4 .5 lbs 22 .7 .96 

Wheat bran, 5 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5 lbs 23 .9 .95 

From the South Carolina trial we learn that when 1.7 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal was replaced by 3.4 lbs. of wheat bran the yield of milk and 
fat was slightly decreased. In the New Jersey trial, where corn silage 
and corn stover formed the roughage, 4.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal did 
not prove quite equal to 10 lbs. of a mixture of wheat bran and dried 
brewers' grains. Michels concludes that 1 lb. of cottonseed meal is equal 
to 2 lbs. of wheat bran for milk production, while Moore of the Missis- 
sippi Station 39 holds that 1 lb. of cottonseed meal is only equal to 1.5 lbs. 
of wheat bran. 

In a feeding trial with 24 cows lasting 120 days at the Virginia Sta- 
tion, 40 Soule and Fain, comparing cottonseed meal and gluten meal, 
found that the relative amount of digestible crude protein contained in 
these feeds was a fair measure of their feeding value. 

598. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake; cotton seed. — In a trial with dairy 
cows Lee and "Woodward of the Louisiana Station 41 found cold-pressed 
cottonseed cake less valuable for milk and butter production than an 
equal weight of a mixture of two parts of meal and one of hulls. They 
conclude that the chemical composition of cold-pressed cottonseed cake is 
a reliable indication of its feeding value. "With cottonseed meal at $30 
per ton and hulls at $5 they estimate that cold-pressed cottonseed cake 
is worth $21.65 per ton. (248) Moore of the Mississippi Station 42 found 
100 lbs. of cottonseed meal equal to 171 lbs. of cotton seed in feeding 
value for dairy cows. (245) 

37 S. C. Bui. 117. "Miss. Bui. 70. "La. Bui. 110. 

"'N. J. Rpt. 1903. ""Va. Bui. 156. "Miss. Bui. 60. 



366 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

599. Linseed meal. — This slightly laxative, cooling, nitrogenous con- 
centrate is one of the best dairy feeds, but owing to its popularity is 
often too high in price to furnish protein as cheaply as some of the other 
feeds which are usually available. Even then 1 to 2 lbs. per head daily 
is often advisable on account of its tonic and laxative effect, especially 
with cows out of condition or those soon to freshen. 

To compare the value of linseed and cottonseed meal Waters and Hess 
conducted a trial at the Pennsylvania Station 43 with 9 cows fed for 2 
alternate 30-day periods. The cows were fed 9.3 lbs. corn stover per head 
daily with the concentrate allowances shown in the table : 

Linseed vs. cottonseed meal for dairy cows 

Average daily yield 
Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

I. Linseed meal, 6 .0 lbs. Chopped wheat, 6 .0 lbs 15.1 .78 

77. Cottonseed meal, 5 .3 lbs. Chopped wheat, 6 .7 lbs 16 .2 .77 

The cows receiving the cottonseed meal produced somewhat more milk 
but no more fat than those getting linseed meal. Hills of the Vermont 44 
and Michels of the North Carolina Station 45 also found cottonseed meal 
of slightly higher value than linseed meal as a source of protein. Michels 
concludes, however, that no farmer should hesitate to use a small 
amount of linseed meal at any time for animals whose health will be 
benefited thereby. Linseed meal tends to produce a soft butter and 
therefore may sometimes be advantageously fed in rations which would 
otherwise produce a tallowy product. (254) 

600. Soybeans. — The relative value of ground soybeans and cottonseed 
meal for milk production was tested by Price at the Tennessee Station 46 
with 2 lots each of four 2- and 3-year old heifers, fed the following 
rations alternately during three 30-day periods : 

Ground soybeans vs. cottonseed meal for dairy cows 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs - L bs. 

Ground soybeans, 2 .3 lbs. Corn silage, 24 .7 lbs. 

Corn-and-cob meal, 2 .3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 .3 lbs 14 .4 .81 

Ration II 

Cottonseed meal, 2 .3 lbs. Corn silage, 23 .5 lbs. 

Corn-and-cob meal, 2 .3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 .0 lbs 13 .6 .77 

It is shown that ground soybeans gave slightly better results than 
cottonseed meal. 

At the Massachusetts (Hatch) Station 47 2 lots of 4 cows each were 
fed 6 weeks by the reversal method. To a basal ration of hay, silage, 
and bran, an allowance of either ground soybeans or cottonseed meal 
was added in practically equal amounts. The ground soybeans proved 

43 Penn. Rpt. 1895. W N. C. Rpt. 33, 1910, p. 29. "Mass. (Hatch) Rpt. 1894. 

44 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 46 Tenn. Bui. 80. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 367 

slightly superior to the cottonseed meal as a milk and fat producer, and 
the butter was of better quality. 

Cook of the New Jersey Station 48 found 3.4 lbs. of ground soybeans 
slightly superior to the same weight of cottonseed meal when fed with 
3.4 lbs. corn-and-cob meal and 2.3 lbs. dried beet pulp with silage, soilage, 
and hay for roughage. 

Otis of the Kansas Station 40 found that when soybeans formed one- 
half the concentrates, the butter from such feeding was so soft that it 
was impossible to work it satisfactorily even tho chilled with ice water. 
This can be prevented by the addition to the ration of cottonseed meal, 
which tends to produce hard butter. (256) 

601. Soybean cake. — Gilchrist 50 of the Armstrong College, England, 
found soybean cake slightly superior to cottonseed cake for milk pro- 
duction. In an experiment lasting 6 weeks Hansen of the Royal Agri- 
cultural Academy, Germany, 51 found soybean cake and linseed cake of 
practically equal value for milk production when added to a basal ration 
of hay, bran, and sugar-beet chips. Tho a daily allowance of 4 to 7 lbs. 
of soybean cake was fed, no ill effects resulted. 

Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 52 found that soybean meal from 
which the oil had been extracted did not modify the composition of the 
milk nor exert a marked influence on the body of the butter. Feeding 
soybean oil temporarily increased the percentage of fat in the milk and 
produced a softer, more yielding butter. 

In view of the vast importance of the soybean in the Orient and its 
rapidly increasing use in Europe and America, these trials are signifi- 
cant and suggestive. (257) 

602. Cocoanut meal. — Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 53 reports 
that when fed with a basal ration of 20 lbs. mixed hay and 3.5 lbs. wheat 
bran, 3.7 lbs. of cocoanut meal produced substantially the same amount 
of milk as when an equal w r eight of gluten feed was fed. The yield of 
butter fat was 6 per ct. greater on the cocoanut meal ration, possibly due 
to the oil in the meal causing a more or less temporary increase in the 
fat content of the milk, a finding also reported by European investi- 
gators. (562) Scott of the Florida Station 54 concludes from a feeding 
trial that a unit of protein from cocoanut meal is nearly, tho not quite, 
equal to a unit of protein in cottonseed meal for milk production. A 
limited amount of cocoanut meal produces a firm butter of excellent 
quality, but when fed in excess of 3 to 4 lbs. per head daily it may make 
too hard a butter. (260) 

603. Mixed oil cakes vs. grain. — European dairymen make wide use of 
the various oil cakes, employing not only cottonseed, linseed, soybean, 
and cocoanut cake, but also such by-products as palm-nut, sunflower- 

49 N. J. Rpt. 1913, pp. 293-316. B2 Mass. Rpt. 1908. 

49 Kan. Bui. 125. M Mass. Bui. 155. 

""Mark Lane Express, 100, 1909, p. 667. 54 Fla. Bui. 99. 
"Deutsche Land. Presse, 36, 1909. 



368 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

seed, hemp-seed, and rape-seed cakes, which are practically unknown to 
American feeders. In trials with 240 cows on Danish farms the Copen- 
hagen Station found that when a mixture of equal parts by weight of 
palm-nut, rape-seed, and sunflower-seed cake was substituted for the 
same amount of mixed barley and oats there was a marked gain in yield 
of milk, provided the oil-cake mixture did not form more than half the 
concentrate allowance. For every 100 lbs. of oil-cake which was substi- 
tuted in the ration, there was a gain of 66 lbs. of milk. These trials 
well illustrate the high value of oil cakes and meals for milk production. 

604. Velvet bean. — Scott of the Florida Station 55 found that cows 
produced as much milk when fed a ration of 4.3 lbs. velvet beans in 
the pod, 10 lbs. wheat bran, and 24.5 lbs. Japanese cane silage as when 
given a ration of 3 lbs. cottonseed meal, 10 lbs. bran, and 34 lbs. cane 
silage. Hence 4.3 lbs. of velvet beans in the pod were fully equal to 3 
lbs. of cottonseed meal. Scott reports that the Florida farmer can pro- 
duce about 5 tons of velvet beans in the pod for the cost of 1 ton of 
cottonseed meal. (361) 

605. Dried distillers' grains. — Dried distillers' grains, which are about 
as bulky as wheat bran, are extensively employed for feeding dairy 
cattle. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station 56 compared this concen- 
trate with gluten feed in trials with 6 cows, covering 2 alternate periods 
of 4 weeks each. The following table shows the concentrate allowance 
fed during each period, the roughage thruout the trial consisting of 10.7 
lbs. bluegrass hay and 10.7 lbs. rowen hay per head daily : 

Dried distillers' grains vs. gluten feed 

Average daily yield 
Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

I. Dried distillers' grains, 3 .7 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 .0 lbs. 25 .8 1 .23 
II. Gluten feed, 3.7 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 .0 lbs. 24.3 1.18 

The ration containing dried distillers' grains produced 6 per ct. more 
milk than that containing the gluten feed. Hills 57 of the Vermont Sta- 
tion similarly found that dried distillers ' grains produced 5 per ct. more 
product than dried brewers' grains. A mixture of 1 part wheat bran 
and 2 parts dried distillers' grains produced 4 per ct. more milk and 
fat than did dried distillers' grains alone. Dried distillers' grains pro- 
duced one-eighth more milk and one-sixth more fat than a mixture of 
equal parts of corn meal and bran. Dried distillers' grains and cotton- 
seed meal proved equally efficient. Dried distillers' rye grains made 
less milk and butter than did the alcohol grains. Armsby and Risser of 
the Pennsylvania Station 58 found that the substitution of dried distillers' 
grains for an equal weight of a mixture of 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal 
and 2.5 lbs. of corn meal caused a slight increase in the milk yield. The 
butter from the distillers '-grains ration was not quite as high in quality 

"Fla. Bui. 114. c6 Mass. Bui. 94. 57 Vt. Rpt. 1907. ^Penn. Bui. 73. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 369 

as that from the cottonseed meal ration. On the other hand, Billings 
of the New Jersey Station 59 reports that the butter from cows fed dried 
distillers' grains was firm, of good flavor and texture, and very market- 
able. (282) 

Hooper of the Kentucky Station 60 states that some cows must become 
accustomed to the slightly sour smell and taste of dried distillers' grains 
before they will eat large allowances. While some cows would readily 
consume 4 lbs. per head daily when mixed with corn meal, it was neces- 
sary to mix the grains with silage to get others to consume them at all. 

606. Cereal by-products vs. pure grains. — To determine whether the 
digestible matter in such by-products as dried brewers' grains, malt 
sprouts, and gluten feed are as valuable as the digestible matter of the 
pure grains, Jordan and Jenter of the New York (Geneva) Station 01 
fed the following rations to 2 lots each of 5 cows for 9 weeks : 

Comparison of grains and cereal by-products for milk production 

Digestible Daily Dig. nutrients 

nutrients yield of eaten for 1 lb. 
Average ration eaten daily milk solids milk solids 

Ration I Lbs - Lbs - Lbs- 

Ground oats, 5 lbs. Timothy hay, 5 lbs. 

Ground peas, 6 lbs. Corn silage, 40 lbs. . 15 .3 2.7 5 .6 

Ration II 

Malt sprouts, 2 lbs. 

Dried brewers' grains, 3 lbs. Timothy hay, 15 lbs. 

Gluten feed, 3 lbs. Corn silage, 25 lbs. 14 . 1 2.7 5.2 

The table shows that the ration containing malt sprouts, brewers' 
grains, and gluten feed was rather more efficient for milk production 
than one of oats and peas, containing slightly more digestible matter. 

607. Skim milk. — Beach and Clark of the Connecticut (Storrs) Sta- 
tion 02 found that when sweet separator skim milk was offered to the 
herd of 24 cows, only 4 would drink it, even tho water was withheld for 
48 hours and grain was mixed with the milk. Skim milk was substituted 
for half the grain in the ration at the rate of 8 lbs. of milk for 1 of 
concentrates, and about 1 ton of milk was fed to each of the 4 cows. 
Feeding the skim milk caused a small increase in milk flow and a saving 
of grain, which, taken together, gave to the milk so fed a value of 19 
cents per cwt., which is less than pigs would have returned. (266) 

608. Blood meal; flesh meal; fish scrap. — Blood meal proved equal to 
twice the weight of cottonseed meal in a trial by Lindsey at the Massa- 
chusetts Station 63 in which cows were fed either 1.1 lbs. of blood meal 
or 2.2 lbs. of cottonseed meal with a basal ration of 4 lbs. hominy meal, 
3 lbs. wheat bran, and 20 lbs. of mixed clover and bluegrass hay. The 
blood meal produced no objectionable flavor in the milk and when mixed 

5!> N. J. Rpt. 1907. 6S Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904. 

"MCy. Bui. 171. 63 Mass. Rpt. 1909, II, pp. 153-157. 

61 N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 141. 



370 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

with the other concentrates was readily consumed. Lindsey believes that 
the allowance should be restricted to 1 or 2 lbs. per head daily. (271) 

Dairy cows may be accustomed to eating flesh meal, which is some- 
what similar to the tankage or meat meal of this country, by mixing a 
small amount with well-liked concentrates. European investigators do 
not recommend feeding over 2.2 to 2.8 lbs. daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. 
In a trial by Schrodt and Peters, bran and rape cake were gradually 
replaced by equal quantities of flesh meal until the allowance of the 
latter reached 2.2 lbs. per head daily. 04 The cows learned to relish the 
meal and the yield of milk and fat was increased. (270) 

Fish meal from which the fat had been extracted proved equal to 
cottonseed meal in trials by Isaaehsen 65 with 20 cows. Kiihn 66 states 
that a daily allowance of 2.3 lbs. of fish scrap produced no deleterious 
effect on the milk. (272) 



III. Hay from the Legumes 

609. Legume hay for the dairy cow. — Almost everywhere in America 
the Indian-corn plant provides the cheapest, most abundant, and most 
palatable carbohydrates the farmer can produce, but it falls short in 
furnishing protein, so vital in milk production. Happily, at least one 
of the legumes — alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, or vetch — can be grown on 
every American farm to supply the deficiency. The dairyman who grows 
great crops of corn for silage must also have broad fields of clover, 
alfalfa, or some other legume to help round out the ration. High in 
crude protein and mineral matter, especially lime, the legume hays are 
of great importance in reducing the amount of expensive protein-rich 
concentrates needed to provide a properly balanced ration for the dairy 
cow. The following articles show that when an abundance of legume 
hay of good quality and silage from well-matured corn is supplied, only 
half as much concentrates need be fed as when only carbonaceous rough- 
ages are used. Indeed, for cows of moderate productive capacity a 
ration of legume hay and corn or sorghum silage alone is often the most 
economical ration that can be furnished. Tho the milk yield may be 
reduced somewhat on such a ration, an animal of this kind may not pay 
for the addition of any concentrates. When legume hay is fed to dairy 
cows it is desirable that some succulent roughage such as corn silage or 
roots form a part of the ration to furnish variety and palatability as well 
as nourishment. 

610. Alfalfa hay. — Good alfalfa hay is generally placed at the head of 
the list of roughages suitable for the dairy cow, on account of its high 
content of protein and its palatability. The value of this hay in balancing 

6 *Fuhl. Landw. Ztg., 1892, p. 836. 

M Ber. Norges, Landbr. Hoiskoles Virks, 1910-11, pp. 13-33; Expt. Sta. Rec. 28, 
p. 363. 

06 Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 1894, p. 482. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 371 

rations otherwise low in protein is shown in a trial by Caldwell at the 
Ohio Station 07 in which 2 lots each of 6 cows were fed the rations shown 
below for 56 days : 

Alfalfa hay as source of protein for dairy cows 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat Nutritive 

Lot I Lbs. Lbs. ratio 

Alfalfa hay, 11 .6 lbs. 

Corn silage, 27 .8 lbs. Corn meal, 5 .9 lbs 22 .0 .87 1:7.0 

Lot II 

Corn stover, 5 .6 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3 .1 lbs. 
Corn silage, 29 .3 lbs. Wheat bran, 3.1 lbs. 

Corn meal, 3 . 1 lbs 20.5 0.90 1:5.7 

The ration fed Lot I — alfalfa hay, corn silage, and corn meal — would 
undoubtedly have been improved had a greater variety of concentrates 
been fed, yet with alfalfa hay as the sole supplement, a well-balanced ra- 
tion was provided which produced substantially as good results as that 
fed Lot II, in which wheat bran and cottonseed meal furnished most of 
the protein. "While Lot II was fed 9.3 lbs. of rich concentrates, Lot I re- 
ceived only 5.9 lbs. of corn meal. 

On account of a wide-spread opinion among dairymen in Utah that 
first crop alfalfa hay was the highest in feeding value, Carroll of the 
Utah Station GS compared first, second, and third crop hay in trials dur- 
ing 2 years. Each crop was cut at the period of early bloom from the 
same field and was cured in excellent condition. In order that the test 
might be as much as possible upon the 3 crops of hay, only 0.65 lb. of 
concentrates was fed to each cow daily for every pound of butterfat she 
produced per week. The concentrate mixture the first year consisted of 
equal parts of wheat bran and crushed oats, and the second year of equal 
parts of wheat bran and chopped barley. The cows were given all the 
hay they would clean up without waste. 

In the trials the advantage of any one crop over the others was found 
to be almost negligible. Considering the hay actually consumed, the 
second crop hay had slightly the highest value, but it proved slightly 
less palatable and a* little more was wasted than of the other cuttings. 
In general, leafy, fine-stemmed, early-cut hay is preferred by dairy cows. 
(338) 

611. Substituting alfalfa hay for part of the concentrates. — Billings at 
the New Jersey Station 69 and Fraser and Hayden at the Illinois Station 70 
conducted trials with dairy cows in which alfalfa hay was substituted 
for part of the concentrates in the ration, with the results shown in the 
table : 

67 Ohio Bui. 267. " Utah Bui. 126. 89 N. J. Bui. 190. "111. BuL 146. 



372 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Feeding alfalfa hay in place of part of the concentrate allowance 



Average ration 


Average daily yield 


Nutritive 


Milk Fat 


ratio 


New Jersey, 2 lots of 4 cows fed two 30-day periods 
Ration I 

Corn stover, 7 .0 lbs. 
Corn silage, 40 .0 lbs. 
Wheat bran, 4 .5 lbs. 
Dried brewers' grains, 4.5 lbs. 
Cottonseed meal, 2 .0 lbs 


Lbs. 

27.3 
26.3 

23.8 
24.4 


Lbs. 

1.13 
1.05 

1.00 
0.98 


1:54 


Ration II 

Alfalfa hay 14.0 lbs. 
Corn silage, 35.0 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 2 .5 lbs 


1:45 


Illinois, 2 lots of 3 cows fed two 66-day periods 
Ration I 

Corn silage, 30 lbs. 
Clover hay, 6 lbs. 
Corn meal, 6 lbs. 

Wheat bran, 8 lbs 

Ration II 

Alfalfa hay, 8 lbs. 
Corn silage, 30 lbs. 
Clover hay, 6 lbs. 

Corn meal, 6 lbs 


1 : 6.9 
1:70 







In the New Jersey trial 14 lbs. of alfalfa hay in Ration II replaced 
8.5 lbs. of the protein-rich concentrates, 5 lbs. of the corn silage, and all 
the corn stover in Ration I. Yet on this cheaper ration there was a 
shrinkage of only 1 lb. of milk and 0.08 lb. of fat per head daily. 

In the Illinois test, tho 8 lbs. of alfalfa hay in Ration II replaced an 
equal weight of wheat bran fed in Ration I, Ration II produced slightly 
more milk and practically as much fat. 

612. Substituting alfalfa hay for all the concentrates. — Billings 71 con- 
ducted a more drastic trial of the value of alfalfa hay for milk pro- 
duction by replacing all of the concentrate allowance with this hay in 
the following test with 2 lots each of 4 cows fed for two 60-day periods : 

Replacing all the concentrate allowance with alfalfa hay 



Average ration 

Ration I 

Corn stover, 6 .8 lbs. Distillers' grains, 4 .6 lbs. 
Corn silage, 40 .0 lbs. Wheat bran, 4 .2 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, .5 lb. 
Ration II 

Alfalfa hay, 17.5 lbs. 

Corn silage, 35 .0 lbs. No concentrates 



Average daily yield 



Milk 
Lba. 



24.6 



20.4 



Fat 
Lbs. 



1.07 



0.88 



Feed cost per 

100 lbs. milk* 

Cents 



83.7 



94.4 



*Cost of feeds per ton: alfalfa hay, $16; corn silage, S3; corn stover, $4; distillers' grains, S30; wheat 
bran, $24; and cottonseed meal, $34. 



71 N. J. Bui. 204. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 373 

In this trial when the cows were fed Ration II, containing a heavy 
allowance of alfalfa hay but no concentrates, the yield of milk was 17 
per ct. and of fat 18 per ct. less than when Ration I, containing over 9 
lbs. of purchased protein-rich concentrates, was fed. With feeds at the 
prices indicated, milk was produced more cheaply on Ration I. The 
relative economy of such rations obviously depends on the price of 
alfalfa hay compared with concentrates. 

At the Illinois Station 72 Fraser maintained a herd of good productive 
cows for 6 years exclusively on the alfalfa hay and corn silage grown on 
20 acres. The average yield of milk was 3,980 lbs. and of fat 139.5 lbs. 
per acre. This ration did not maintain the cows in as good health as when 
concentrates were fed in addition, and undoubtedly a larger and also 
more economical yield would have been secured had at least a moderate 
concentrate allowance been supplied. 

In a 12-week trial with 8 cows at the New Mexico Station 73 Yernon 
found that 246 lbs. of alfalfa hay fed alone, or 202 lbs. of alfalfa hay and 
49 lbs. of wheat bran, produced 100 lbs. of milk. The cows yielded more 
milk on the bran-alfalfa ration, but the increase was dearly purchased. 

The preceding trials show that alfalfa hay can be substituted for a 
large part of the concentrates in the ration of the dairy cow without 
materially reducing the yield of milk or fat. However, when all the 
concentrates are so replaced the yield of cows of good productive capacity 
is markedly decreased. This is what we should expect, for alfalfa hay, 
tho standing at the head of all roughages, is nevertheless a roughage 
and not a concentrate. It contains over 3 times as much fiber as wheat 
bran, which is bulky for a concentrate, and furnishes but 70 per ct. as 
much net energy. Bearing in mind the productive capacity of his cows 
and the price of legume hay compared with concentrates, each dairyman 
must decide for himself to what extent it is economical to substitute 
legume hay for concentrates. 

In some sections of the West, owing to the cheapness of alfalfa hay, 
dairy cows are given this feed alone, possibly with green alfalfa soilage 
or pasturage in addition during the summer. Complaints are made that 
this unbalanced ration, which is too high in protein and too low in net 
nutrients, does not always maintain the animals in as good health as 
where concentrates or even roughages lower in protein are added. 

Woll of the California Station 74 found in trials in which rolled barley 
was added to an exclusive alfalfa ration that the immediate increase in 
production resulting from grain feeding was not sufficient with feeds 
at prevailing prices to pay for the added expense. However, considering 
the influence on the production during the balance of the lactation 
period and the effect on the condition of the cows, he believes that the 
feeding of some grain is advisable, especially in the case of large pro- 
ducing animals or heifers in milk. 

72 Information to the authors. M Information to the authors. 

73 N. Mex. Rpt. 1904. 



374 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

613. Alfalfa meal. — Hills of the Vermont Station, 75 on substituting 
alfalfa meal (ground alfalfa hay) for the same weight of wheat bran, 
found a loss of from 3 to 6 per ct. in milk flow caused thereby, and 
Mairs of the Pennsylvania Station 76 reports a loss of about 5 per ct. by 
such substitution. Similar results were secured by Lindsey in a trial 
at the Massachusetts Station. 77 In view of the palatability of alfalfa 
hay to the dairy cow and its thoro mastication during rumination, the 
use of alfalfa meal is ordinarily not economical when good alfalfa hay 
is available. (344) 

614. Clover hay. — Hay from the clovers, cut while yet in bloom, is 
one of the best roughages for dairy cows. Somewhat lower than alfalfa 
hay in protein, red clover hay furnishes a slightly larger amount of net 
energy than alfalfa. (171) By the use of clover hay — red, alsike, or 
crimson — the dairyman may reduce the amount of concentrates needed 
to supply a well-balanced ration in the same manner as has been shown 
in the case of alfalfa hay. (347, 350, 353) 

At the New Jersey Station 755 Lane fed 2 lots, each of 2 cows, for two 
12-day periods alternately on the rations shown below: 

Crimson clover hay fed against purchased protein 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs - Lbs - 

Crimson clover hay, 16 .4 lbs. 

Corn silage, 30.0 lbs. No concentrates 20.1 0.85 

Ration II 

Mixed hay, 5 .0 lbs. Wheat bran, 6 lbs. 

Corn silage, 30 .0 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5 lbs. ... 23 .8 1 .00 

The table shows that the yield of milk was 3.7 lbs. and of fat 0.15 
lb. less on the crimson clover ration than on that containing purchased 
concentrates. Using the home-grown ration, however, effected a saving of 
18.3 cents in the feed cost of producing 100 lbs. of milk. 

615. Crimson clover hay and cowpea silage. — Lane 79 also compared a 
ration of crimson clover hay, cowpea silage, and corn-and-cob meal with 
one in which the protein was largely purchased. The following rations 
were fed alternately for 2 periods of 12 days each to 2 lots of 2 cows 
each: 

Crimson clover hay and cowpea silage compared with purchased protein 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs - Lbs - 

Crimson ciover hay, 10 lbs. 

Cowpea silage, 36 lbs. Corn-and-cob meal, 6 .0 lbs.. 24.8 0.94 

Ration II 

Mixed hay, 5 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5 .0 lbs. 

Corn silage, 36 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 .5 lbs 24 .6 .99 

"Vt. Rpt. 1906. 77 Mass. Rpt. 1909, pp. 158-166. 7<, N. J. Bui. 161. 

™Penn. Bui. 80. 73 N. J. Bui. 161. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 375 

The amount of milk and fat produced was practically the same for 
both rations, showing the high value of crimson clover hay and cowpea 
silage as sources of protein for dairy cows. (353) 

616. Cowpea hay. — In the South the cowpea vine, thriving on all 
types of soil, is of great importance to the dairy industry, as it furnishes 
palatable hay rich in protein. To determine the effect of substituting 
cowpea hay for protein-rich concentrates Lane 80 fed 2 lots each of 2 
cows the rations shown below for 15-day periods : 

Cowpea hay compared ivith purchased protein 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs. Lbs. 

Cowpea hay, 17 lbs. 

Corn silage, 36 lbs. No concentrates 23 .7 .92 

Ration II 

Corn stover, 5 lbs. Wheat bran, 4 lbs. 

Corn silage, 36 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 3 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs 25 .7 1 .05 

Tho 2 lbs. more milk and 0.13 lb. more fat were produced by each 
cow daily on the ration containing purchased concentrates, this increase 
was not sufficient to offset the greater cost of the purchased feed. 

At the Alabama Station 531 Duggar fed 2 lots each of 3 cows for two 
30-day periods a basal ration of 9.6 lbs. cottonseed hulls and 9.6 lbs. 
of a mixture of 2 parts cotton seed and 1 part each of wheat bran and 
cottonseed meal, with either wheat bran or cowpea hay in addition, as 
shown below: 

Cowpea hay compared with wheat oran 

Average ration 

Ration I. Cowpea hay, 7 .8 lbs. Basal ration 

Ration II. Wheat bran, 6 .1 lbs. Basal ration 



Average 
Milk 
Lbs. 


daily yield 
Fat 
Lbs. 


17.3 
16.0 


1.13 

1.02 



In this trial the cows getting the cowpea hay averaged 1.3 lbs. more 
milk daily than those fed wheat bran, showing that where there is a 
fair supply of rich concentrates it is more economical to complete the 
ration with some protein-rich roughage, like cowpea hay or silage, than 
by adding expensive concentrates. 

Wing found at the Georgia Station 82 that cowpea hay produced 30 per 
ct. more milk than cottonseed hulls, a reasonable result when the compo- 
sition of these feeds is considered. (357) 

617. Soybean hay. — At the Tennessee Station 83 Price compared soybean 
straw and ground soybeans, combined in the same proportion as they 
occur in soybean hay, with alfalfa hay in a trial with 2 lots of 4 cows 
each. The returns from rations fed alternately during three 30-day 
periods are shown in the following table : 

80 N. J. Bui. 174. "Ala. Bui. 123. 82 Ga. Bui. 49. 83 Tenn. Bui. 80. 



376 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Soybean hay vs. alfalfa hay 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs. Lbs. 

Soybean straw, 7.1 lbs. Ground soybeans, 3.7 lbs. 

Silage, 25 .0 lbs. Corn-and-cob meal, 3 .7 lbs 17 .2 .98 

Ration II 

Alfalfa hay, 12.3 lbs. 

Silage, 24 .6 lbs. Corn-and-cob meal, 3 .7 lbs ... . 15.1 .80 

The table shows that the soybean ration proved more effective than 
the alfalfa-hay ration. 

In trials during 2 years by Caldwell at the Ohio Station 84 a ration 
of 8.7 lbs. soybean hay, 31.9 lbs. silage, 5.7 lbs. corn meal, and 1.0 lb. 
of cottonseed meal proved as good as one containing 8.4 lbs. of concen- 
trates (equal parts by weight of wheat bran, cottonseed meal, and corn 
meal), 7.0 lbs. corn stover, and 32.8 lbs. corn silage. The feed cost of 
butter fat was 9.5 per ct. lower on the soybean-hay ration. (358) 

618. Soybean silage and alfalfa hay. — At the New Jersey Station 85 
Lane fed 2 lots of 2 cows each for 2 periods of 15 days alternately upon 
the rations shown below : 

Soybean silage and alfalfa hay compared with purchased protein 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Ration I Lbs - Lbs - 

Soybean silage, 36 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 8 lbs. Corn meal, 6 lbs 27 .2 .98 

Ration II 

Corn silage, 36 lbs. Wheat bran, 4 lbs. 

Corn stover, 6 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs 25 .7 .98 

The table shows that the yield of fat was the same on these rations, 
while the home-grown ration with corn meal produced slightly more 
milk. There was a saving of 1.1 cents per pound of butter when the 
ration of soybean silage and alfalfa hay was fed. 

619. Hairy vetch hay. — Duggar of the Alabama Station 80 substituted 
6.6 lbs. of hairy vetch hay for 7 lbs. of wheat bran for short periods, 
and found substantially no decrease in milk flow. (359) 

IV. Carbonaceous Roughages 

620. Corn fodder. — Tho inferior to corn silage, good corn fodder, 
especially that from thickly planted corn, is relished by cows and is a 
satisfactory substitute for hay from the grasses. Rather than being fed 
as the sole roughage, it should preferably be used with legume hay. 
To compare the value of corn fodder and timothy hay as the sole rough- 
ages Hunt and Caldwell fed 2 lots each of 4 cows for 45 days at the 
Pennsylvania Station. 87 Each cow was given 3 lbs. of ground oats and 
3 lbs. wheat bran daily, with either corn fodder or timothy hay as 
shown in the table : 

"Ohio Bui. 267. 8 'N. J. Bui. 174. "• Ala. Bui. 123. "Penn. Rpt. 1892. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 377 

Com fodder vs. timothy hay for dairy cows 

Average daily_yield Gain or loss 
Average roughage allowance 



Lot I, Corn fodder, 22 .8 lbs. . 
Lot II, Timothy hay, 22 .3 lbs. 



Milk 


Fat 


in weight 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


16.2 


0.66 


—23 


17.1 


0.64 


+84 



Lot I, fed corn fodder, produced less milk but slightly more fat than 
Lot II, fed timothy hay, and lost in weight while Lot II gained. Taking 
all the facts into consideration, the fodder corn proved almost as valua- 
ble as the same weight of timothy hay. Two tons of timothy hay per 
acre is a high return, while the yield of the fodder corn used in this 
trial was nearly 4.5 tons per acre, or over twice that of the timothy 
hay. The high value of fodder corn for the dairy cow is thus apparent. 
(294) 

621. Corn fodder with alfalfa hay. — The value of corn fodder when 
fed with legume hay is shown in the following summary of 4 trials by 
Linheld at the Utah Station S8 in which cows were fed 3 lbs. of wheat 
bran and 3 lbs. of either wheat, barley, or corn meal, with alfalfa hay 
or both corn fodder and alfalfa hay for roughage : 

Alfalfa hay and com fodder vs. alfalfa hay 

Average daily yield 
Average roughage allowance Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

/. Corn fodder, S .7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 11 .5 lbs 16 .9 .75 

II. Alfalfa hay, 21 .5 lbs 17 .1 .74 

It is seen that when fodder corn replaced nearly half of the alfalfa 
hay, about as good returns were secured as when alfalfa hay alone 
constituted the roughage. Where corn and alfalfa flourish, both should 
be used rather than alfalfa alone. (609) 

622. Corn stover vs. mixed and clover hay. — At the Wisconsin Station 89 
the senior author conducted 2 trials to compare corn stover with mixed 
hay and with clover hay. A crop of dent corn yielding 4,490 lbs. of 
cured stalks and 4,941 lbs. of ear corn per acre was cut and shocked 
in the usual manner. After curing, the corn was husked and the stover 
reserved for feeding. In both trials 2 lots of 2 cows each were fed by 
the reversal method for 2 periods each of 3 weeks. All were fed 5 lbs. 
of corn and 7 lbs. of bran per head daily, with either hay or uncut corn 
stover as indicated in the table : 

Corn stover vs. mixed and clover hay 

Average daily yield 
Average roughage allowance . Milk Butter 

Lbs. Lbs. 

First trial 

I. Corn stover, 42 .4 lbs 20 .0 1 .02 

II. Mixed clover and timothy hay, 13 .5 lbs 19 .0 1 .00 

Second trial 

I. Corn stover, 33 .3 lbs 19 .3 .93 

II. Clover hay, 11 .5 lbs 18.9 0.97 

S9 Utah Bui. 68. ''Wis. Rpt. 1884. 



378 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In the first trial 42.4 lbs. of uncut corn stover was slightly superior 
to 13.5 lbs. of mixed hay, and in the second 11.5 lbs. clover hay produced 
somewhat more butter than 33.3 lbs. uncut corn stover. Reduced to 
tons, we may conclude that 1 ton of mixed clover and timothy hay is 
worth 3 tons of uncut corn stover, and that 1 ton of clover hay is some- 
what superior to 3 tons of uncut stover. Thirty-four per ct. of 
the coarse, uncut stover was left uneaten in these trials. Had the 
material been cut, the cows would have wasted somewhat less and the 
stovosi" would have then had a higher value per ton. This trial shows 
the heavy losses incident to feeding dry corn forage, which if ensiled 
would be wholly consumed. (300-2) 

623. Timothy hay. — While timothy hay is a standard and most satis- 
factory roughage for the horse, it is unsatisfactory for the dairy cow. 
It lacks protein, is not very palatable to cows, and has a constipating 
effect quite opposite to the beneficial action of legume hay. The value 
of mixed clover and timothy hay for cows will depend on the proportion 
of clover present. 

To demonstrate the poor results secured when timothy hay is fed with 
other feeds likewise low in protein, Fraser and Hayden of the Illinois 
Station 90 conducted a trial on a dairy farm in which 2 lots each of 8 
cows were fed by the reversal method for two 42-day periods. The cows 
were given 12.5 lbs. per head daily of a concentrate mixture of 2.5 parts 
corn meal and 1 part wheat bran with the roughages shown in the table : 

Timothy hay vs. alfalfa hay when fed with protein-poor feeds 

Average daily yield 
Average roughage allowance of milk 

Lbs. 

/. Timothy hay, 10 lbs. Corn stover, 10 lbs 23 .4 

II. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. Corn stover, 10 lbs 27 .5 

When fed the alfalfa-hay ration, which had a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.6, 
the cows produced 17.5 per ct. more milk than on the unbalanced 
timothy-hay ration, the nutritive ratio of which, was 1 : 10.2. The tim- 
othy-fed cows lost in weight and were in poor condition generally, a 
number being "off feed" at times. This trial shows clearly that when 
timothy hay must be fed it should be supplemented by concentrates high 
in protein. (312) 

624. Upland prairie vs. timothy hay. — Haecker of the Minnesota Sta- 
tion 91 compared native upland prairie hay of excellent quality with 
medium fine, early-cut timothy hay properly cured. Sixteen cows were 
used during the trial lasting 77 days, the same quantity of grain and 
hay being supplied in each case. The returns in milk and fat were 
practically the same from the 2 kinds of hay. This study 92 was repeated 
with the same results. It is fair, then, to hold that good upland prairie 
hay, like that of the Minnesota region, is equal to timothy hay with the 
dairy cow. (325) 

00 111. Bui. 146. '^Minn. Bui. 35. 02 Minn. Bui. 67. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 379 

625. Bermuda hay.— Lloyd of the Mississippi Station 93 studying the 
returns from a herd of 30 to 60 cows during 3 years, concludes that 
Bermuda hay equals timothy hay for milk and butter production. (320) 

626. Johnson-grass hay.— Moore of the Mississippi Station 94 found 
Johnson-grass hay nearly as valuable as cowpea hay when corn silage, 
cottonseed meal, and wheat bran were the other feeds given. Had less 
rich and palatable concentrates been fed, Johnson-grass hay would 
probably have shown but half to two-thirds of the value of the cowpea 
hay. (321) 

627. Salt-marsh hay. — Lindsey and Jones of the Massachusetts 
(Hatch) Station, 05 in trials with 12 cows, covering 7 months, found that 
where 10 lbs. of various kinds of salt-marsh hay were given daily in place 
of an equal weight of mixed hay, the milk flow was decreased from 2 to 5 
per ct. They state : "When fed directly after milking, no objectionable 
flavor could be detected in the milk or butter. It is possible that if 
these hays were cut very soon after being covered by the tide they 
would then produce a disagreeable flavor." (325) 

628. Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls are a roughage fair in carbo- 
hydrate content, but very deficient in crude protein, and are rather 
unpalatable to cows. Moore of the Mississippi Station, 90 in feeding 
trials with dairy cows, found 100 lbs. of well cleaned cottonseed hulls 
equal to 67 lbs. of prime Johnson-grass hay. Soule of the Texas Sta- 
tion 97 found cottonseed hulls nearly equal to sorghum hay for cows. 
Nourse of the Virginia Station 98 considers cottonseed hulls about equal 
to oat straw in feeding value. Conner of the South Carolina Station 99 
found cottonseed hulls decidedly inferior to corn stover, and Michels of 
the North Carolina Station 100 found stover of rather poor quality equal 
to the hulls. Flint and Dorman 101 report from trials on Georgia farms 
that carbohydrates can be supplied under their conditions much more 
cheaply in the form of corn silage than by cottonseed hulls. Silage also 
stimulates a greater flow of milk, and is palatable and succulent, aiding 
in keeping the animals in good condition. Failing to appreciate the 
value of the forage from the corn plant, southern dairymen often leave 
the corn stalks standing in the field and purchase cottonseed hulls for 
roughage. (251) 

V. Succulent Feeds 

629. Corn silage. — Succulent feeds are of even more importance in 
the feeding of the dairy cow than of the other farm animals. On account 
of their cooling, slightly laxative action, such feeds aid greatly in keeping 
the digestive tract of this hard-working animal in good condition, as 
well as whetting the appetite so that large amounts of feed are con- 
sumed. Thruout the chief dairy sections of the United States corn 

93 Miss. Bui. 70. 36 Miss. Rpt. 1903. "S. C. Bui. 66. 

M Miss. Rpt. 1895. 0T Tex. Bui. 47. 100 N. C. Bui. 199. 

"Mass. (Hatch) Bui. 50. M Va. Bui. 148. 101 Ga. Bui. 80. 



380 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

silage furnishes the cheapest form of succulence. Due largely to the 
fact that the silage made during earlier years was frequently of poor 
quality and fed in a careless manner, a widespread belief existed that 
silage injured the flavor of the milk. For many years the largest milk 
condensing company in the country prohibited the use of silage by its 
patrons. Experience has now abundantly demonstrated that when good 
silage is fed under proper conditions the quality of the milk is thereby 
improved, rather than impaired. Like other feeds, silage may be abused. 
Only that which is well made should be used, and this should be fed 
after milking and be eaten up clean at each feed, none being left 
scattered on the floor of the stable, the air of which should be kept pure 
and wholesome by proper ventilation. If such conditions prevail, no 
one need fear ill effects from feeding silage to dairy cows, for when 
thus fed even the milk condensing factories no longer object to its use. 
The daily allowance of silage commonly fed ranges from 20 to 40 lbs. 
per 1,000 lbs. live weight. A common rule is to feed 3 lbs. of silage and 
1 lb. of dry roughage per 100 lbs. live weight. (300-5) 

630. Corn silage vs. fodder corn. — Tests of corn silage and field-cured 
fodder corn at the Vermont 102 and Wisconsin 103 Stations were conducted 
in the following manner : Two rows of maturing corn extending across 
the field were placed in shocks, while the next 2 rows were run thru 
the feed cutter and placed in the silo. By thus alternating until the silo 
was filled, substantially equal quantities of material having the same 
composition were obtained as silage and shock corn, respectively. The 
field-cured fodder, after being run thru the cutter, was fed in opposition 
to the silage to dairy cows along with equal quantities of hay and grain. 

At the Vermont Station the green fodder corn, converted into silage 
and fed with hay and grain, produced 11 per ct. more milk than the 
same amount of green corn dried and fed with the same allowance of 
hay and grain. In the Wisconsin trial the corn crop produced 243 lbs., 
or 3 per ct., more milk per acre when fed as silage than when fed as 
dried corn fodder. 

In the following table are summarized the results of these and other 
trials in which the amount of milk produced from 100 lbs. of total dry 
matter in rations containing silage or corn fodder was determined : 

Corn silage vs. fodder corn for milk production 

Milk from 100 lbs. dry matter 
Station and number of trials Silage ration Fodder ration 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Wisconsin (Rpt. 1888), 3 trials 104 .2 95 .8 

Wisconsin (Rpt. 1889), 3 trials 110 .5 104 .8 

Vermont (Rpt. 1892), 1 trial 82 .0 76 .5 

Pennsylvania (Rpt. 1890), 1 trial 111.9 106 .3 

New Jersey (Bui. 122), 1 trial 116 .2 103 .0 

Average of 9 trials 106 .0 98 .6 

102 Vt Rpt. 1891. ""Wis. Rpt. 1891. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 381 

Averaging these trials we find that 7.4 lbs. more milk was produced 
from 100 lbs. of dry matter in the silage rations than in the rations con- 
taining fodder corn. The higher value of the silage is not due to any 
increased digestibility of the silage over well-cured dry fodder, for we 
have seen that ensiling tends to decrease the digestibility of forage 
rather than to increase it. (83) The superiority of silage must be largely 
due to the fact that while good-quality silage is eaten with little or no 
waste, a considerable part of the corn fodder is usually left uneaten. 
Various trials show that the dry matter of that part of the corn fodder 
which is actually consumed may have just as high a nutritive value 
as an equal weight of dry matter in corn silage. 104 Another reason why 
silage gives better results than dry corn fodder is that cows fed the 
succulent, palatable silage usually consume a heavier ration than those 
fed the dry fodder and hence have a larger amount of nutrients avail- 
able for milk production after the maintenance requirements of the body 
have been met. 

631. Corn silage vs. hay. — To determine the relative value of corn 
silage and mixed hay (mostly timothy) Jordan fed 4 cows at the Maine 
Station 105 for three 14-day periods. During the first period the cows 
were fed good hay; during the second, hay and silage; and during the 
last, hay again, the same amount of concentrates being fed thruout the 
trial. When the cows were changed from good hay to both silage and 
hay their milk flow increased 7 per ct. and when changed back it de- 
creased 8 per ct. The silage fed in this trial was watery and contained 
but 16.7 per ct. dry matter, while average silage from well-matured 
corn contains about 26 per ct. dry matter. Jordan found 444 lbs. of 
this silage, which had less than two-thirds the value of high-quality 
silage, slightly superior in feeding value to 100 lbs. of the hay fed. It 
is fair to conclude that had the silage been of average quality 280 lbs. 
would have been slightly superior to 100 lbs. of hay. 

In an extended trial with 6 cows Hills of the Vermont Station 106 
found that when 3.5 lbs. of corn silage was substituted for 1 lb. of 
mixed timothy, red top, and clover hay, the milk yield was increased 
7 per ct. Rating hay at $10 and silage at $3 per ton, there was a gain 
of 1.66 cents daily per cow by replacing one-third of the hay with 
silage. From these data we may conclude that for dairy cows 280 to 
350 lbs. of good corn silage is worth rather more than 100 lbs. of mixed 
hay. In the feed unit system as revised by Woll 107 and in the Armsby 
table of energy values corn silage is rated at half the value of timothy 
hay. (171, 178) 

To determine the relative value of corn silage and alfalfa hay Carroll 
of the Utah Station 10S fed 2 lots of 7 cows each the rations shown in 
the table for 2 alternate 28-day periods. The concentrate allowance con- 
sisted of a mixture of equal parts wheat bran and rolled barley. 

104 Wis. Rpts. 1890, 1891. 10 ° Vt. Rpt. 1901. 1CS Information to the authors. 

105 Me. Rpt. 1889. 107 Wis. Cir. 37. 



382 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Relative value of com silac/c and alfalfa hay 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lba. 

Ration I 

Alfalfa hay, 22.2 lbs. 

Corn silage, 21 .3 lbs. Concentrates, 4 . 1 lbs 27 .2 .99 

Ration II 

Alfalfa hay, 29 .0 lbs. Concentrates, 4 .0 lbs 26 .6 .95 

When fed silage the cows yielded 2 per ct. more milk and 4 per ct. 
more fat, but were given 2.5 per ct. more grain. We may therefore 
conclude that 6.8 lbs. of alfalfa hay was fully replaced by 21.5 lbs. of 
corn silage, or 100 lbs. of hay by 310 to 320 lbs. of silage. 

632. Silage from the sorghums. — Next in value to corn silage is that 
from the grain and the sweet sorghums. Reed and Fitch found kafir 
silage practically equal to corn silage when fed with hay and grain in a 
trial at the Kansas Station. 100 In each of 2 trials the cows produced 3 
per ct. more milk and 1 per ct. more fat when fed corn silage than when 
fed silage from sweet sorghum, showing this silage to be but little inferior 
to that from the corn plant. (309) 

633. Silage from the legumes. — Tho there is far less certainty of secur- 
ing silage of good quality from clover or alfalfa than from corn and the 
sorghums, these legumes are sometimes ensiled, especially when the 
weather does not permit making them into satisfactory hay. (342, 348) 
In each of 3 years Clark ensiled red clover at the Montana Station 110 and 
fed the silage to dairy cows in comparison with clover hay. When from 
32 to 43 lbs. of clover silage was fed per head daily with clover and tim- 
othy hay and concentrates, 233 lbs. of the silage proved equal to 100 lbs. 
of good clover hay. On the silage ration the yield of milk was increased 
5.7 per ct. and of fat 4.3 per ct. Clark reports that the cows relished 
the silage during the winter months, but that in summer it became 
darker in color and acquired a strong odor, a point also observed by 
Reed at the Kansas Station 111 with alfalfa silage. Such combinations as 
field peas with oats, soybeans or cowpeas with corn or the sorghums, and 
vetch with oats, wheat, or barley, make satisfactory silage. (357-9) 

634. Mixed silage vs. heavy concentrates. — At the Ohio Station 112 
Williams fed 2 uniform lots of 4 cows each the rations reported in the 
table during 4 months to determine whether a large part of the concen- 
trates usually supplied could not be replaced by silage composed of 2 
parts soybeans, 1 part cowpeas, and 7.5 parts of rather watery corn 
silage. The 2 rations contained practically the same amount of dry 
matter and crude protein. 

100 Kan. Cir. 28. 1U Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 889. 

"°Mont. Bui. 94. " 2 Ohio Bui. 155. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 383 

Feeding mixed silage in place of part of the concentrates 

Average daily yield 
Average ration Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot 1 

Mixed silage, 58 .0 lbs. Oil meal, 2 .0 lbs. 

Mixed hav, 6 .8 lbs. Bran, 2 .0 lbs 19 .6 1 .03 

Lot 1 1 

Stover, 4 .7 lbs. Oil meal, 2 .5 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 6.5 lbs. Corn meal, 5 .0 lbs. 

Bran, 6.0 lbs 16.9 0.80 

It is seen that the cows fed 58 lbs. of mixed silage with 4 lbs. of con- 
centrates yielded more milk and fat than those receiving 13.5 lbs. of 
rich, expensive concentrates and no silage. Less dry matter was con- 
sumed by the silage-fed cows for 1 lb. of fat than by those getting no 
silage. During the trial the fat yield of the silage-fed cows increased 
1.9 per ct., while that of the others shrank 14.2 per ct. These results 
forcibly illustrate how protein-rich silage may aid the dairyman in re- 
ducing the cost of producing milk. 

635. Apple-pomace silage. — Hills 113 fed cows daily allowances of 24 to 
35 lbs. of apple-pomace silage, as much as they would eat in addition to 
8 lbs. of grain and 10 to 12 lbs. of hay. On apple-pomace silage the cows 
consumed somewhat more dry matter than those getting corn silage, 
with a corresponding increase in milk flow. The apple-pomace silage 
had no deleterious influence on the cows or their milk. (384) 

636. Other silage studies. — Hills of the Vermont Station 114 found that 
rye silage was drier and less readily eaten than corn silage, and made 
10 per ct. less milk and butter. Cows changed from corn to rye silage 
shrank 20 per ct. in milk, while on changing back from rye to corn they 
gained 2 per ct. Good corn silage gives better results than good Hun- 
garian-grass hay or silage. (318) 

637. Roots. — Since roots may be regarded as watery concentrates 
rather than roughages (22, 365) the question naturally arises as to their 
value in replacing the concentrates in the ration. In studying this prob- 
lem Friis of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station 115 conducted extensive 
trials on different farms in which cows were fed the same basal ration, 
consisting of 6.5 lbs. of hay and 10 lbs. of straw, and were given in ad- 
dition varying amounts of cereal grains, cottonseed meal, and mangels 
or other roots. Friis concluded that 1 lb. of dry matter in roots is equal 
in feeding value to 1 lb. of Indian corn or of a mixture of barley, oats, and 
rye, or to 0.75 lb. of cottonseed meal. 

In trials during 2 years Wing and Savage of the New York (Cornell) 
Station 116 found that 1 lb. of dry matter in mangels is equal to 1 lb. of 
dry matter in grain, and that mangels can successfully replace half the 
grain ordinarily fed in a ration of grain, mixed hay, and silage. The 

113 Vt. Rpt. 1903. 116 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. 

114 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 

n5 Expt. Sta. Rec. 14, 1903, p. 801; Landbkon. Forsog (Copenhagen), 1902, p. 30. 



384 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Cornell studies led to the conclusion that with concentrates costing $30 
per ton mangels are an economical feed for dairy cows when they can 
be produced and stored for $4 per ton, — a high figure for this compara- 
tively easily-grown crop. (368) 

Haecker of the Minnesota Station 117 has likewise found that 1 lb. of 
dry matter in mangels or rutabagas is substantially equal to 1 lb. of 
mixed grain, 11 lbs. of mangels or 9 lbs. of rutabagas having the same 
value as 1 lb. of grain. 

In the earlier years it was thought that the feeding of roots produced 
watery milk, but the extensive experiments in Denmark and this country 
with roots and silage prove beyond a doubt that the milk of the cow can- 
not be watered by supplying succulent feeds. 

638. Dry matter in roots and silage. — The value of the dry matter in 
roots and corn silage for milk production has been studied at the Ohio, 118 
Pennsylvania, 119 and Vermont 120 stations with the following results : 

Milk from 100 lbs. of dry matter in corn silage and beet rations 

Station Beet ration Silage ration 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Ohio Station, 1889 59 62 

Ohio Station, 1890 59 60 

Ohio Station, 1891 62 66 

Ohio Station, 1892 69 76 

Pennsylvania Station 87 82 

Vermont Station 113 119 

It will be seen that, altho practically all of the dry matter in beets is 
digestible and only a part of that in corn silage, in each of these trials 
dairy cows gave somewhat better returns on the dry matter of corn silage 
than on that in the beet ration. On the other hand, Wing and Savage at 
the Cornell Station 121 found 1 lb. of dry matter in mangels slightly supe- 
rior to 1 lb. of dry matter in corn silage. (365-74) 

639. Sugar beets vs. corn silage. — Haecker of the Nebraska Station 122 
compared corn silage and sugar beets with 2 lots of 5 cows each, fed for 
a period of 5 weeks. The cows were given 6 to 10 lbs. per head daily of 
a mixture of equal parts of oats, corn, and wheat bran, with hay and 
succulence as shown in the table : 

Corn silage compared with sugar beets 

Average daily yield 
Allowance of hay and succulence Milk Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

I. Corn silage, 30 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 17 .4 .84 

77. Sugar beets, 30 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 16 . 1 .78 

It is shown that where 30 lbs. of corn silage was fed against an equal 
weight of sugar beets, the small difference in yield of milk and fat was in 

117 Minn. Rpt. 1913. 110 Penn. Rpt. 1890. B1 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. 

118 Ohio Rpt. 1893. 120 Vt Rpt. 1895. l " Nebr. Bui. 76. 



FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 



385 



favor of the silage, as might be expected from the fact that corn silage 
contains considerably more dry matter than sugar beets. 

640. Addition of roots to ration containing silage. — To determine 
whether the addition of roots to an already excellent ration of corn silage, 
clover hay, and concentrates would increase the yield of milk or fat by 
dairy cows, Shaw and Norton carried on trials during 3 years at the Michi- 
gan Station 123 with a total of 40 cows. Each year 2 lots were fed the 
rations shown in the table by the reversal method for periods averag- 
ing 26 days in length : 

Effect of roots when added to ration containing silage 





Average daily yield 


Average feed cost of* 


Average ration 


Milk 


Fat 


100 lbs. 
milk 


1 lb. fat 


Ration I 

Roots, 18.3 lbs. 
Corn silage, 30 .6 lbs. 
Clover hay, 5 .0 lbs. 

Concentrates, 9 .2 lbs 

Ration II 

Corn silage, 30 .8 lbs. 
Clover hay, 5 .0 lbs. 

Concentrates, 9 .2 lbs 


Lbs. 

23.8 
22.5 


Lbs. 

0.93 

0.88 


Cents 

66.5 
62.3 


Cents 

17.0 

15.8 



*Cost of feeds per ton: concentrate mixture, S17.60 to S19.21; clover hay, $5.00; corn silage, $2.50; and 
roots, 82.00. 

On Ration I, which was practically the same as Ration II with the 
exception that it contained in addition 18.3 lbs. of roots, the average 
daily yield of milk was increased 1.3 lbs. and of fat 0.05 lb. This gain 
was not enough to offset the cost of the roots fed, for the average cost of 
100 lbs. milk was 4.2 cents and of 1 lb. of fat 1.2 cents lower on the ration 
containing no roots. While breeders feeding cows heavily on official 
test may find it advisable to feed roots in addition to a liberal allowance 
of corn silage for the sake of the small increase in yield, this practice 
will rarely be economical for dairymen in general. (365) 

641. Potatoes. — A heavy allowance of potatoes produces milk and 
butter of poor flavor. According to Pott 124 cows of average weight 
should not be fed more than 33 lbs. per head daily of cooked potatoes 
and somewhat less of the raw tubers. When feeding a heavy allowance 
of potatoes Hills of the Vermont Station 125 found the dry matter in corn 
silage superior to that in raw potatoes. The cows ate the potatoes readi- 
ly, but at 15 cents a bushel they were more costly than corn silage. But- 
ter from the potato-fed cows was salvy. (374) 

642. Soilage. — During 3 summers Woll, Humphrey, and Oosterhuis at 
the Wisconsin Station 126 fed 1 lot of cows which had access to limited 
pasture a succession of soiling crops in addition to a small allowance of 

"•Mich. Bui. 240. ^Vt. Rpt. 1896. 

UJ Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II. 1907, pp. 363-364. U6 Wis. Bui. 235. 



386 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

mixed concentrates. Another lot, otherwise feci similarly, received corn 
silage instead of soilage. In 2 of the trials each lot was given a small 
allowance of hay. The results of the trials, which averaged 82 days, are 
given in the following table : 

Soilage vs. silage as supplements to pasture 

Average daily vield 
Average ration Milk " Fat 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Soilage, 28.1 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 2.2 lbs. 

Pasture, limited Concentrates, 5 .4 lbs 23 9 92 

Lot II 

Corn silage, 27 .3 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 2 .0 lbs. 

Pasture, limited Concentrates, 5 .4 lbs 22 .5 .94 

The cows fed soilage, consisting of red clover, peas and oats, sweet 
corn, field corn, and "succotash" (mixed oats, peas, and corn), yielded 
no more milk and slightly less fat than those fed corn silage. Silage was 
relished rather better than the succession of soiling crops. In a similar 
trial by Frandsen at the Nebraska Station 127 the feed cost per pound of 
butter fat was 24.5 cents with soiling crops and 21.5 cents when corn 
silage was used. Since soilage is far more expensive and much more in- 
convenient to feed than silage (418-20), the latter is preferred by dairy- 
men as a supplement to pasture, except where too few cows are kept to 
consume the silage fast enough to prevent its spoiling. When silage is 
not available for summer feeding, the wise dairyman will provide a well- 
planned succession of soiling crops to maintain the milk flow when 
pastures are scant, knowing that it is well-nigh impossible to bring the 
yield of milk back to near the former amount if it has once been checked 
by insufficient feed. (421-2) 

643. Wet beet pulp. — AVing and Anderson of the New York (Cornell) 
Station 128 found that cows will eat 50 to 100 lbs. of fresh beet pulp per 
day in addition to 8 lbs. of grain and 6 to 12 lbs. of hay. The dry mat- 
ter in wet beet pulp proved equal to that in corn silage. As the pulp 
comes from the factor}^ it contains about 10 per ct. dry matter, or about 
one-third as much as does corn silage of good quality. Beet pulp may 
have a higher value than given above when no other succulent food is 
supplied. The fermented pulp appears to be more palatable and satis- 
factory, tho even fresh pulp seems to stimulate the consumption of dry 
roughage. There are occasional reports of beet pulp tainting the milk. 
Buffum and Griffith of the Colorado Station 120 found 2 lbs. of fresh beet 
pulp equal to 1 lb. of sugar beets for dairy cows. (274) 

'"Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 403. i; *Colo. Bui. 73. 
128 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 183. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS— FEED 
REQUIRED BY COW AND COST OF PRO- 
DUCING MILK AND FAT 

I. Records of Production op Dairy Cows 

That successful dairying depends primarily on the selection of indi- 
vidual cows of good productive capacity has already been pointed out. 
(544-7) It is therefore important to consider the various agencies which 
have been of service in pointing out to dairymen the profitable and the 
unprofitable animals in their herds, and in enabling them more intelli- 
gently to feed and breed for production. Chief among these agencies 
are the cow-testing associations, the system of official testing, the ad- 
vanced registers, dairy cow censuses, and public competitions. 

644. Cow-testing associations. — The remarkable development of dairy- 
ing in northern Europe during the past 20 years has been due in large 
part to the work of the cow-testing associations. From 1895, when the 
first association was organized in Denmark with 13 herds entered, the 
growth has been most rapid, until in 1914 there were between 2,500 
and 3,000 such associations in European countries. In these organiza- 
tions a trained tester is employed, who spends a day every month with 
each of the herds in the association. Arriving on the farm in the after- 
noon he weighs and samples the milk from each cow at milking time. He 
furthermore weighs the concentrates given each cow and also the rough- 
age which several cows get and then estimates the approximate amount 
given to each cow in the herd. The following morning this is repeated, 
after which the samples of milk are tested for butter fat. From this 
day's record he computes the milk and fat production and cost of feed 
for each cow for the current month. While such records are not as 
exact as if every milking were weighed, careful studies show the results 
to be within 2 per ct. of the actual production of the cow. The 
tester not only makes these records, but he also studies the local feed 
market and aids the dairymen in working out the most economical 
rations for their herds. Many dairymen who would not go to the trouble 
of testing their herds themselves are glad to secure this service at small 
expense as a member of the association. 

The improvement wrought by these associations is marvelous. In Den- 
mark, largely due to their work, the average annual yield of butter per 
cow has increased from 112 lbs. in 1884 to 224 lbs. in 1908. In 10 
years one association in Sweden increased the annual production of 
butter fat 109 lbs. per cow. 1 

Carroll, Utah Bui. 127. 

387 



388 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

645. Cow-testing associations in the United States. 2 — "While the cow- 
testing associations are yet in their infancy in this country, they have 
already accomplished much good. In 1914 the total number grew from 
100 to 163, or 63 per ct. The first association in the United States was 
organized in Newaygo County, Michigan, in 1905, in charge of Helmer 
Kabild, now of the United States Department of Agriculture. The 
following table shows the improvement brought about in 8 years in 7 
herds which have been in this association since its organization : 

Improvement in 7 herds in Neivaygo cow-testing association 







Average 


Fat 


Annual 




Annual 


Returns 




No. of 


yield of 


content 


yield of 


Value 


cost of 


over cost 


Year 


cows 


milk 


of milk 


fat 


of fat 


feed 


of feed 






Lbs. 


Per ct. 


Lbs. 


Dollars 


Dollars 


Dollars 


1906 


50 


5885.0 


3.92 


231.1 


53.88 


31.65 


22.23 


1907 


60 


5952.7 


3.94 


234.6 


68.23 


39.79 


28.44 


1908 


69 


6095.4 


4.15 


253.3 


69.20 


40.45 


28.75 


1909 


72 


6302.6 


4.28 


269.7 


83.98 


42.05 


41.93 


1910 


79 


6208.8 


4.28 


265.7 


90.22 


49.52 


40.70 


1911 


80 


6411.0 


4.38 


280.9 


80.65 


48.48 


32.17 


1912 


80 


6154.8 


4.45 


273.9 


95.73 


44.46 


51.27 


1913 


69 


6123.4 


4.64 


284.7 


100.35 


49.27 


51.08 



These herds were much above the average for the whole country when 
the association was organized, averaging 231 lbs. of butter fat per cow, 
while the estimated average annual production for the United States is 
but 160 lbs. During the 8 years of record the average annual yield of 
butter fat was increased nearly 54 lbs. or 23 per ct. over that for 1906. 
Tho the prices of feeds have advanced markedly, the net returns over 
cost of feed have more than doubled in these herds. 

646. Official tests and advanced registry of dairy cows. — The establish- 
ment by the dairy breed associations of advanced registers for pure-bred 
cows is another important movement in the development of the dairy 
industry. Cows are entitled to place in these registers of production 
only when their yield in tests conducted by representatives of the state 
experiment stations or of the breed associations has reached the standard 
set by the association. Entry in these registers increases the money 
value, not only of the given cow, but also of her relatives, for progressive 
breeders in their selection of animals now rely more and more upon 
records of production and less upon show-ring successes. 

647. Keeping records on the farm. — For the dairyman who desires to 
keep his own records of the production of his cows, the following, con- 
densed from Eckles, 3 will be helpful: The only records which are 
entirely satisfactory are those setting forth the daily production of 
each individual cow. This does not require as much work as one would 
anticipate, if a convenient spring balance and handy milk sheets for 
entry of the records are provided. Daily individual records make pos- 
sible the feeding of each cow with the greatest economy, enable the herds- 

2 From circular issued by TJ. S. Dept. Agr. 

3 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 136-140. 



RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 



389 



man to detect sickness quickly by the decline in milk flow, and aid in 
judging the efficiency of the different milkers. Where the weight of 
each milking is recorded, it is sufficient to take a sample covering 3 to 5 
days of each month for the butterfat determination. 

Those who feel that they cannot spend the time necessary to weigh 
each milking may obtain reasonably satisfactory records by weighing 
and sampling the milk of each cow regularly on 3 consecutive days 
each month thruout the year. The average yield of milk and fat for 
this period is taken as the average for the month. Another method of 
less value, but better than no testing, is to record the production of each 
cow for 7 consecutive days at intervals of 3 months. 

648. Unreliability of short tests. — Glover 4 reports that during 3 years 
the best weekly record of one cow in an Illinois dairyman's herd was 
309 lbs. of milk and 10.5 lbs. of fat. In her best lactation period, which 
lasted 266 days, she produced 5,355 lbs. of milk and 184 lbs. of fat. The 
best weekly record of another cow was 197 lbs. of milk and 10.2 lbs. of 
fat, less than the first cow. During her best lactation period (315 days) 
this cow, however, yielded 7,190 lbs. of milk and 367 lbs. of fat. This 
well shows the unreliability of short tests. Time, the scales, the Babcock 
fat test, combined with good judgment, are all essential in determining 
the true value of dairy cows. 

649. A herd record. — On taking charge of the New York (Cornell) 
Station 5 Roberts found a herd of cows yielding about 3,000 lbs. of milk 
per head yearly. After years of careful breeding and selection the rec- 
ords shown in the table below were actually made : 

One year's milk and fat record ivith a herd of 20 coivs 









Cost 


Milk 


Feed cost of 


Fat 


Feed cost of 


No. of cow 


Age 




of feed 


produced 


100 lbs. milk 


produced 


1 lb. of fat 




Yr,. 


Mo. 


Dollars 


Lbs. 


Dollars 


Lbs. 


Cents 


No. 1 . . . . 


7+ 




44.24 


8,029 


0.55 


391.6 


11.5 


No. 2. ... 


5 


4 


47.65 


9,740 


0.49 


309.2 


15.5 


No. 3.... 


3 


5 


42.00 


4,743 


0.89 


233.6 


18.0 


No. 4. .. . 


1 


9 


49.07 


6,009 


0.82 


219.3 


22.5 


No. 5 . . . . 


7 + 




38.74 


6,215 


0.62 


326.7 


12.0 


No. 6 . . . . 


1 


10 


41.24 


2,830 


1.48 


159.0 


26.0 


No. 7 . . . . 


6 


4 


52.06 


11,165 


0.47 


418.0 


12.5 


No. 8. ... 


4 




39.96 


5,671 


0.70 


285.1 


14.0 


No. 9 . . . . 


3 




36.24 


3,388 


1.07 


197.3 


18.5 


No. 10. ... 


4 


8 


46.51 


6,324 


0.74 


224.7 


21.0 


No. 11. ... 


1 


9 


43.80 


5,136 


0.85 


160.8 


27.0 


No. 12. ... 


3 


5 


43.66 


5,786 


0.75 


294.3 


15.0 


No. 13. ... 


10 


4 


44.34 


5,459 


0.81 


195.3 


22.5 


No. 14. ... 


2 


4 


45.98 


7,757 


0.59 


260.3 


17.5 


No. 15. ... 


3 


4 


47.44 


9,003 


0.53 


299.1 


16.0 


No. 16. ... 


6 


4 


43.12 


9,777 


0.44 


330.6 


18.0 


No. 17 ... . 


7 


3 


47.87 


10,417 


0.46 


302.9 


16.0 


No. 18 ... . 


3 


4 


48.63 


7,955 


0.61 


282.4 


17.0 


No. 19 ... . 


7+ 




53.38 


8,656 


0.62 


382.8 


14.0 


No. 20 


7+ 




49.08 


10,754 


0.46 


439.4 


11.0 



4 111. Cir. 84. 



N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 52. 



390 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



We observe a considerable range in the cost of feed for the several 
cows, a wide one in the yield of milk, and a marked difference in the cost 
of producing milk and fat. While in 1875 the average milk yield of 
the cows in the herd was only 3,000 lbs., in 1892 the descendants of the 
same cows averaged more than 7,000 lbs. This table teaches that even 
with good, well-fed herds it is of the highest importance to study the 
feed consumption and milk and fat production of each individual, in 
order that only the best cows and their progeny may be retained. 

650. Dairy cow censuses. — Many years ago Hoard's Dairyman, thru 
trained representatives, began studying the returns from cows on dairy 
farms in many states and under varying conditions. Following the first 
"cow census," conducted under the supervision of W. D. Hoard in 1887, 
a series of 26 canvasses were taken from 1899 to 1908, including 2,163 
herds which contained 28,447 cows. In the following table are summar- 
ized some of the most important data compiled in these extensive 
surveys : 8 

Summary of the Hoard's Dairyman cow censuses 



Type of cow 

Good dairy type 

Lacking dairy type .... 

Value of silage 

Herds fed silage 

Not known to be silage- 
fed 



Value of good slables 
Herds in good stables . . 
Herds in poor stables . . 

Value of dairy literature 
Owners read dairy 

papers 

Owners read no dairy 

papers 

Good and poor producers 
Most profitable herds . . 
Least profitable herds . . 



No. 
of cows 



9,365 
8,104 

6,689 
21,759 

9,506 
3,775 

6,202 
9,122 

3,848 
3,459 



Annual 

yield of 

butter 

fat 



Lbs. 
1S9.0 
138.2 

181.8 

151.2 

180.0 
130.0 

185.0 
136.7 

234.0 
102.2 



Cost of 
feed 



Dols. 
33.95 
32.01 

34.98 
32.95 

34.53 
32.53 

34.78 
35.00 

33.66 
33.76 



Gross 
returns 



Dols. 

51 .33 
34.04 

48.48 
39.41 

48.65 
32.76 

49.32 
36.85 

59.84 
40.46 



Returns 

over cost 

of feed 



Dols. 

17.38 
2.03 

13.50 
6.46 



Received 

for $1 

worth of 

feed 



Dols. 
1.51 
1.06 

1.39 

1.20 



Feed cost 

of butter 

fat per 

lb. 



14.12 
0.23 


1.41 
1.01 


14.54 


1.42 


1.85 


1.05 


26.18 
-6.70 


1.78 
0.80 



Cts. 

18.5 
23.0 

18.9 

22.2 

18.7 
26.6 

17.5 

28.8 

14.5 
32.1 



The various differences recorded are not wholly due to the different 
single factors. For example, the low results from the herds in poor 
stables were not due to this alone but also to the fact that, compared 
with the cows in good stables, a greater proportion of these cows were 
undoubtedly lacking in dairy type and that a smaller number were fed 
silage or belonged to progressive owners who read dairy literature and 
applied its teachings in their business. The poor dairyman is usually 
deficient in not one but in many particulars. While the herds in which 
the cows were of good dairy type returned $17.38 per cow on the average 

'Compiled in U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Bui. 164. 



RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 391 

over cost of feed, the herds lacking in dairy type little more than paid 
for the feed they ate. The cows fed silage yielded $1.39 for each dollar's 
worth of feed consumed, while those not known to have been fed silage 
returned but $1.20. Dairymen who read dairy papers secured a profit 
over cost of feed of $14.54 per cow, while those not directly influenced 
by dairy literature received only $1.85 per cow. 

651. Exposition breed tests. — Tests of pure-bred cows of various breeds 
for the production of milk and butter fat were conducted at the World's 
Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893 ; at the Pan-American 
Exposition held in Buffalo in 1901 ; and at the Louisiana-Purchase 
Exposition held in St. Louis in 1904. In each case the test was super- 
vised by a joint committee composed of delegates representing, on the 
one hand, the various breed associations interested, and on the other 
the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- 
tions. The representatives of the several breed associations had direct 
and full charge of the cows and their feed and care in all particulars. 
The representatives of the colleges and stations took charge of all 
weighings of feed as well as of milk and conducted all analyses of the 
milk. 

From the vast accumulation of data gathered during these tests the 
following condensed table is compiled, giving some of the more striking 
and helpful findings. The data for the Columbian Exposition test are 
taken from the Jersey Bulletin, 1893, and the Journal of the British 
Dairy Farmers' Association, 1894; for the Pan-American test, from the 
Holstein-Friesian Register, October, 1901 ; and for the Louisiana-Pur- 
chase Exposition, from the Dairy Cow Demonstration of the Louisiana- 
Purchase Exposition, Farrington, published by Hoard's Dairyman. 

In these competitive tests the cows were selected and entered by the 
several breed associations, there being no restrictions as to choice. The 
chosen specimens of each breed were managed as to feed, water, and 
care entirely in accordance with the ideas and wishes of the committee 
in charge of that particular breed. The feeding and milking of each 
cow, however, was done in the presence of representatives of the colleges 
and experiment stations. A price was established for each and all kinds 
of feed by the joint committee. The sub-committee in charge of each 
competing herd was allowed to give as much of any and all kinds of the 
various feeds as it wished to each cow under its care. Full records were 
kept of everything eaten, of all the milk yielded, the gain or loss in the 
weight of the cows, etc. A price was established for milk and fat so that 
the returns of each cow over the cost of the feed consumed could be 
credited. The table which follows shows the results of one test at each 
exposition condensed and arranged for comparative study. 

Since widely different prices were charged for feed and allowed for 
products at the different expositions, the returns from milk and fat over 
cost of feed in the different tests should not be compared with one 
another. 



392 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Summary of principal tests of pure-bred dairy cows at the Columbian, 
Pan-American, and Louisiana-Purchase Expositions 



Breed 



Av. daily yield per cow 



Milk 



Fat 



Total 
solids 



Per cent 
fat 



Feed 
cost 100 
lbs. milk 



Feed 

cost 

1 lb. fat 



Gain 

in live 

wt. 



Daily 

return 

over 

feed cost 



Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893: best cow in 90-day test 



Jersey. . . . 
Guernsey . 
Shorthorn 



Lbs. 
40.4 
39.0 
40.9 



Lbs. 
2.0 
1.7 
1.5 



Lbs. 



4.9 
4.4 
3.7 



Cents 
70.2 
64.6 
65.5 



Cents 

14.3 
14.8 
18.0 



Lbs. 

81 

-13 

115 



Cents 

81.3 
64.2 

58.5 



Pan-American Exposition 


Buffalo, 1901: average of 5 cows, 146 days 


Jersey 


31.0 


1.3 


4.2 


4.2 


48.8 


11.5 




22.5 


Guernsey 


31.6 


1.4 


4.2 


4.3 


47.9 


11.1 




23.1 


Ayrshire 


37.6 


1.2 


4.6 


3.1 


40.5 


12.9 




26.4 


Shorthorn 


36.7 


1.2 


4.4 


3.3 


48.4 


14.6 




22.7 


Holstein-Friesian . . . 


44.2 


1.3 


5.1 


3.0 


40.2 


13.2 




28.6 


Polled Jersey 


23.4 


1.0 


3.1 


4.4 


51.5 


11.6 




15.7 


French Canadian. . . 


28.5 


1.1 


3.6 


3.8 


44.2 


11.8 




20.2 


Brown Swiss 


35.8 


1.2 


3.5 


3.4 


45.7 


13.4 




23.3 


Red Poll 


33.3 
28.0 


1.3 
0.9 


4.2 
3.3 


3.8 
3.2 


45.8 
51.4 


12.1 
16.1 




21.8 


Dutch Belted 


15.7 



Louisiana-Purchase E 


^position 


St. Louis 


1904: best and poorest cow, 120 days 




Jersey 


















Best cow 


48.4 


2.3 


6.7 


4.8 


55.0 


9.7 


77 


42.1 


Poorest cow 


38.8 


1.6 


5.1 


4.1 


65.0 


13.2 


85 


22.3 


Holstein-Friesian 


















Best cow 


67.5 


2.4 


7.5 


3.5 


45.0 


11.0 


54 


38.4 


Poorest cow 


47.1 


1.5 


5.1 


3.2 


61.0 


16.5 


147 


15.0 


Brown Swiss 


















Best cow 


51.0 


1.8 


6.1 


3.4 


54.5 


13.7 


74 


23.1 


Poorest cow 


38.5 


1.5 


5.1 


3.8 


69.5 


15.5 


147 


16.5 


Shorthorn 


















Best cow 


43.4 


1.7 


5.5 


4.0 


54.5 


11.7 


139 


27.1 


Poorest cow 


21.4 


0.8 


2.7 


3.9 


107.5 


23.5 


234 


1.6 



652. Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition. — The most extensive breed 
competition which has been conducted in this country is the "Wisconsin 
Dairy Cow Competition, carried on under the supervision of the Wis- 
consin Station. 7 Some of the data secured in this contest, in which 
yearly records were secured for 395 cows, is condensed in the table: 

Results of Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition 



No. of 
cows 



Yearly Yearly Valueof 
y ll° f yl t d t ° f P-ducts* 



milk 
Lbs 



fat 
Lbs. 



Breed test 

Holstein 158 14,689 

Guernsey 157 8,465 

Jersey SO 7,047 

All breeds 

Highest producers 134 528.8 

Medium producers 133 420.6 

Lowest producers 131 338.9 

* Butter fat, S0.2S per lb., skim milk, $0.20 per 100 lbs. 

7 Wis. Res. Bui. 26; Bui. 226. 



503 
421 
363 



Dols. 

164.40 
131.59 
113.00 

166.82 
133.75 
108.12 



Cost of 
feed 

Dols. 

91.07 
70.95 
53.88 

79.10 
71.08 
65 95 



Net Value of 
returns products 
over cost per 100 
of feed feed units* 



Dols. 

73.33 
60.64 
59.12 

87.72 
62.67 
42.17 



Dols. 

2.08 
2.05 
2.05 

2.33 
2.04 
1.77 



RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 



393 



The results of this competition show plainly the fact, already empha- 
sized, that high producers yield sufficient product to much more than 
pay for the larger amount of feed they eat, compared with low-pro- 
ducing individuals. (544-7) 

653. Forced feeding of cows on test. — The feeding of cows being forced 
to their utmost production is an art concerning which only general 
suggestions can be made. Skilled feeders employ heavy allowances 
of rich concentrates mixed in considerable variety, in addition to legume 
hay, corn silage, and often roots, soilage, or other succulence. By care- 
ful attention to all details and by adapting the ration to the peculiar- 
ities of the individual cows, the animals are kept from going off feed 
on their rich rations. 

Farrington s gives the following to show the actual rations fed on a 
certain day to cows of the several breeds in the Louisiana-Purchase 
Exposition dairy contest. 

Rations fed on the same day at the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition 



Roughage 

Long alfalfa hay 

Cut alfalfa hay 

Corn silage 

Green cut corn forage 

Green cowpeas 

Total roughage (green and dry) . . 
Concentrates 

Wheat bran 

Linseed oil meal 

Ground oats 

Hominy feed 

Gluten feed 

Corn meal 

Corn hearts 

Cottonseed meal 

Distillers' grains 

Total concentrates 



Brown 

Swiss 



Lbs. 

7 

40 



47 



1 
15 



24 



Holstein- 
Friesian 



Lbs. 

15 

15 
35 



65 



1 

14 



22 



Jersey 



Lbs. 
18.0 

6.0 

16.0 



40.0 

3.0 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 
5.0 
1.5 
2.5 



19.0 



Shorthorn 



Lbs. 
9 

24 



33 

4 
2 
2 
3 

2 

2 

2 
4 



21 



"While the roughage supply for the cows under test was not large, a 
heavy concentrate allowance of from 19 to 24 lbs. was fed daily, the 
Brown Swiss cows getting the largest and the Jerseys the least. Haecker 
of the Minnesota Station, 9 on studying the records secured in this con- 
test, finds that on such heavy rations the cows converted a smaller 
percentage of the nutrients into milk than do good cows on ordinary, 
well-balanced rations. In forced feeding especial care must be exercised 
lest the health of the cow be permanently injured. 

654. Records of great cows. — The following summary of the records 
of production and feed for champion cows of the leading dairy breeds 
will be of interest in showing how such great cows have been fed while 



-Dairy Cow Demonstration, La.-Purch. Expo. 



"Minn. Bui. 106. 



Hoard's Dairyman, 46, p. 477. 



394 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

on test : Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 10 a pure-bred Ayrshire, yielded 
23,022 lbs. of 3.99 per ct. milk, containing 917.6 lbs. fat, in the year 
ending October 2, 1913. Thruout the test she was milked 3 times a 
day. During the year she consumed 704 lbs. bran, 762 lbs. hominy, 
1,074 lbs. ground oats, 548 lbs. gluten feed, 812 lbs. cottonseed meal, 
134 lbs. peanut meal, 908 lbs. linseed meal, 8,000 lbs. silage, 21,000 lbs. 
beets, and 2,880 lbs. alfalfa hay, the total cost of feed being $184.62. 
The highest allowance of grain fed was 15 lbs. per day. 

During the year ending January 20, 1914, the pure-bred Jersey cow 
Sophie 19th produced in her fifth lactation period 17,558 lbs. of 5.69 
per ct. milk, containing 999.1 lbs. of fat. In this and her preceding 4 
lactation periods she yielded a total of 4,428 lbs. of butter, containing 
85 per ct. fat, 11 a remarkable record of persistent high production. 

Murne Cowan, 12 a 9-yr.-old pure-bred Guernsey, during the year 
ending February 19, 1915 gave 24,008 lbs. of milk testing 4.57 per ct. fat 
and containing 1,098.2 lbs. of butter fat. Three months after she com- 
pleted her record she dropped a vigorous calf. While on test she was 
milked 4 times daily. During the year she consumed an average of 
16.3 lbs. of mixed concentrates daily, and ate in addition 3.5 lbs. dried 
beet pulp, 1.3 lbs. molasses, 16.0 lbs. of beets, 38.0 lbs. of silage, and 
8.5 lbs. of alfalfa hay, with green sweet corn and green alfalfa additional 
during the summer. The wide variety of feeds often employed by 
skilled feeders with cows on test is shown by the rations fed this cow 
during 2 months: 

March, 1914. From the 1st to the 18th, 17 lbs. of the following concentrate 
mixture: bran 4.5 parts; hominy 3.5 parts; ground oats 3 parts; dried distillers' 
grains and linseed meal, each 2 parts; Sugar Malt and gluten feed, each 1 part. 
In addition 4.5 lbs. dried beet pulp, 30 lbs. beets, 36 lbs. silage, and 11 lbs. 
alfalfa hay. From the 19th to the 31st., 19.5 lbs. of the following concentrate 
mixture: bran 4 parts; hominy, dried distillers' grains, and linseed meal, each 
1.5 parts; ground oats and wheat feed, each 3 parts; flaxseed meal 2 parts; 
Sugar Malt, gluten feed, and peanut meal, each 1 part. In addition 3 lbs. 
dried beet pulp, 24 lbs. beets, 37 lbs. silage, and 13 lbs. alfalfa hay. 

August, 1914. Fourteen lbs. of the following mixture: bran 4 parts; hominy 
2.5 parts; ground oats 3.5 parts; dried distillers' grains 5.5 parts; Sugar Malt 
2 parts; gluten feed 0.5 part; cottonseed meal and linseed meal, each 1 part. 
In addition 1.2 lbs. oat feed, 2 lbs. dried beet pulp, 20 lbs. beets, 15 lbs. each 
sweet corn forage and green alfalfa, 36 lbs. silage, and 9.5 lbs. alfalfa hay. 

The total cost of feed for the year was $196.73 and the estimated 
cost of labor, including feeding, grooming, and milking, $146. 

Finderne Pride Johanna Rue, a 5-yr.-old pure-bred Holstein cow, 
yielded 28,403 lbs. of milk testing 4.14 per ct. and containing 1,176.5 
lbs. of butter fat in the year ending June, 1915. She was fed about 17 
lbs. daily of a concentrate mixture consisting of Schumacher Feed, Blue 
Ribbon Dairy Feed, hominy feed, wheat bran, gluten meal, distillers' 
dried grains, and linseed meal. In addition she was given about 20 lbs. 
of corn silage per head daily with what wild meadow hay she would con- 
sume and with some dried beet pulp, soaked before feeding, and some 

11 Hoard's Dairyman, 47, p. 75. 

12 Guernsey Breeder's Jour., 7, 1915, Nos. 3 and 6. 



RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 



395 



mangels during the season. During the summer months she was turned 
out occasionally into a small lot where she obtained but little pasturage. 

II. Feed Required by Cow and Cost of Producing Milk and Fat 

655. Annual feed requirement. — The next table condenses studies 
covering from 1 to 6 years at 10 widely separated American stations, 
showing the yearly feed requirement of cows and their returns in milk 
and fat. 

Annual feed requirement of the dairy cow as found by 10 stations 





No. of 
years 


Feed eaten 


Av. cost 
of feed 
per cow 


Returns 


Stations 


Pasture 


Concen- 
trates 


Soilage, 
roots, silage 


Hay 


Milk 


Fat 


Massachusetts 1 . . . 

New Jersey 3 

Michigan 4 

Wisconsin 5 

Wisconsin 6 

Minnesota 7 

Missouri 8 

Utah 9 


6 
5 
6 
1 
3 
4 
1 
1 
5 
2 
2 


Davs 

38 
152 
168 
139 
180 
150* 
131 
191 
153 
150 
187 


Lbs. 
2,149 

2,029 
2,624 
2,774 
1,914 
2,010 
3,435 
3,027 
1,305 
1,169 
1,979 


Lbs. 
4,938 
8,694 
16,753 
3,638 
9,448 
8,318 
5,306 

3,692 


Lbs. 
5,105 

1,830 
1,825 
3,986 
1,200 
1,490 
2,029 
3,480 
4,518 
6,468 
2,347 


Dols. 
90.04 

53.46 
44.68 
35.96 
37.68 
48.82 
37.82 
35.30 
21.43 
32.45 
31.61 


Lbs. 
6,036 
5,498 
6,165 
7,009 
7,061 
8,036 
6,408 
5,927 
5,601 
5,993 
8,783 


Lbs. 

306 

279 
277 
260 
299 
344 
301 
248 
237 


Montana 10 

Nebraska 11 


250 
339 



« Bui. 14.5. 2 Bui. 29. 3 Rpts. 1897-1904. * Bui. 166. * Rpts. 1905-7. « Buls. 167, 1S7, 217. ? Bui. 35 
8 Bul. 26. 9 Bui. 6S. "Rpt. 1905. " Bui. 101. 
* Pasture limited in amount. 

At the Massachusetts Station the cows were fed soilage thruout the 
summer, only the dry cows being turned to pasture. In New Jersey 
the cows were likewise maintained in summer almost wholly on soilage 
and silage. At the other stations the pasture period ranged from 131 
days in Minnesota to 191 in Missouri. The great value of alfalfa hay 
in reducing the amount of concentrates fed and the cost of keep is shown 
by the Utah and Montana reports. The prices of feed have advanced 
materially since these results were reported so the figures do not repre- 
sent the present cost of feed per cow. In the second average for Wiscon- 
sin, for the years 1907-11, the annual cost of feed per cow is $11.14 higher 
than the average for the first 3 years reported, 1904-7. Since 1911 the 
prices have advanced still further. The milk returns varied from 5,498 
lbs. per cow in Connecticut to 8,783 lbs. in Nebraska, and the fat from 
237 lbs. in Utah to 344 lbs. in Wisconsin. 

From this table the intelligent, experienced dairyman can closely 
estimate the quantity and cost of the concentrates and roughages re- 
quired to maintain his herd of cows during the year, and the returns in 
milk and fat he may reasonably expect therefrom. 

656. Monthly feed cost of milk. — The following data from 4 widely 
separated stations, compiled in 1897, show the feed cost of milk and 
fat for different months of the year at the prices prevailing for feeds 
and pasture at that date : 



396 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Feed cost of 1.00 lbs, of milk and 1 lb. of fat by months 







New VurlJ 


Minnci ol a a 


Mis louri' 


Utah' 


Average 


Numbor ol 




20 
1,123 lbs. 
280 lbs. 


23 

'.170 lbs. 
301 lbs, 


12 

ooo lbs. 
248 lbs. 


15 
070 lbs. 
222 lbs. 




\ 1 01 u 

\ \ orauo fn 






Month 


100 
lbs. 

milk 


1 lb. 

fat 


100 
lbs. 

milk 


1 lb. 

fat 


LOO 
lbs. 

mill. 


1 lb. 
fat 


100 

lbs. 

milk 


1 lb. 
fat 


Milk 

$ .08 
.72 
.70 
.71 
. 51 
.20 
.31 
.42 
.11 
. 4 7 
. 05 
.71 


Fat 




.68 

.71 
.71 
. 58 
,28 
. 38 
.05 
.51 
.11 
.65 
.63 


. IS 
. IS 
. IS 

. L45 

.075 
,095 

. 1 55 

. 1 25 
. 105 
.175 
. 1 55 


$ .05 
.07 
.67 
.71 
. 59 
.32 
.37 

.51 
.51 
.60 
,68 

.05 


$ .14!) 
. 1 5 1 
.105 

.162 
.132 

.070 
.078 
III 
. L06 
.140 
.159 

.101 


$ .94 
1 .01 

1 .21 
1 .01 

.43 

.21 

,23 

. II 

.21 
.42 

. 65 
I 03 


$ .240 
.253 
.200 
. 234 
.000 
.053 
.053 
.033 
.052 

,098 
. 1 53 

.205 


* 50 
.02 
.50 

.49 
.48 
.15 

. 10 
.21 

.20 

. 38 
. 59 

.03 


$ . 138 

. 100 

,142 

.121 
.113 

.038 
,049 

.051 
.000 
.001 
.135 
. L43 


$ . 168 
. 170 


Marcb 


IS7 


April 


171 


May 


. 125 




001 


July 


.072 

II! IS 


( )otobor 


.001 
. 112 

1 57 






. 171 






I . 1 15 


$ .58 


$ 133 


$ .63 


1 .152 


$ .43 


« .104 


I .... 


• 133 


' Bui. 52. 


» Bui. 35. s Bui. 


20. *] 


ul. 43. 



















Since these dala, were gathered the cost ol' feeding stuffs lias greatly 
advanced, so (hat the figures are only relatively valuable. They show 
that ill L897 the feed neeess;iry to prodilee ]()() lbs. ol' milk in March cost 
7(i els., while when the same cows were on pasture in dune it Fell to 
26 cts. Winter prices were again reached in November. The average 
Iced cost for the year at the I stations was r>. r > els. for 100 lbs. of milk 
and L3.3 cts. Tor a, pound ol' fat. To get the present. I'eed cost of milk 
and fat in the United Slates the figures should be increased by from 
■lo to 75 per ct. 

657. Cost of keeping cows.— In addition lo the cost of feed, the dairy 
cow should be charged with: (1) depreciation, interest, and taxes on the 
cow herself; (2) depreciation, interest, and taxes on barn; (3) depreci- 
ation and interest on barn tools and dairy implements ; (4) cost of perish- 
able tools and supplies, including bedding, ice, salt, brushes, record 
sheets, etc.; (5) proportionate cost of pure-bred sire; (6) cost of labor 
in caring for cow. These charges are estimated by various authorities as 
follows : 

Cost of keeping cows in addition to cost of feed 



Lindsey, 

Ma ns. 

Station 1 



Truoman, 

( 'mm. 

Si a I a in 2 



Rasmussen, 

N. II. 

Station 3 



Cook and 

Minklor, N..I. 

Station* 



lnl. and depreciation on cow 

Barn for housing cow and feed 

Int,. and depreciation on tools and im- 
plements 

Perishable tools and supplies 

Cost of pure-bred bull, per row 

Labor 



I )ollars 

L6.50 

7.50 

1 ,15 

9.00 

■I ,00 

35.00 



Dollars 
21.40 



Dollars 
22.43 



Dollars 
15.00 
5.00 



7.00 

:; 00 

:;:; 60 



7.57 

3.79 

33.73 



3.65 

I .93 

30.34 



73.15 



65.00 



07.52 



55.92* 



i MasB, I tul. 115. *Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 73. •< N. II. Exten. Bui. 2. * N. .1. Rpts. 31, 33, 

* Does not include charge for dairy apparatus, mills utensils, insuranoe, or incidental expenses. 



RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 397 

These charges will vary greatly Eor the different sections of the 
country, depending on the price of labor, the sboRor required, etc. 
The above figures will, however, give an approximate idea of the amount 
which should be added to the cost of deed to obtain the total cost of 
maintaining a cow for a year. In turn, the cow should be credited not 
only wiih the value of her product, either milk, or butter fat and skim 
milk, but also with the value of ner calf and of the manure she produces. 



( ha nut X XIV 
i' Ki'ii) a: f|) I a i; i ; OJj Tllifi DA IIIY UQW 

I I''i,i,ihm<, i Oil Mil, i I'nui.r* n ion 
''■ '». 'I-im .nun lii«,;: UmiI. ||; i;s hi l;ih- r • j * » in;- ())! en I, | ; i i mi nn-r 

hili on In mm, mi j.iifii mi <• , iii.ii iii<- .i.hi , herd iioi 'Hiiiii , pooch i ; iij. 
nui Imum produol Ion |'o i Hi. ,..n A;; ftjekles 1 pofuf.N out, this foci 

I'im'Im n 1 1 1. 1 1 i.. ■ . . ■in. Hi. i.iim. ;,i i., h, i i. i.i .,i I,, i ii id. • .i.Hi man should 

mill,, I. Id. . | ',.iHiHii. i . ..ii'lil i..n:: .,, . I,. ,. I, ,i; p., , :il,|<- <|in in;' tllO OtilOJ 
IIIOIltllN "I lln ' ,n 'III.- Milium, i rmnli I luiiii vliH'li I.i 1 1 1 ; ' ;il/'.iil lli. 

mi, i . inium |) i i, .In. I inn >>l mill .iii.l Lull, i I .i I ,ii r 

I All ill.llll.liHM'. Ol I. . .| 
'.', A l.,ll,ll|. . (| I ,1 I |l .11 

I 1 1 in .iii. ni. Cowl 

I I'.,I.iI,iU. I. nl 

'. A UK.' |. I .1 I. I < III | M | ., I || | , 

I. < 'i.i I I I. I I I ||,|)|| ,111 I <.M II. I I II" 

7 I.'- -i ii .n.i i.i i ii 

l'|...ii lli.- iilulilv 0'f Ni'' •liiirviiMin I/O mi,i ml ,i i ii lli. Mr In voiiilili- COM 

difions Com hiw herd thruoul l.ln yoor, depends In lorgc moosure the 

|.l nl 1 1:: In VVf I J POOl I VI 

G08, Generous feeding /Ys ho fore pointed oui (540-2), the proporlj 

i,i..i . 1 1 1 . i |.i..|nir, iiii .i,Hi', oow in I". he mosl olflotonl enimol muehini 
in existence Cop the eonvopsion of l.he gposs ino.iu.-hi of the fields end 
i ... ,i H 1 1 •,•'. Into ro fined eptielos of l.lie highosl peiloLobdit,y end nutritive 
in ..(..ii i.f! Cop iiiHiiiin consumption v.i mn,n # y doirywoii melee the 
,<in .ii. ini.hii. ol Ceiling to suppl.y tills responsive nuime.1 mochine 
wiiii sul'flcionl \nw niiii.i nil , in id.' sbopc of Coed) to ensure the mosl 
. conomlenl production Hinoo ii poijuiros oboul h oil- of oil the Coed thol 

even tin | 'I de.ir,y cow will out, merely to me.inte.in hep hod, 1 il win 

in given hut little hoy I the molntcnonco putiou obviously «»ni, n 

Moui.ll portion v.iii he iiiVOiileble foi mill< production Hinec the looo n. 

row iii|iiii. : .ii i v 'i Him totol digestible nutrients doily for hop 

mnlntononoo, es shown In Avppondix Toble v, the following tobli shows 
Mir i iiiiiiii i.iii economy wl l.h which she will produce milk whon given 
IdltloneJ feed 

1 nun v Ciiii.' mi. i iviiii'. Production, p 2R7 

A.l,,|,|. .1 Ii h. Itl.,1. Dnl.v Onll.lfl and IVIIH', Pn ..in- II. .ii |l ''.I 



IOH 



i' BKO \ D QA ItK Qli 'i II l, [)A n: / row ■/,•, 

Economy v) mill production on varying allowa/nci oj feed 

)',» „,„,l„l,|> |,„ 

II..I! /..I,.,,,, 7 MO ii- dig rwli i MO 

'l i,m i foiirUii /..!,.,,,, 1 1 ;.', ii,- ilia \mlv\i u\ ■ i MO j •, , 

J' nil ration, I .•..■'• : .■ .• rO/i 7 MO 7 MO IK) 

Th«or«tiftfll)y, •.'.■!.' m I- -I 7,0 lb* digoitibta nutrient* the 10004b •■■■> 
" 'i 1 ' 1 " •• "'' 'nil" niiumni Un Mu up j<.j, oi fwj body, leaving frothing 
i'«/ /mil- production v/i,ji< ;-.i,« iviJ J «o»timn foj .. fcim< to /.• 

mill' ',ii ll,i- ,,,..,;'« i ,,||,, • ,,,■(, mIiiih y/ill \,<- ;,l \\„ ■ -,,-,, ■ Q 

940) v/i,- n r< <i thr< - foui g ill ration 

then uijii/.<- ii,< ; ,.i'i<-i fourth foi milli production, ivhil* 

. lull ;;.')',/, I,;, II I,- | j< « -I , ■. ;, /.,,!., 1,1- foj ,„,l|- pf'OdW ' '■ 

000 Thi ]</'.;,-' '.'*/.'< 'i i ;:.».' allowanii Th< o,uo*tion oi bow n 

:l,',ul'l l,< i< 'I II,' <l.,,, / <',.-; ■, ■,■..■■ ■■',,,', inf I,,.;,',, 

• I', '!;,/( /,/,';,, i',; ...-•, i,',(,n,,l '■',;, 'hli',,,:-. i<,ui>\,.,;' .,■ ■■ -,,.;,(/ 

and '",/,'■< /,i».-,i< •. u,< '',:-.H/ j,.,;i ',i ii.- ration Tin amount ol '-. 

•,l<, 'I' p< / ..II *,/, l|,< 'ju;u,lj! / ;,»,'! 'ju;,lil / <,i I),. 

•..-, i;, < prod in ' ■ ' '.: H-' 
■ n in the pnuu i\lti% ■ ■ ■;■■■ r that a ration coi 

onl , . • ■ ■".•.' ■ ■,■ ■ ■■■ . I mmttiiii • ■■>'■■■ u 

null- \tuUm lib Ordilli ' / ' .<■..; .. : ,',/, ,/,;, , ;,.■<- f( ■ ■ ■ 

'•',/,"' ;,' | li/f/l, j;, |,r :< ' II', .v /• , . ■ ■, /, •. 

, .' /,! /.',, './ 1/ II," .■ ■ 

,'•) i',/ ,,,;>u<- alia . . - - ■ -, ■ -. -it', ;,u !!/<• 

;', ,•" . i ' at I, /;,:;< J'l ', ; | | ' . | : .<. 

-I :',/ /<,.;<. •,'■•-, ,- - ', 

in II, < »;,!)',/, u:-.'i;,lly I •■ ■ I ■ ■ ■ ■. . • • ■ 

-.'.- '.'■'. dtioj 

• ■ , ',/ 6 lb i p' ■ • ■• daily did "''* i,n,.-< 
;: o o ■.' ■ 

r;Judi Of * Will i"in I'/ p ■■'-■' 

. . • -, i ■ 
.,1 v;i)ii< 

| 

! 

. . 



400 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

tion from earlier recommendations tends to the more economical pro- 
duction of dairy products. The reader should note, however, that 
where small allowances of concentrates proved the most economical the 
roughage fed was always ample in quantity and desirable in quality, 
corn silage carrying more or less grain, and clover or alfalfa hay usually 
being employed. The dairyman who persists in feeding his cows wholly 
on such low-grade roughages as timothy hay, corn stover, etc., must pay 
the penalty by feeding from 10 to 12 lbs. of expensive concentrates daily 
if his cows are to maintain a reasonable flow of milk. 

The wise dairyman will hold in mind that a good dairy cow in full 
flow of milk is expending fully as much energy as a horse at hard labor 
and this without cessation for many months. We know that the harder 
a horse works the more grain and the less roughage he must have, and 
the same is true for the cow. (457) In feeding, the aim should be to 
supply as much good roughage as the cow will readily consume, and to 
this add sufficient concentrates to keep the digestible matter up to the 
standard set by the scientists. (Chapter VII) 

660. The ration should be properly balanced. — As we have seen (310), 
immature grass is rich in protein compared with carbohydrates and fat. 
Indeed Wolff based his standard, in which he advocated a heavy allow- 
ance of protein for the dairy cow, upon the composition of pasture grass. 
(156-7) While we have learned thru actual feeding trials that it is 
not necessary to furnish the dairy cow with as much protein as was 
advised by Wolff, her ration should nevertheless be much richer in pro- 
tein than those for fattening or work animals. (150) Owing to the 
heavy demand for lime and phosphorus in milk production, the supply 
of these mineral nutrients must likewise be ample. Fortunately, both 
of these constituents are furnished in abundance by legume hay. The 
amount of protein it will pay to feed the dairy cow will depend, as has 
already been pointed out, on the relative prices of nitrogenous and 
carbonaceous feeds. In no case should the protein allowance fall far 
below the minimum amounts shown in Appendix Table V. In districts 
where protein-rich feeds are cheap, it is often more important to know 
how narrow a ration may safely be fed. Michels 7 and McNutt s found 
in trials at the North Carolina Station that rations containing 4 to 6 lbs. 
of cottonseed meal and having nutritive ratios as narrow as 1 :4 were 
entirely satisfactory. 

661. Cows should je fed individually. — So pronounced is the tendency 
to milk production in cows of marked dairy temperament that, in spite 
of the most liberal feeding, they will rarely lay on flesh when in full 
flow of milk, provided their ration is well balanced. On the other hand, 
cows of ordinary capacity may easily be overfed, in which case they will 
store the surplus nutrients in the form of body fat, rather than increasing 
their milk production. Since even in a well-bred and well-selected herd 
the different cows vary widely in productive ability, for the greatest 

7 N. C. Bui. 213. s Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914. 



FEED AND CAKE OF THE DAIRY COW 401 

profit the cows must be fed as individuals, rather than each animal 
being given the same ration. Only under exceptional conditions does 
this mean, however, that it is practicable to compute a balanced ration 
for each different animal. Ordinarily it will suffice to determine what 
amounts and proportions of feeds should be used to provide an econom- 
ical ration that will meet the standards for the average of the herd, in 
the manner shown in Chapters VII and VIII. Each cow may then be 
given all the roughage she will eat, and the allowance of concentrates 
adjusted according to her production. A dairy cow will usually con- 
sume about 2 lbs. of dry roughage of good quality daily per 100 lbs. live 
weight, or 1 11). of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage. Common rules 
for feeding concentrates are : 

1. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each pound of butter fat the cow 
produces per week, or 

2. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each 3 to 4 lbs. of milk, depending 
on its richness, or 

3. Feed as heavy an allowance as the cow will pay for at the ruling prices 
for feeds and products, increasing the allowance gradually until she fails to 
respond by an increase in production which will cover the increase in cost. 

The first 2 rules apply only when abundant roughage of good quality 
is supplied. Heavy producers require a narrower nutritive ratio than 
ordinary animals, and hence it may be advisable to alter the character 
of the grain mixture for them. It is also wise to feed a more nitro- 
genous concentrate allowance to cows which show a tendency to fatten, 
while animals which are losing flesh should receive a larger proportion 
of the carbonaceous concentrates, such as the farm-grown grains. 

662. Feeding concentrates on pasture. — The economy of feeding con- 
centrates to cows on pasture has been studied at a number of stations. 
Shelton and Cottrell of the Kansas Station 9 found that feeding grain to 
cows on pasture did not directly pay, even tho the yield of milk was 
increased as much as 31 per ct. Moore of the Mississippi Station, 10 on 
feeding 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal and 4 lbs. of wheat bran daily per cow 
to a dairy herd on pasture, found that the increased milk flow did not 
justify the expense, tho the firmness of the butter was greatly improved 
by feeding the cottonseed meal. At the Utah Station 11 Linfield found 
that cows getting some concentrates while on pasture, at first showed 
no great advantage therefrom; later the effects of such feed became 
apparent, the difference being very marked by the following winter. 

Roberts of the New York (Cornell) Station 12 found that cows fed con- 
centrates while on luxuriant pasture gave less milk and no more fat than 
those on grass alone. "With luxuriant pasture except for a short period, 
both lots did equally well. Grain-fed cows that were fed grass for 
soilage gave just enough more milk than others fed no grain to pay for 
the concentrates fed. The study was then transferred to a nearby dairy 

°Kan. Rpt. 1888. "Utah Bui. 68. 

10 Miss. Bui. 70. 32 N. Y. (Cornell) Buls. 13, 22, 36, 49. 



402 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

farm. A herd of 16 cows lightly fed the previous winter was divided into 
2 lots of 8 cows each, all grazing on the same pasture. Each cow in Lot I 
was given 4 quarts daily of rich concentrates, while those in Lot II re- 
ceived none. When the grass began to fail in August soilage was fed. The 
returns for 22 weeks are as follows : 

Feeding concentrates to cows on pasture 

Lot I Lot II 

Pasture with Pasture without 
concentrates concentrates 

Concentrates fed, pounds 5,200 

Milk yield, pounds 22,629 17,698 

Excess of milk in favor of Lot I, pounds 4,931 

Gain in weight per cow, pounds 166 113 

Average per cent fat in milk 4 .67 4 .70 

Average per cent total solids 14 .08 14 . 19 

In this trial the pastured cows getting concentrates gave 28 per ct. 
more milk than those getting no concentrates, and each pound of con- 
centrates fed returned about 1 lb. of milk. 

The following year no concentrates were fed to either lot while on 
pasture. The 6-months yield from 6 cows that remained in each lot was 
as follows : 

Residual effect of feeding concentrates 

Lot I Lot II 

Fed no 
Fed concentrates concentrates 
previous year previous year 

Average yield per cow, 6 months, pounds 3,440 2,960 

In favor of Lot I, pounds 480 .... 

Tho getting no concentrates, Lot I returned 480 lbs., or 16 per ct., 
more milk than Lot II. Roberts holds that this was due to feeding con- 
centrates the preceding year. The benefits were especially marked in 
the case of the heifers, the 2- and 3-yr.-olds fed concentrates the year 
before developing into better animals than their mates which had been 
fed no concentrates the previous year while on pasture. 

In a test on the Elmendorf Farm, Hooper of the Kentucky Station 13 
found that one lot of cows, fed 4 lbs. of a grain mixture per head daily 
while on bluegrass pasture, returned 19 cents per head daily more profit 
over cost of feed than another lot on bluegrass pasture alone. A third 
lot, fed 10 lbs. of corn silage per head daily, returned only 2 cents 
more profit than the cows on pasture only, and a fourth lot, fed 4 lbs. of 
grain and 10 lbs. of silage, but 12 cents more over the cost of feed. 

Foster and Latta found at the New Mexico Station 14 that altho 
the production was increased by feeding grain to cows on good mixed 
pasture, the additional product did not pay for the greater cost of feed. 

The advisability of feeding concentrates to cows on ample pasture 
thus depends entirely on the relative cost of pasturage and concentrates, 

13 Ky. Bui. 171. ,4 N. M. Bui. 98. 



FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 403 

the price secured for dairy products, and the productive capacity of 
the cows. While the animal giving only an average quantity of milk 
may not pay for such addition of concentrates, the heavy-yielding cow 
can not continue long on her level of high production without some 
concentrates, unless the pasture be unusually luxuriant. Eckles 15 con- 
cludes that a Jersey giving as much as 20 lbs. of milk per day, or a 
Holstein yielding 25 lbs. of milk or more, should be fed some concen- 
trates on pasture. The amount to be fed must be left to the business 
judgment of the individual dairyman. 

663. Supplementing short pasture. — It is of the greatest importance 
that additional feed be provided for dairy cows when pastures become 
parched and scant in midsummer. Corn or sorghum silage usually 
furnishes the cheapest feed for this purpose (412), but where this is 
not available soiling crops should be specially grown. (418-22) When 
the pasturage is scant, the increased milk flow will fully and directly 
compensate for additional succulence or other feed supplied. Where 
the pastures are short, unless soilage crops or concentrates are fed, the 
milk flow will surely decrease, and, even should the pastures improve 
later, the cows cannot be brought back to their normal milk flow. The 
greater value to the pastures of the droppings from concentrate-fed 
cows will often prove the deciding factor with thoughtful dairymen. 
The residual effects upon the cows from concentrate-feeding on pastures, 
as pointed out by Roberts and Linfield, are most important and should 
not be overlooked. 

664. Succulent and palatable feed. — The great importance of succulent 
feed for the dairy cow has been shown in the trials which have been 
reviewed in the preceding chapter. (629-43) These show clearly that 
it pays to provide succulence, either corn silage or roots, for winter 
feeding to take the place of the green grass the cows get in summer. 
The value of succulent feed is due in no small measure to its beneficial 
laxative effect and to its palatability, which undoubtedly tends to stim- 
ulate digestion. (109) In general, not only should succulence be 
supplied, but the rest of the ration for cows yielding a good flow of 
milk should be as palatable as possible. Such roughages as timothy 
hay, straw, and corn stover may be used in limited amount, but for the 
best results should not constitute the chief roughage. As has been 
pointed out before, concentrates which are not relished when fed alone 
may be mixed with well-liked feed, the whole forming a palatable mix- 
ture. (594, 608) 

The concentrate allowance should be composed of a reasonable num- 
ber of feeds, for a mixture is relished better than only a single kind of 
grain or roughage. It is also best to feed at least 2 kinds of roughage. 
The most successful dairymen maintain that when a satisfactory bal- 
anced ration has been provided, it is then best to make as few changes as 
possible. 16 

10 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 256. 

"Haecker, Minn. Bui. 130; Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 284. 



404 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

665. Water. — Cows require a large amount of water for their bodily 
needs and for the milk. Eckles 17 found that cows in milk drank 4 times 
as much water as when they were dry and farrow. Collier of the New 
York (Geneva) Station 18 found that cows obtained 4.6 lbs. of water in 
feed and drink for every pound of milk they yielded. At the Pennsyl- 
vania Station 19 Armsby found that cows averaging about 750 lbs., fed 
fresh grass in stalls where the temperature averaged 70° F., drank about 
60 lbs. of water each daily. Others fed dry grass where a temperature 
of 73° F. prevailed drank 107 lbs. When at the Wisconsin Station 20 the 
same investigator found that cows drank more water on protein-rich 
than on protein-poor rations. In general the water provision for dairy 
cows should be about 100 lbs., or 12.5 gallons, per head per day. Heavy 
yielding cows will require much larger amounts, for Eckles found that a 
Holstein cow producing about 100 lbs. of milk per day on a ration of 
18 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. corn silage, and 14 to 20 lbs. of concentrates 
drank from 216 to 307 lbs. of water daily. As cows are creatures of 
habit, those of ordinary productive capacity will have their needs sup- 
plied if once each day they have opportunity to secure easily all the 
water they then can drink. Most authorities agree that high-producing 
animals should have water at least twice a day. The supply should be 
of good quality and close by, so the cows will not be forced to travel far. 
The dairyman who boasts of a spring or creek to which his cows must 
daily journey, often in inclement weather, will find a conveniently 
located well with windmill or gasoline lift far superior. (103) 

Opinions differ as to the advisability of warming water for cows in 
winter. Owing to the heavy rations cows in milk consume there is a 
large amount of heat produced in their bodies thru the energy expended 
in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the feed. When com- 
fortably housed probably little or no nutrients need be burned in the 
body for warming the water drunk in winter, provided it is no colder 
than that from a deep well. Hills of the Vermont Station 21 found no 
benefit from warming water for cows in comfortable quarters. An 
important reason for warming the water for heavy-yielding cows is 
that unless this is done they may not drink a sufficient quantity to make 
possible the maximum production of milk. There has been much dis- 
cussion in regard to watering the cows in their stalls. Hayward of the 
Pennsylvania Station 22 and Hills of the Vermont Station 23 found no 
advantage in keeping water continuously before cows, instead of allowing 
them to drink once daily. In regions with severe winters most author- 
ities recommend that the animals be watered indoors when the weather 
is so inclement that it is not desirable to turn them out for exercise. Some 
devices for stall-watering are actually dangerous, for tho the drinking 
basin may be kept clean, the supply pipe coming into it from below re- 

17 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 242. 21 Vt. Rpt. 1907. 

15 Proc. of "N. Y. Farmers," 1892-3. " Penn. Bui. 56. 

™Penn. Rpt. 1888. 2n Vt. Rpt, 1907. 
20 Wis. Rpt. 1886. 



FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 405 

tains saliva and particles of food which may drop into the basin. Such 
material quickly putrefies, lines the pipes with a slimy mass, and con- 
taminates the water which rises into the basin. 

666. Salt. — The studies of Babcock and Carlyle, already reviewed 
(101), show that dairy cows require salt to thrive. The amount to be 
fed will vary according to the salt content of the feeding-stuffs in the 
ration. More should be supplied when heavy allowances of rich concen- 
trates are fed. These investigators found that when allowed free access 
to salt cows consumed about 1 ounce daily, and conclude that 0.75 ounce 
daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight, with 0.6 ounce in addition for each 20 lbs. 
of milk, is generally sufficient. The salt allowance may be regularly 
mixed with the feed, or it may be placed where the animals can consume 
it as their appetite directs. 

II. Hints on Caking for Dairy Cows 

667. Shelter and comfort. — The steer, gorged with feed and every day 
adding to the heat-holding fat layer just beneath the skin, prefers the 
yard or open shed to the stable. (727) The dairy cow stands in strong 
contrast, her system being relaxed thru the annual drain of maternity 
and the daily loss of milk, the combination severely taxing her digestive 
and assimilative powers and drawing heavily on her vitality. In winter 
the cow should be comfortably housed in a well-lighted, well-ventilated 
stable, the temperature of which should range from 40° to 50° F. (91) 

To preserve the health of the herd as well as for sanitary reasons it 
is advisable to have not less than 4 square feet of window glass for 
each animal. It is well to clean and disinfect the stable thoroly at least 
once a year, to check any possible spread of disease. 24 As the dairy cow 
is a sensitive, nervous animal the wise dairyman will provide comfort- 
able stalls or swinging stanchions, and see that the cows are well bedded. 
The benefits from dehorning have already been pointed out. (569) The 
sharp decline in milk production which often occurs in midsummer, 
charged by many to the annoyance of the cows by flies, undoubtedly is 
more often due to a shortage of feed. Beach and Clark of the Connect- 
icut (Storrs) Station, 25 and Eckles of the Missouri Station, 20 found no 
increase in milk production when the herd was sprayed with a fly re- 
pellant, tho the cows were less restless during milking when they had 
been previously sprayed. 

668. Preparation of feed. — The cow giving a large flow of milk is 
working as hard as the horse ever does, and, this true, any grain given 
her should be ground or crushed if not otherwise easy of mastication 
and digestion. Corn and oats should generally, and wheat, rye, barley, 
kafir, and milo always, be ground or "chopped," and roots should be 
sliced or pulped. Because the cow takes kindly to dry feed and every- 
thing which enters the paunch is quickly soaked and softened, there 

24 Lindsey, Mass. Bui. 145. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 32. :s Mo. Bui. 68. 



406 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

seems no occasion for feeding slops, nor is there any advantage from 
cooking- ordinary feeding stuffs. (423-31) 

669. Frequency of feeding. — The ample paunch and the considerable 
time needed for rumination teach that the common practice of feeding 
cows twice daily, morning and evening, with possibly a little roughage 
additional at midday, is a reasonable one. Those who give their cows 
first a little of this and then a little of that, busying themselves all day in 
the stable, usually ascribe success to their irksome system of feeding, 
when in truth it is due to good care generally and not to the particular 
system of feeding. Habit is strong with the cow, and a simple system of 
feeding and stable management once established should be rigorously con- 
tinued. (571) 

670. Order of feeding. — In the roomy paunch hay and grain, eaten 
separately, are rapidly and thoroly commingled by the churning action 
of that organ and gradually softened in the warm, abundant liquid it 
contains. This true, the particular order of feeding roughages and con- 
centrates is not important. While the particular time of feeding is not 
of prime importance, it is essential that the cows be fed at regular in- 
tervals. If then satisfied they are content until the time for another 
feed. The cow seems best satisfied when the concentrates are given first, 
and these out of the way, she proceeds to dispose of the roughage be- 
fore her. Some cows give down their milk more freely when eating their 
concentrate allowance, but this is probably due to habit, for others 
which have always been fed their concentrates either before or after 
milking seem equally contented. Hay or other dry forage is usually not 
fed till after milking, because it fills the air with dust. Silage, turnips, 
cabbage, or other feeds with a marked odor should be given only after 
milking. 

671. Regularity and kindness. — To skillful feeding and wholesome 
quarters the successful dairyman adds regularity and kindness. On 
this point Babcock of the Wisconsin Station 27 writes : "I would recom- 
mend, therefore, in order to obtain the best results from any cow, that 
first of all she be treated kindly, all sources of excitement being avoided 
so far as possible. She should also be fed and milked at regular inter- 
vals by the same person, and all conditions should be maintained as 
nearly uniform as possible at all times. It is my opinion that kind treat- 
ment and pleasant surroundings will have a greater influence upon the 
quality of milk than the kind of food, provided the ration given contains 
sufficient nutriment for the maintenance of the animal. ' ' 

While milking is usually regarded as a simple task which anyone can 
do, there may be a great difference in the returns which different milk- 
ers get from the same cow. A cow should be milked quietly with the dry 
hand, and stripped out thoroly, the milker bearing in mind that the last- 
drawn milk carries about 10 times as much fat as that drawn first. (552) 
If the teats are chapped or injured, vaseline or other ointment should be 

27 Wis. Rpt. 1889. 



FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 407 

applied, and the milker should be especially patient, lest the evil habit 
of kicking be developed. 

On the general treatment of the herd Haecker of the Minnesota Sta- 
tion 28 offers the following sage advice : 

"We know of many instances where the best of dairy cows were kept, 
and where good methods of feeding were practiced ; and still results fell 
far short of what might reasonably be expected, simply because the 
animals did not receive that kindly treatment which is so essential to a 
cow giving much milk for a long period. The herd as a whole should 
always be moved slowly. Never hurry a cow, or strike her or speak 
loudly and harshly. A gentle voice and a caressing touch are quite as 
potent as is digestible protein. If you so handle the cows that they are 
fond of you, you have learned one of the most important lessons that 
lead to profitable dairying. The most successful milk-producers are 
always in close touch with every cow in the herd. The milk-producer 
has to do with motherhood, in which affection always plays an important 
part. A cow 's affection for the calf prompts the desire to give it milk ; 
if you gain her affection, she will desire to give you milk. If you have 
not been in the habit of caressing the cows, the time to inaugurate the 
practice is when they approach the time of calving, as it is at that par- 
ticular time when they take kindly to grooming and to gentle rubbing of 
the udder. 

' ' Each cow should have a name, which should always be spoken when 
approaching her. This one point counts for much in the successful hand- 
ling of a herd. Suppose the cows are slowly filing into the barn, and you 
see that Rose is about to go into the wrong stall. A quick call of "Rose !" 
will attract her attention, and she will forget that she was about to go 
into her neighbor's stall to steal a mouthful of her feed. If Rose, when 
in the yard, is about to hook another member of the herd, and just at 
that moment hears her name called, she will forget what she was about 
to do. Again, suppose the herd is slowly wending its way down the lane 
to the pasture, and someone has thoughtlessly left a side gate open, 
leading into a grain field. Rose is in the lead, and, as you see her turning 
toward the open gate, a quick, sharp call of "Rose !" will exert a wonder- 
ful influence in bringing her back into line. It is by such methods that 
a herd can be gradually taught to do the right things, to save you many 
steps, and at the same time bring a larger return. ' ' 

III. Feed and Care Before and After Calving 

672. Giving the cow a rest. — Practically all observing dairymen agree 
that it is most profitable to give the dairy cow a rest between lactation 
periods, for experience has shown that she will produce more milk an- 
nually if dry 6 to 8 weeks than if milked continuously. Carroll of the 
Utah' Station, 29 studying data secured with 496 cows in a cow-testing 

28 Minn. Bui. 140. 29 Utah Bui. 127. 



108 FEEDS AND IARED1NG 

association, Pound that cows dry Cor 2 months produced more Eat and 
returned more profil than those allowed to rest but a single month. 
Eclclos"" recommends thai under ordinary conditions the cow be dry o' 
weeks and proforably 2 months il' in a thin condition, Dairymen differ 
as !<> i he best length of lactation period, but so Ear as the available data 
warrant conclusions, there is no apparent difference in the annual re 
i urn:; from uows again freshen ing !», Hi, or 12 moulds after calving, 
providing they are allowed to bo dry for (» weeks to 2 months. 83 

To avoid injury to the udder the cow should be dried off gradually. 
II is well to milk only once daily lior a few days, not stripping the udder 
out clean ; thon bul once in 'J, days Cor :'> or I days, after which the inter 
v;d is lengthened to twico a week. When the milk yield is decreased to 
10 lbs. per day <>r less, according to Eckles," 2 milking may be entirely 
discontinued. 'The udder will fill Cor ;i Cew days, but the milk will be 
gradually reabsorbed, and no harm will result. II" the cow continues to 

produce more lli.ni 1.0 11)8. :i, day her coneenl r;ile allowance should he 

withhold and only poor roughage, like timothy hay, fed until the (low 

is checked. 

673. Feed lor the <<<>w when dry. To ensure a good How of milk I Ik- 
cow should be in good condition at freshening, as h;is already been 
pointed out. (557) When the animal is in a thrifty condition there is 
also less trouble in calving. Only sufficient concentrates should be Ced to 

put the COW in proper Mesh, Cor if she has heen he;ivily led willi rich con 

contratos while giving milk, a helpful change may now be made to a 
ration which will rost and cool the digestive tract. Just previous to 
calving time tho d^-ii should be slightly laxative, tho if on pasture no es- 
pecial attention need be given to this point. For cows that Creshen while 
housed nothing is better than legume hay and silage, with a couple of 
pounds of concentrates added, il necessary. The cow soon to calve should 

have exercise, hill .should nol he chased by dogS or driven thru narrow 

gates. 

874. Gestation period; oalving time. The average gestation period of 
i he cow is placed by various authorities at from 280 to 285 days. Win^ 
of tho New York (Cornell) Station" 1 found the average of L82 recorded 
gestation periods for I he cow lo he 280 d;iys, ranging from 264 to '^!H> 
days. Ahoul, an equal number of births occurred on each day from the 
274th to the 287th, inclusive. The gestation period was not different Cor 

the sexes. 

Unless the herd is ;d pasture the cow should be kept in a clean, com 
Portable, well bodded box stall a1 calving time. If her bowels are not 
moving Prooly give a drench of Epsom snlls. As parturition approaches 
tho adder will become distended and hard, and when the muscles on each 

""Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, i>. 229. 
" Carroll, Utah Bul. 127. 
"■Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 230. 
1 n. v. (Cornell I Bul, L62, 



PEED A\l> CARE OF THE DAIRY <!<>w t09 

lide of the tail head relax, Leaving a hollow on each Bide, the calf may be 
expected within 24 hours, or 3 to I days at the Longest. The cow should 
not be molested during calving unless assistance is required. For 2 or 3 
days after calving her drinking water should be Lukewarm, and nIic 
should be protected from cold drafts, Cor her vitality is low. The feed 
for ih<' lirsi few d;iys should be limited in amount and cooling and Is 
tive iu nature. Besides Legume hay and silage ^he m.-iy he »dven such 
feeds as bran (often fed as •< mash), oats, and Linseed meal. rligh pro 
ducing cows should he watched closely lor signs of milk fever, and the 
air treatment, the great boon to dairymen, used if necessary. 

The yearly production or the cow depends in a Large measure on the 
feed :;ii, receive:; during the first month after calving. The concentrate 
allowance, small ;it first, should be increased gradually, at the rate of a 
,-i half-pound every other <\'-iy until the lull allowance is reached, Cor 
heavy feeding immediately after calving is apt to Lead to digestive dig 
turbances. [f the udder is swollen and hard, even more care should he 
used in getting ih'' cow to the lull ration. 

It, is quite customary to save the seventh milking after the cow calves 
Tor human use, altho sometimes the miih is not normal before the eighth 
or ninth milking. A simple test lor normal milk advised by Hoard's 
Dcdrymct n , ■' is to heal a small quantity to boiling; if the sample doc; 
no i thicken, due to the high conteul of albumin, the milk is usable. (115) 

675. Fall vs. spring freshening. Spring IYchIi COWS yield most of their 
milk when low prices prevail lor dairy products and Hi'- dairyman is 
busiest with the crops. In winter such cows yield only a small flow at 
most. On the other hand, the fall fresh cow gi res •> Large supply <>\' mili 
during the winter, and flushes again with tin- stimulus of pasture in 
springtime. Pall fresh cows should annually yield from Id to L5 per d 
more milk than those calving in the spring, When cows freshen in the 
fall more of the work of milking comes in the winter when farm worl is 
slack. More time can be given to the raising ok the calves, and Ichh 
trouble will be experienced from scours than during the summer, Pall 
dropped calves are Large enough by spring to make good use of pasture 
and better able to stand the hot weather Under tins system a Larger 
supply of skim milk is available for the young spring pigs. 

I v. Rem cing i he ' !o i of Milk Pboducq iq 

676. The burden of dairying, So Large are the feed and labor lulls on 
many dairy farms, especially in the older settled porl ions of our counl ry, 
that when these nave been met little remains for the proprietor, To 
reduce the cost of milk, production to a point where ; , reasonable profit 
may be made the dairyman must first of ;dl cull out, all cows whose pro 
duci will not under any conditions pay for their keep, (544-7) An 
;m;ilysis of his expenses will i hi □ ; o that in nearly ever / ca ie il is the 

• Hoard's Dairyman 43, L012, p 



410 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



feed bills and not those for labor that are the real burden. Whoever 
would improve his condition must cut the monthly feed bills to the 
minimum, not thru parsimonious feeding, but by growing great crops of 
the best feeding stuffs. With rare exceptions the dairy farm should 
produce all the roughage and the greater part of the concentrates the 
herd consumes. Growing the needed feeding-stuffs will increase labor 
and fertilizer bills, but such shifting of expenditure should prove highly 
economical in the end. Indian corn or the sorghums flourish over a 
large portion of the United States, furnishing both concentrates and 
roughage, and one or more kinds of legumes, furnishing protein-rich 
roughage, can be successfully grown on every farm. By the judicious 
and generous use of these best allies of the dairyman the great burden of 
the feed bills can be lessened. 

677. Selecting economical rations. — In Chapter XXII the values of the 
different feeding stuffs for the dairy cow have been discussed in detail 
and with the data there given the dairyman can readily determine the 
most economical rations to employ. In computing rations the general 
principles which have been pointed out in Chapter VII should always 
be considered. (158-67) 

To illustrate the widely different value for milk production of rations 
which are balanced so far as amount and proportion of digestible nutri- 
ents are concerned, the following rations, which meet the requirements 
for a 1000-lb. cow giving 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk, are presented : 



Rations that are balanced, but 


of unequal value for milk production 




Dry 

matter 


Digestible 
protein 


Total dig. 
nutrients 


Nutritive 
ratio 


A poor ration 

Timothy hay, 20 lbs 


Lbs. 

17.7 
1.8 
6.7 
1.4 


Lbs. 
0.60 
0.15 

0.94 
0.45 


Lbs. 

9.70 
1.71 
4.56 
1.17 








Wheat bran, 7 .5 lbs 










27.6 


2.14 


17.14 


1 : 7.0 


A fair ration 

Clover hay, 22 .0 lbs 


19.2 
6.3 


1.67 
0.52 


11.22 




Dent corn, 7 .0 lbs 


5.99 










25.5 


2.19 


17.21 


1 : 6.9 


A good ration 

Corn silage, 35 . lbs 


9.2 

13.1 

2.7 

0.9 


0.38 
1.14 
0.22 
0.37 


6.20 

7.65 
2.57 
0.78 




Clover hay, 15 .0 lbs 

Dent corn, 3 . lbs 




Cottonseed meal, choice, 1 .0 lb. .. 






25.9 


2.11 


17.20 


1 : 7.1 



In the first ration, where timothy hay, low in protein and not palatable 
to the cow, supplies the roughage, 11 lbs. of expensive concentrates are 
required to provide the additional nutrients needed. Even then this 



FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 411 

expensive ration is unsatisfactory, for timothy hay is a poor cow feed at 
best. (623) 

The second ration of clover hay and ground corn is better and less 
expensive than the first. Such a ration is theoretically ample, but there 
should be a larger variety of feeding-stuffs to make it satisfactory. (163) 

The last ration is much superior. Legume hay and corn silage make 
a combination of roughages which is most palatable and acceptable to 
the cow, and there is further required only 4 lbs. of concentrates to 
balance the ration. As has been pointed out (660), when the after- 
effect of the ration on the animal and on the manurial value of the ration 
are considered, it may be advisable to feed at least 6 lbs. of concentrates 
to cows of good dairy temperament, when concentrates are not too high 
in price. The third ration, containing only 4 lbs. of concentrates, is less 
expensive and more desirable than the second one, and far less expensive 
and much more desirable than the first. Altho all are theoretically 
' ' balanced, ' ' the last one is not only the lowest in cost, but if put to the 
test will probably produce from 20 to 30 per ct. more milk than the 
first, and somewhat more than the second. 



CHAPTER XXV 

RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 

I. The Skim-Milk Calf 

The profitableness of dairying depends to a large degree upon the 
careful rearing of the heifer calves from the best cows in the herd and 
sired by a pure-bred bull of quality. Improvement of the herd can best 
be made by replacing the discards with well-bred, home-reared heifers 
of greater productive capacity. Starting with common cows, one may 
by this means in a few years build up a high-producing herd. On the 
other hand, the dairyman who replenishes his herd by purchase must 
pay high prices for animals which, tho of good appearance, may not be 
well-bred. Careful dairymen are loath to part with their best heifers, 
preferring to keep them to improve their own herds. Another import- 
ant reason for rearing the heifers is that it is much easier to keep the 
herd free from such diseases as tuberculosis and contagious abortion 
when the heifers are home-raised, than when they are continually being 
brought in from outside sources. 

Tho the value of the calf at birth depends primarily on its breeding, 
the feed and care it receives while young are fully as important factors 
in deciding its future usefulness in the herd. The general principles of 
calf-rearing, which are presented in this chapter, are well founded upon 
scientific trials and practical experience, but the raising of calves will 
ever remain an art, in which much depends on the skill and judgment 
of the feeder, who should study the individual requirements of the ani- 
mals, rather than blindly following hard and fast rules. 

678. Raising calves on skim milk. — The fat of milk is so valuable that 
but few dairy calves are now reared on whole milk when skim milk is 
available. Those prejudiced against the rearing of calves on skim milk 
by the sight of unthrifty, undersized skim-milk-fed specimens should 
know that such results are not due to the removal of the fat from the 
milk on which they were fed, but to the ignorance or carelessness of the 
feeder. Careful dairymen have abundantly demonstrated that skim- 
milk calves, properly fed, develop into as good cows as those fed whole 
milk until weaning time. 

679. Skim milk vs. whole milk. — In a trial at the Kansas Station 1 Otis 
fed one lot of calves skim milk and a second whole milk, while a third lot 
ran with their dams at pasture. Those getting skim milk or whole milk 
were given in addition equal parts of corn meal and kafir meal, with 
alfalfa hay for roughage. After weaning, all the calves, which were 

'Kan. Bui. 126. 

412 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 



41J 



steers, were placed in the feed lot and given the same feeds until 1 year 
of age. The following table shows the rate and cost of the gains of the 
calves in each lot. 



Rate of gain of calves variously fed tip to 1 year of age 



How fed 


Before weaning 


210 days in feed lot, 
after weaning 


No. of 

calves 


Length 
of time 


Av. daily 
gain 


Feed cost of 
100 lbs. gain 


Av. daily- 
gain 


Concentrates per 
100 lbs. gain 


Skim milk 

Whole milk 

Running with dam . 


10 

10 

22 


Days 

154 
154 
140 


Lbs. 
1.5 
1.9 
1.8 


Dollars 
2.26 
7.06 
4.41 


Lbs. 
2.1 
1.9 
2.0 


Lbs. 
439 
470 
475 



The skim-milk calves, tho not gaining so rapidly as the others up to 
weaning, cost less for a given gain than either of the other lots. ; In the 
feed lot the skim-milk calves made the most rapid gains and also the most 
economical ones, measured by the feed consumed. Otis reports that the 
22 calves running with their dams lost 73 lbs. the week following separa- 
tion at weaning time, requiring several weeks to recover this loss. In 
estimating the cost of the several lots before weaning, skim milk was 
valued at 15 cents per 100 lbs., and whole milk at 21.1 cents for each 
pound of fat it contained. Hay was rated at $4 per ton, and concen- 
trates at $10. The cost of a calf running with its dam until weaned was 
placed at $12, and of one raised on skim milk at $5.27. 

Hooper of the Kentucky Station 2 fed one lot of 6 calves whole milk in 
a 79-day trial, while another was changed in a few days to skim milk. 
Each lot received in addition 0.5 lb. per head daily of a mixture of equal 
parts corn meal, bran, and linseed meal, besides what hay they would 
eat. The skim-milk calves made slightly larger gains than those fed 
whole milk, and were just as thrifty. 

680. Supplements to skim milk. — It has already been pointed out that 
whole milk is the ideal food for young animals, being rich in protein and 
ash. (115) Skim milk differs in composition from whole milk only in 
having had most of the fat removed. Provided no water has been added, 
this will increase the percentage of water, protein, sugar, and ash over 
that in whole milk. Owing to the removal of the fat, skim milk is a 
much more nitrogenous food than whole milk, having a nutritive ratio of 
1 : 2.1 compared with 1 : 4.4 for unskimmed milk. Not appreciating this 
fact, early investigators usually advised supplementing skim milk with 
nitrogenous concentrates, such as linseed meal and wheat bran. It is 
evident, however, that in a skim-milk supplement the need is not for 
additional protein, but for an abundance of energy-giving carbohydrates 
or fat to replace the fat removed from the milk. 

"While various fats and oils may be used to supplement skim milk, the 
cereal grains, rich in carbohydrates, are cheaper supplements than the 

-Ky. Bui. 171. 



414 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



oils available for calf feeding. Moreover, unless oil is fed as an emulsion 
with the milk it is apt to produce indigestion and scours, for young ani- 
mals in general have but limited ability to digest fat. (117) At the 
Massachusetts Station 3 Lindsey found cod-liver oil added to skim milk 
unsatisfactory, the calves sometimes refusing the combination. A cheap 
grade of oleomargarine was heated to 110° F. and mixed with skim milk 
by churning. It was found that 1 ounce of oil per quart of skim milk was 
all that the calf could take without indigestion being produced. Cot- 
tonseed oil and corn oil to the amount of one-half ounce per quart of milk 
were fed without bad effect. A calf fed skim milk containing 1 part oleo 
and 2 parts brown sugar gained over 2 lbs. daily, with kidneys well 
covered with fat. Calves thus fed were superior to those receiving skim 
milk only, but not equal in fatness to sucking calves. 

681. Farm grains as skim-milk supplements. — During 3 trials lasting 60 
to 90 days at the Iowa Station 4 Curtiss fed skim milk fresh from the 
farm separator, having a temperature of 90° F., to Shorthorn and Hol- 
stein calves weighing 180 to 200 lbs. An average allowance of 15.4 lbs. of 
milk and 2.9 lbs. of hay was given to each, with either linseed meal, 
sieved ground oats, or corn meal with a little flax seed. Eight calves 
were fed each ration with the following results : 



Fresh separator skim milk with 


various 


concentrates for calves 


Average concentrate allowance 


Av. total 
gain 


Av. daily 
gain 


Dry matter 

per 100 lbs. 

gain 


Feed cost of 
gain 
per lb. 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Lot I, Linseed meal, 1 .2 lbs. 

Lot II, Oat meal, 1 .5 lbs 

Lot III, Corn meal, 1 .3 lbs. 

Flax seed, . 1 lb 


Lbs. 
109 
116 

116 


Lbs. 

1.47 
1.57 

1.56 


Lbs. 

339 

337 

330 


Cts. 
2.8 
2.1 

2 .2 


1 : 2.6 
1 : 3.6 

1 : 4.0 



These trials show no advantage in using a protein-rich concentrate 
such as linseed meal to supplement skim milk. In one of the trials corn 
meal alone produced larger and cheaper gains than linseed meal, oat 
meal, or corn meal and flaxseed. Curtiss concludes: "In the corn-belt 
states, with their surplus of corn and oats, there is no necessity for the 
purchase of a high-priced nitrogenous product to be used in supple- 
menting the skim-milk ration." 

Cottrell, Otis, and Haney of the Kansas Station 5 report that kafir meal, 
given dry, is particularly suited to feed with skim milk because its con- 
stipating nature overcomes the scouring tendency of the milk. (237) 

Fain and Jarnagin at the Virginia Station 6 found barley an excellent 
supplement to skim milk. (226) Bran was helpful in teaching the calves 
to eat grain, but no benefit, either in the rate of gain or the appearance 
of the calf, was secured from adding it to a ration of shelled corn and 
skim milk. (218) 

"Mass. Rpts. 1893, 1894. "Iowa Bui. 35. °Kan. Bui. 93. 6 Va. Bui. 172. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 415 

At the Kansas Station 7 Otis found ground soybeans unsatisfactory as 
a skim milk supplement for calves on account of their laxative nature. 
(256) Duggar of the Alabama Station 8 reports that rice meal is de- 
cidedly inferior to corn meal as a supplement to skim milk. Because it 
was impossible to get the calves to eat sufficient rice meal, one-third wheat 
bran was added. (234) 

Cottonseed meal is not a safe feed for young calves, as is shown else- 
where. (249) Soule of the Georgia Station" states that after calves are 
6 to 8 months old they may be fed 2 lbs. per head daily with silage and 
such feeds as shredded corn stover and oat straw. The allowance should 
be gradually increased from about 0.5 lb. per head daily. 

682. Grinding grain for calves. — Otis 10 found that calves fed whole 
corn were less subject to scours and more thrifty than when given ground 
corn (corn chop). Ground kafir gave better results than whole kafir, 
owing to the hardness of the seeds. 

At the Virginia Station 11 Fain and Jarnagin secured a gain of 1.4 
lbs. daily when feeding calves corn meal with skim milk, and 1.6 lbs., or 
14 per ct. more, when whole corn was used. Kildee of the Iowa Station 12 
prefers whole oats to ground oats for calves. In teaching calves to eat, 
ground grain is usually fed, and whole corn or oats substituted later. 
After the calves are several months old they masticate their feed less 
thoroly, and grinding corn or oats may then be profitable. 

683. Various concentrate mixtures with skim milk. — Woll conducted 2 
trials, both with 2 lots of 8 dairy calves each, at the California Station 13 
to compare the value of a mixture of equal parts ground barley, oats, 
and middlings with a mixture of 1 part linseed meal and 2 parts each of 
ground barley, oats, and middlings, when fed with skim milk and hay: 

Value of linseed meal added to concentrate mixture for calves 

Average ration 

Concen- Skim Age at Wt. at Daily 

Concentrate mixture trates milk Hay* beginning beginning gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Days Lbs. Lbs. 

First trial, 70 days 

Without linseed meal .. . 0.9 12.1 2.3 40 126 1.14 

With Unseed meal 0.9 12.1 2.2 31 127 1 .27 

Second trial, 84 days 

Without linseed meal ... . 2.01 11.3 5.7 115 201 1.84 

With linseed meal 1 .96 10 .8 5 .7 106 200 1 .74 

*Not all of the hay offered was consumed. 

In the first trial the lot receiving no linseed meal made slightly the 
larger gains, while in the second trial the results were reversed. There 
was no difference in the appearance or thrift of the 2 lots. Woll con- 
cludes that there was no decided advantage from including linseed meal 
in the ration for skim milk calves so far as the immediate gains are con- 

7 Kan. Bui. 126. "Va. Bui. 172. 

8 Ala. Bui. 128. "Iowa Cir. 16. 

9 Breeder's Gaz., 63, 1913, p. 81. "Information to the authors. 

"Kan. Bui. 126. 



416 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

cerned. The linseed meal, however, aids somewhat in making the mix- 
ture palatable. 

To determine whether any advantage resulted from including a large 
variety of feeds in the concentrate allowance for skim-milk calves, Otis 
at the Kansas Station 14 fed one lot of 10 calves equal parts of shelled 
corn and ground kafir, while another was fed a mixture of 10 parts 
shelled corn, 10 parts ground kafir, 6 parts whole oats, 6 parts bran, 2 
parts linseed meal, and 0.5 part dried blood. The corn and kafir mixture 
produced larger gains than that supplying a greater variety of feeds. In 
another trial no advantage resulted from adding either ground flaxseed 
or a proprietary calf feed to ground kafir for skim milk calves. With 
Otis we may therefore conclude : ' ' While calves may do well on high- 
priced concentrates, they are unnecessarily expensive and give no better 
results than the cheaper carbonaceous grains, as corn, barley, oats, kafir, 
or sorghum." 

For calves up to 3 or 4 months of age some dairymen advocate feeding 
ground flax seed, either added directly to the milk or made into a jelly 
with boiling water and then mixed with the milk, about a tablespoonful 
of the flax seed being used to each quart. Others report equally good 
results from starting directly on farm, grains. 

From experiments at the Louisiana Station 1 " Woodward and Lee 
conclude that "blackstrap," or cane molasses, cannot be used as a supple- 
ment to skim milk for calf feeding in sufficient quantity to be of any 
practical value, as it tends to produce scours. (279) 

In Europe the use of "saccharified" starch, or starch which has 
largely been converted into sugar thru the action of diastase, has 
attracted considerable attention as a supplement to skim milk. In 
experiments covering 3 years with 70 calves Hansen 10 found saccharified 
starch a cheap substitute for milk fat when fed with skim milk. Calves 
reared on skim milk and saccharified starch produced cheaper gains 
than from whole milk, were sleek and thrifty, and developed afterwards 
in a thoroly satisfactory manner. Feeding more than 0.8 lb. of sacchari- 
fied starch per head daily leads to scouring. The use of saccharified 
starch is held to make possible a somewhat earlier change from whole 
to skim milk. On account of the good results secured with the cereal 
grains, which are much cheaper, this product is little known in America. 

684. Dried blood. — Otis of the Kansas Station 17 found that sickly 
calves, given at first a teaspoonful and later a tablespoonful of dried 
blood with their allowance of skim milk, rapidly regained their health. 
Blood meal which has been especially prepared for calves is best. In 
all cases it should be carefully incorporated with the milk to prevent 
settling. (271) 

685. Mineral matter. — In many cases calves otherwise well nourished 
suffer from the lack of lime or phosphorus, or both. (119) Even tho 

14 Kan. Bui. 126. ]r Landw. Jahrb.. 37, 1908. Sup. Ill, p. 235. 

15 La. Bui. 104. 17 Kan. Bui. 126. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 417 

milk is high in both lime and phosphorus, Kellner 18 recommends feeding 
half an ounce of common chalk (carbonate of lime) daily to calves on 
milk, in view of their rapid growth in skeleton and consequent need 
of an abundant supply of lime. As hay from the grasses contains a fair 
amount of lime, and legume hay is rich in this mineral constituent, 
calves will ordinarily receive enough lime when they are eating hay 
regularly. In districts where the feeding stuffs are low in lime or 
phosphorus, or when straw, which is deficient in these mineral nutrients, 
forms the roughage, either lime alone or both lime and phosphorus 
should be added to the ration. Gouin and Andouard of France 19 as a 
result of long continued studies recommend feeding ground bone, 
such as is used in commercial fertilizers, to calves. Based on the studies 
with pigs by Hart, McCollum, and Fuller of the Wisconsin Station, it 
is reasonable to recommend that one-half ounce of ground rock phosphate 
(floats) be given daily to calves in place of chalk or ground bone. 

686. Water and salt. — The calf should be amply supplied with pure 
fresh water, something which is often neglected with calves fed milk. 
At the Kansas Station 20 Otis observed that skim-milk calves would 
drink water several times a day, sipping a little at a time, sometimes 
soon after their feed of milk. Calves 2 to 3 months old consumed on 
the average 10 lbs. of water each daily. (103) 

As soon as the calf begins to eat grain and hay it should be given 
salt, the same as in the case of older animals. (101) 

687. Starting the calf on whole milk. — The skim-milk calf is usually 
allowed to get its milk from the dam for 2 or 3 days, tho many dairymen 
never allow it to draw milk from the mother, claiming that if separated 
at once it learns more readily to drink from the pail. In any event 
the calf should always get the first milk, or colostrum, which is designed 
by nature for cleansing the bowels and starting the digestive functions. 
(115) If the cow is a heavy milker the calf should not be allowed to gorge 
on milk lest scours result. After each feeding the cow should be 
stripped clean. When the cow's udder is caked, leaving the calf with 
her will aid in reducing the inflammation. 

The calf is best taught to drink milk from the pail by using the fingers. 
If it is allowed to go 12 to 24 hours without feeding, or until it becomes 
genuinely hungry, much less difficulty will be experienced in the first 
lesson. Some dairymen use calf feeders, claiming that the slowness 
with which calves suck milk from the nipple, compared with drinking 
from the bucket, aids digestion. Hooper found at the Kentucky Sta- 
tion 21 that during the first 7 to 10 weeks calves were more thrifty when 
fed thru the nipple. After the 70th day, however, the feeder was no 
more effective than bucket feeding, and by the time the calves were 6 
months old there was little difference in size or vigor between the lots. 
Many of the calf feeding devices on the market are unsatisfactory, and 

ls Ernahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 472. 20 Kan. Bui. 126. 
M Expt. Sta, Rec., 19, p. 468. 21 Ky. Bui. 171. 



418 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

all are dangerous unless extreme care is exercised in cleansing and steril- 
izing them. 

The young calf has a small stomach and naturally takes milk fre- 
quently and in small quantities. Too large an allowance of milk pro- 
duces indigestion and scours. When milk feeding begins, for the first 
day or two only 5 to 6 pounds should he fed daily, or somewhat more 
for a large lusty calf, the allowance being usually divided between 2 
feedings. Some advocate feeding at least 3 times a day at first, which 
occasions little extra work if the cow is milked thrice daily. When 
the cow is milked twice a day, the bother of warming the milk at noon 
is held by many not to be repaid. In all cases the milk should be fed 
as fresh as possible and at blood heat, the temperature being determined 
by a thermometer, which all careful feeders use. The allowance of 
milk should be gradually increased, but over-feeding, the common cause 
of poor success in calf rearing, should be avoided at all times. A safe 
rule is always to keep the calf a little hungry. Calves should be fed 
individually, the allowance for each being measured or weighed and the 
amount fed depending on the size and vigor of the individual. Guernsey 
and Jersey calves do not require over 8 to 10 lbs. daily for the first 3 
to 4 weeks, while 10 to 12 lbs. is all a calf of the larger breeds should 
have. 

688. Feeding skim milk. — When the calf is 2 to 4 weeks old, the 
exact age depending on its vitality, skim milk may gradually replace 
the whole milk, the change being usually made at the rate of 0.5 to 1 lb., 
or slightly more, per day, a week or 10 days being required to get the 
calf on skim milk alone. With cows giving very rich milk, some prefer 
to dilute with skim milk from the start. A few breeders feed some 
whole milk for as long as 2 months. 

After the change to skim milk has been made the allowance may be 
increased very gradually, but should not exceed 18 lbs. daily until the 
calf is 6 weeks old, and only in rare cases should over 20 lbs. be fed 
at any time. Skim milk is at its best when, still warm, it goes at once 
from the farm separator to the calf. Milk held for any length of time 
or chilled should always be warmed to blood temperature before feeding. 
In cold weather it is not safe to rely on the skim milk being warm 
enough as it comes from the separator, but the thermometer should be 
used. When the calf is 3 to 4 months old it can usually be accustomed 
to cooler milk provided the temperature is reasonably uniform. The 
calf pails in which the milk is fed should be kept scrupulously clean, 
a good rule being to cleanse them as thoroly as the milk pails. Feeding 
skim milk which is sour, stale, and teeming with undesirable bacteria 
is a frequent cause of scours. Trials by the United States Department 
of Agriculture 22 indicate that satisfactory results may be secured in 
summer with clean milk when soured quickly by lactic acid bacteria, 
such as are used in starters in butter making. In winter some of the 

^Breeder's Gazette. 66, 1914, p. 17. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 419 

calves showed a distaste for the sour milk. Skim-milk feeding should 
usually continue for 8 to 10 months, but when the supply of milk is 
scant a thrifty calf may be weaned after 3 months, provided good substi- 
tutes for milk are fed, as shown later. (697) 

At feeding time hand-reared calves should be confined in stanchions, 
to remain for a time after the milk is drunk until they consume their 
concentrate allowance and overcome the desire to suck each other's 
ears or udders. When this precaution is neglected the shape of the 
udder may be injured or a heifer may later persist in sucking herself or 
others. 

689. Pasteurizing creamery skim milk. — Patrons of creameries should 
insist that all skim milk be pasteurized before it is returned to the 
farm. This precaution keeps the milk sweet and kills the disease-pro- 
ducing bacteria, thereby lessening trouble from scours and preventing 
the possible introduction of tuberculosis. 

In 2 trials at the Ontario Agricultural College 2,0 ' Dean found that 
calves fed pasteurized skim milk (heated to 160° F.) made somewhat 
better gains than others fed unpasteurized skim milk. At the Kansas 
Station 24 Otis found practically no difference in the feeding value of 
pasteurized creamery skim milk and that fed directly from the hand 
separator, except that the pasteurized skim milk caused less trouble 
frpm scouring. 

690. Feeding concentrates. — When 1 to 2 weeks old the calf should 
be taught to eat concentrates. Such feeds as corn meal, sieved ground 
oats, barley meal, kafir meal, wheat bran, red dog flour, and linseed 
meal, alone or in mixture, may be placed in the bottom of the pail after 
the calf has finished drinking its milk. Some add the concentrates to 
the milk, but this is inadvisable as the meal is then less thoroly mixed 
with the saliva. The addition of such concentrates as bran or linseed 
meal to the farm grains may be helpful in teaching the calf to eat. 
The dull calf may be taught to eat the meal by rubbing a little on its 
muzzle when it is thru drinking milk. Having learned the taste of the 
meal, the calf should thereafter be fed its allowance dry from a con- 
venient feed box. Until it becomes accustomed to the new article of diet, 
a supply of meal may be kept before it. After this, however, only as 
much should be fed as will be eaten up, and the feed box should be 
cleaned out regularly. At 6 weeks the calf will usually eat 0.5 lb. of 
concentrates a day ; at 2 months, about 1 lb. ; and at 3 months, 2 lbs. 
Unless it is desired to push the animal ahead rapidly no more than this 
need be fed the skim-milk calf up to 6 months. 25 

691. Concentrates for skim-milk calves. — The following list by Otis 26 
will aid dairymen in selecting feeds for skim milk calves : 

= 3 Ontario Agr. Col. Rpt. 1899. 

= 4 Kan. Bui. 126. 

-'Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 184. 

"•Wis. Bui. 192. 



420 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

"1. Com meal gradually changed in 4 to 6 weeks to shelled corn with or 
without bran. 

"2. Whole oats and bran. 

"3. Whole oats and corn chop, the latter gradually replaced by shelled corn 
in 4 to 6 weeks. 

"4. Ground barley with bran or shelled corn. 

"5. Shelled corn and ground kaflr or sorghum. 

"6. Whole oats, ground barley, and bran. 

"7. A mixture of 20 lbs. of corn meal, 20 lbs. of oat meal, 20 lbs. of oil meal, 
10 lbs. of blood meal, and 5 lbs. of bone meal, changed to corn, oats, and bran 
when calves are 3 months old. 

"8. A mixture of 5 lbs. whole oats, 3 lbs. bran, 1 lb. corn meal, and 1 lb. of 
linseed meal." 

The Guernsey Breeder's Journal, 27 on gathering the experience of 
over 100 breeders of Guernsey cattle, found that the following were used 
as supplements to skim milk : 

Thirteen fed a mixture of equal parts oats and wheat bran; 11, a mixture of 

5 parts oats, 3 parts bran, 1 part linseed meal, and 1 part corn meal; 8, whole 
oats; 7, ground oats; 7, oats, bran, and linseed meal; 6, corn and oats; 6, the 
concentrate mixture given the dairy herd; 5, corn meal, oats, and bran; 4, 
corn meal, bran, and linseed meal; and others, mixtures of wheat middlings and 
linseed meal, of corn meal and linseed meal, of hominy and bran, and of corn 
and bran. 

The feeder thus has an extended list of successful mixtures from which 
to select the one most economical for his local conditions. 

692. Hay for calves. — Calves will begin to eat hay at about the same 
age as they do grain, consuming nearly the same quantity of each at 
first. As the calf grows and its paunch, or first stomach, develops, the 
proportion of roughage to concentrates should be increased until when 

6 months old it will be consuming about 3 times as much hay as grain. 
The Guernsey Breeder's Journal 2S found in replies from over 100 suc- 
cessful breeders in various parts of the country that the great majority 
preferred clover or alfalfa hay for calves. Some report better results 
from bluegrass, native, or mixed hay for the first 2 or 3 months because 
they are less liable to cause scours. Bright, early-cut hay which is fine 
and leafy is best for the calf. If legume hay is fed, it may be necessary 
to restrict the amount lest the calves gorge on this palatable roughage. 
The heifer should be encouraged to eat a goodly amount of hay to 
develop the roomy digestive tract desired in the dairy cow. Uneaten 
portions of the roughage should be removed from the rack or manger 
before the next feeding time, for calves do not like hay which has been 
"blown on." 

693. Succulent feeds. — A small amount of silage from well-matured 
corn, free from mold, may be fed to calves when 6 to 8 weeks old. In 
teaching them to eat this succulence it is well to offer them only the 
leaves at first. Woll 29 recommends 2 lbs. of silage daily for calves old 
enough to eat roughage, and 5 to 10 lbs., along with dry roughage, for 

-'Guernsey Breeder's Jour., 7, 1915, p. 38. 

28 Guernsey Breeder's Jour., 7, 1915, p. 38. 

20 Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, p. 222. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 



421 



older ones. (300) When roots are available they are a most satisfactory 
succulent feed. (365) 

Pasture is excellent for calves old enough to make good use of it. 
To avoid scours they should be turned on grass gradually, say for an 
hour the first day and for slowly lengthening periods thereafter. 
Another method is to accustom them to green feed by giving increasing 
allowances of soilage before turning to pasture. It is well to keep 
spring or summer calves in their stalls until they are 2 to 4 months old, 
as there is less trouble from scours, and the young things will not suffer 
as much from the flies and the heat. 

694. Gains of skim-milk calves. — Otis of the Kansas Station 30 gives the 
following table showing the weight by months of calves reared on skim 
milk, grain, and pasture from birth until 1 year of age : 

Weight of calves from birth until 1 year old 



X.i. uf 




Range in 


Average 


No. of 


Age 


Range in 


Average 


calves 


Age 


weight 


weight 


calves 


weight 


weight 




Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


23 


Birth 


59-10S 


77 


38 


7 


288-461 


403 


45 


1 


70-154 


111 


28 


8 


332-507 


455 


56 


2 


88-199 


144 


21 


9 


370-575 


515 


60 


3 


111-248 


181 


20 


10 


427-645 


578 


60 


4 


148-290 


229 


20 


11 


444-730 


626 


54 


5 


183-362 


287 


19 


12 


476-770 


669 


43 


6 


228-425 


349 











It is shown that calves averaging 77 lbs. each at birth attained an 
average weight of 669 lbs. at the end of 12 months, showing an average 
daily gain of 1.6 lbs. for the entire period. 

Properly fed on skim milk, along -with suitable grains and roughage 
in liberal supply, the thrifty calf should gain from 1.5 to 2 lbs. daily 
for the first 4 to 6 months. The aim should be not to fatten the calf 
but to keep it in a vigorous, growing condition, building strong bone 
and muscle. Where skim-milk calves do poorly, the blame usually rests 
with the feeder. The cause of the trouble will ordinarily be found in 
some one or more of the following conditions : Lack of sunlight and 
fresh air; unsanitary stalls or boxes that are not properly cleaned and 
disinfected; feeding too much milk, or at irregular intervals; feeding 
stale or chilled milk; feeding from pails that have not been scalded 
daily ; feeding improper concentrates or allowing the excess to ferment 
and stale in the feed box. 



II. Raising Calves On Skim-milk Substitutes 

Increasing numbers of dairymen thruout the country are selling 
whole milk for city consumption, for cheese making, or for the manu- 
facture of condensed and evaporated milk. Because it is too expensive 

30 Kan. Bui. 126. 



422 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to rear the calves on whole milk alone, many of these men sell the heifer 
calves from even their best cows for veal and depend upon buying cows 
to replenish their herds. Since this practice prevents any improvement 
in their herds, the successful raising of calves on skim-milk substitutes 
is a question of prime importance. 

695. Buttermilk and whey. — Where available, fresh buttermilk is per- 
haps the best substitute for skim milk, but the watery slop sometimes 
obtained from creameries, often from filthy tanks, should be avoided, as 
such material is almost sure to cause scours. At the Kansas Station 31 
Otis found that buttermilk gave slightly less returns with calves than 
skim milk but caused less trouble from scours. (267) 

The whey usually obtained from the cheese factory, acid and often 
loaded with germs that derange digestion, is unsuited for calf feeding. 
Where is it pasteurized and can be obtained sweet and undiluted, whey 
may give fair results when fed under the strictest rules as to quantity, 
regularity of feeding, and cleanliness of the vessels employed. Graef 3 - 
secured a daily gain of 2 lbs. with calves fed skim milk, while those 
getting whey gained from 1 to 1.4 lbs. At the Kansas Station 33 Otis 
changed calves from skim milk to whey when 3 to 5 weeks old, feeding 
10 to 14 lbs. of whey daily with alfalfa hay, prairie hay, kafir meal, 
and sieved ground oats. The whey-fed calves were thrifty and healthy, 
tho less fat than those getting skim milk. In feeding whey it should be 
remembered that instead of being a protein-rich food like skim milk, it 
is relatively poor in this nutrient. Instead of the cereal grains, feeds 
high in protein, such as wheat bran and linseed meal, should therefore 
be fed with it. (268) 

696. Minimum amount of milk needed by calf. — Fraser and Brand con- 
ducted 3 trials with a total of 28 calves at the Illinois Station 34 to 
determine the minimum total amount of whole milk and skim milk 
necessary to ensure dairy calves getting a good start before placing 
them upon concentrates and hay alone. It was found that after the 
dam's milk was fit for human use calves could be raised successfully on 
a total of 137 to 167 lbs. of whole milk and 378 to 491 lbs. of skim milk, 
with good clover hay, and such concentrates as bran, oats, linseed meal, 
and corn. The calves were fed whole milk for the first 4 clays, while 
the milk could not be used otherwise. Starting with the fifth day, 10 
lbs. of whole milk and 2 lbs. of skim milk was fed daily per calf for 
about 10 days after birth, after which the whole milk was gradually 
replaced with skim milk at the rate of 1 lb. per day. Each calf was then 
fed 12 lbs. of skim milk per day for 20 days, or until 45 days old, when 
the allowance was reduced 1 lb. each day, no milk being fed after the 
calves were about 56 days old. The calves were rather thin for a time, 
but after being kept on pasture with a limited allowance of grain until 6 
months old all were in good thrifty condition, and later several developed 
into good-producing cows. 

31 Kan. Bui. 126. 32 Milchzeitung, 1880, p. 143. » Kan. Bui. 126. "111. Bui. 164. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 423 

697. Substitutes for milk. — Several different concentrate mixtures have 
been used with more or less success as substitutes for milk in calf feeding. 
While carbonaceous grains are better supplements to skim milk than are 
concentrates rich in protein, substitutes for milk must supply an abun- 
dance of protein, as does milk itself. At the Pennsylvania Station 35 
Hayward fed calves whole milk for 7 to 10 days and then gradually 
substituted a home-mixed calf meal consisting of 30 parts wheat flour, 
25 parts cocoanut meal, 20 parts skim-milk powder, 10 parts linseed meal, 
and 2 parts dried blood, the mixture costing about 3 cents per pound. 
One pound of the mixed meal was added to 6 lbs. of hot water, and after 
stirring for a few minutes, cooled to blood heat before feeding. With 
careful feeding the calves receiving the calf meal made as good growth 
as others fed skim milk. Hayward points out that calves raised upon 
a milk substitute should have warm, dry quarters as they are apt to be 
less resistant to disease than milk-fed calves. 

Dean of the Ontario Agricultural College 30 reports success with cocoa- 
shell milk as a milk substitute. The "milk" was made by boiling 
one-fourth pound of cocoa shells in 2 gallons of water, and 1.5 to 2 
gallons per day was fed with bran, oats, and soilage. 

At the North Carolina Station 37 Michels obtained satisfactory results 
with rolled oats as a substitute for skim milk. Thrifty calves were raised 
when the allowance of whole milk was decreased to 2 lbs. per head 
daily by the fifth week, being gradually replaced by a gruel made by 
adding 12 ounces of rolled oats to 1 gallon of boiling water and allow- 
ing the mixture to stand until cool enough to feed. Hooper at the Ken- 
tucky Station 38 found calves reared on rolled-oats gruel less vigorous 
than those fed skim milk. 

At the Kansas Station 39 Otis boiled hay, previously soaked in a tank, 
for 1 or 2 hours. It was then removed and the liquid which remained 
was concentrated by boiling, 12.5 lbs. of the hay yielding about 100 lbs. 
of "tea." With kafir meal, wheat middlings, and oil-meal jelly for con- 
centrates the calves fed alfalfa hay tea gained but 0.4 lb. daily, poor 
returns. On tea from mixed hay calves gained 0.9 lb. daily, making fair 
growth, but much less than others fed skim milk. Stewart 40 successfully 
reared 5 calves on hay tea with one-fourth pound each of flaxseed and 
wheat middlings per head daily. He states that the hay should be cut 
early, when it has the most soluble matter, and the tea boiled until well 
concentrated. 

At the Indiana Station 41 Caldwell fed 2 lots, each of 3 calves, for 6 
months from birth to test the value of a home-mixed calf meal consisting 
of equal parts of hominy meal, linseed meal, red dog flour, and blood 
meal, with the following results : 

-Penn. Bui. 60. 39 Kan. Bui. 126. 

30 Ontario Dept. Agr., Rpt. 1903, Vol. I. *° Feeding Animals, p. 246. 

07 N. C. Bui. 199. "Information to the authors. 
*Ky. Bui. 171. 



424 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Home-mixed calf meal vs. skim milk 

Wt. at Av. daily 
Average ration beginning gain 

Lot I Lbs. Lbs. 

Calf meal, 1 .25 lbs. 

Whole milk, 1 .25 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 2 .66 lbs. 

Ground oats and corn, .96 lb. Corn silage, .19 lb 57 .99 

Lot II 

Skim milk, 10.85 lbs. 

Whole milk, .76 lb. Alfalfa hay, 2 .54 lbs. 

Ground oats and corn, 1 .04 lbs. Corn silage, .23 lb 53 1 .09 

The calves fed the calf meal, tho making slightly smaller gains than 
those receiving skim milk, were equally thrifty and vigorous at the close 
of the trial. 

698. Proprietary calf meals. — There are on the market several calf 
meals, which are more or less complex mixtures of such feeds as linseed 
meal or flaxseed meal, ground cereals, and wheat by-products, with or 
without dried milk, casein, and mild drugs. (285, 289) These meals are 
fairly satisfactory substitutes for skim milk, but give no better returns 
than home-mixed meals that are much less expensive. Dean 42 of the On- 
tario Agricultural College found ground oats and bran superior to a pro- 
prietary calf meal. Savage and Tailby in 2 trials at the New York 
(Cornell) Station 43 with a total of 37 calves compared 3 proprietary 
calf meals and skim milk powder with skim milk. The calves fed skim 
milk made the best gains, closely followed by those fed the skim-milk 
powder. Those fed the calf meals made fair to good gains, but at a 
greater expense. Tho in most instances less thrifty at the close of the 
trial when 5 months of age, by the time they were 2 to 3 years old they 
had developed into as likely animals as those fed skim milk. 

III. General Problems in Rearing Calves 

699. Birth weights of dairy calves. — The following table shows the 
birth weight of dairy calves and the weight of their dams, as determined 
at the Connecticut (Storrs), 44 Missouri, 45 and "Wisconsin Stations: 40 

Birth weight of calves of the dairy breeds 

Average of both sexes 

Number Av. wt. Av. wt. Av. wt. Wt. of Wt. of calf to 

Breed of calves of males of females of calf dam wt. of dam 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Per ct. 

Jersey 119 58 49 55 900 6.11 

Guernsey 57 75 68 71 996 7.13 

Ayrshire 34 77 74 76 976 7.79 

Holstein 104 94 85 89 1,153 7.72 

Brown Swiss 5 107 90 100 1,123 8.90 

Dairy Shorthorn. . 8 ... .. 76 1,249 6.08 

42 Ontario Agr. Col. Rpts. 1900, 1905. 

4S N. Y. (Cornell) Buls. 269, 304. 

"Beach, Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1907. 

"Bckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 174. 

46 Unpublished data compiled by the authors. 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 425 

The table shows that in each breed the bull calves average heavier 
than the heifers. The weights of the Jersey calves at the Wisconsin 
Station ranged from 44 to 80 lbs. ; of the Guernseys, from 48 to 87 lbs. ; 
of the Ayrshires, from 62 to 89 ; and of the Holsteins, from 62 to 108. 
Calves from mature cows are generally somewhat heavier at birth than 
from heifers. 

700. Economy of gains by calves. — Linfield of the Utah Station 47 found 
that up to 14 weeks of age the calf takes less dry matter than the pig 
for 1 lb. of gain, and after that more, because of the greater amount of 
roughage then used in the ration. Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) 
Station 48 found that calves required 1.03 ; lambs 1.08 ; and pigs 1.36 
lbs. of dry matter in whole milk for each pound of gain made. Martiny 49 
found that from 3.5 to 6 lbs. of new milk was sufficient to produce a 
pound of gain, live weight, with calves between the first and fifth weeks, 
while older ones required from 16 to 20 lbs. 

At the Pennsylvania Station 50 Hunt fed 3 calves whole milk con- 
taining 4.6 per ct. of fat for 161 days. They gained 1.77 lbs. each daily, 
requiring 8.8 lbs. of whole milk and 1 lb. each of hay and grain for 
a pound of gain. 

701. Feed required by the calf. — The following table shows the total 
amount of feed required by skim-milk calves up to 6 months of age, as 
determined by Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station 51 and by 
Eckles at the Missouri Station: 52 

Feed required by skim-milk calves to 6 months of age 

Station 

Connecticut 

Fed whole milk 4 weeks . 
Fed whole milk 2 weeks . 

Missouri 

Spring calves 4 

Fall calves 

From these data the cost of feed for a calf up to 6 months of age 
may be readily computed at market prices. 

702. Fall calves. — Where cattle are reared under natural conditions, 
the rule that the young be dropped in the spring will continue, but 
this practice is not necessarily the most successful in the older sections 
of the country. Fall-dropped calves come at a time when the little 
attentions they need can easily be given, and they occupy but little 
space in barn or shed. Subsisting on the mother's milk, or on skim 
milk with a little grain and hay, when spring comes the youngsters are 
old enough to make good use of the pastures and to stand the hot weather 
and the attacks of flies and mosquitoes. 

" Utah Bui. 57. 50 Penn. Rpt. 1891. 

JS Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904, p. 118. 51 Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1903. 

l0 Die Milch, 2, 1871, pp. 9-15. " ,2 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 180. 



No. of Wt. at Average 
calves beginning daily gain 
Lbs. Lbs. 


Whole 
milk 
Lbs. 


Skim 
milk 
Lbs. 


Concen- 
trates 
Lbs. 


Hay 
Lbs. 


Pasture 
Days 


8 65 

9 59 


1.31 
1.25 


220 
90 


2,908 
3,001 


127 


619 
337 




4 74 
3 51 


1.42 
1.10 


367 

367 


3,041 
2,331 


90 
159 


80 
275 


90 



426 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

703. Scours. — The most frequent trouble in raising calves by hand is 
indigestion, or common scours. This is usually caused by over-feeding, 
by the use of cold milk or that laden with disease germs, by dirty pails 
or feed boxes, or by keeping calves in dark, dirty, poorly-ventilated 
stalls. Each animal should be watched closely for signs of scours, for 
a severe case gives the calf a setback from which it recovers but slowly. 
Since soft, foul-smelling dung is often the first indication of trouble, it 
is well to keep each new-born calf in a pen by itself for 2 to 3 weeks 
where it can be observed more closely than if it ran with others. At 
the first indication of scours the ration should be reduced to less than 
half the usual amount. Such remedies as castor oil, formalin, and a 
mixture of salol and bismuth subnitrate, are used with success by 
dairymen. 

Common scours should be distinguished from contagious, or white, 
scours, also called calf cholera, which is due to an infection of the 
navel soon after birth. This most serious disease, from which an animal 
once affected rarely recovers, may usually be avoided by providing 
that the calf be dropped in a clean stall or on pasture. When the calf 
is born in the barn, it is best to wet the navel thoroly with a disinfectant, 
such as a weak solution of creoline, zenoleum, or bichloride of mercury. 

IV. The Heifer 

The rearing of the heifer after 6 to 8 months of age is an easy task, 
and perhaps because of this many are stunted for lack of suitable feed. 
Since the usefulness of the cow when mature is dependent on her 
proper development before the first calf is dropped, it is important to 
heed the few essentials in feeding and caring for the heifer. 

704. Feeding the heifer. — Heifers on good pasture usually require no 
additional feed. In winter there is no better ration than legume hay, 
silage, and sufficient grain to keep them thrifty and growing without 
becoming fat. The ration should supply an abundance of protein and 
mineral matter, and hence unless legume hay forms the roughage, the con- 
centrate allowance should be more nitrogenous in character than advised 
for skim-milk calves. From 2 to 3 lbs. of concentrates with 8 to 10 lbs. 
of legume hay and 12 to 20 lbs. of silage, or 12 to 15 lbs. of legume hay 
alone, if no silage is available, should be provided for the ration during 
the second year. 

Many breeders hold that if the heifer is allowed to become fat she will 
develop a tendency toward using her feed for the formation of body 
fat, which will persist when she is in milk. Eckles states that in trials 
at the Missouri Station 53 in which heifers were variously fed before 
calving, heavy feeding while young had no injurious effect on the pro- 
ductive capacity of the animals when mature. Heifers which were kept 
fat from birth until calving lost the surplus body fat within a short 

53 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 206. 



KA1SING DA1KY CATTLE 427 

time thereafter and showed no more tendency to fatten later on in the 
lactation period than those raised on a less abundant allowance of con- 
centrates. The most marked effect of heavy feeding of concentrates 
was a more rapid growth and quicker maturity. The results show, how- 
ever, that feeding a heavy allowance of concentrates is a much more 
expensive way of raising heifers than giving them a ration consisting 
mostly of good roughage. 

705. Age to breed. — The age at which heifers should drop their first 
calves depends on the breed and the size and development of the indi- 
vidual. Jerseys and Guernseys which have been well-fed are usually 
bred to calve at 24 to 30 months of age, while the slower maturing Hol- 
steins, Ayrshires, or Brown Swiss should not calve until 30 to 36 months 
old. Some breeders believe that if the heifer calves at an early age, the 
tendency to milk production will be intensified. Owing to the demands 
of the fetus, the heifer makes but little growth in her own body during 
the last few months before calving, even when liberally fed. Where 
early calving is practiced, breeders therefore usually allow 18 to 20 
months to elapse between the first and second calves in order to give 
the heifer an opportunity to continue her growth. Further, it is believed 
that lengthening the first lactation period tends to make the heifer a 
more persistent milker. As a rule cows that have dropped their first 
calves at an early age are finer in bone and often considerably smaller 
than those which do not calve until more mature. 

706. Feed eaten by heifers; cost of rearing. — The following table 
shows the total amount of feed eaten by heifers during the first and 
second years, as determined in trials by Trueman at the Connecticut 
(Storrs) Station 54 with 5 head, by Bennett and Cooper of the United 
States Department of Agriculture 55 with 17 to 20 heifers on a Wisconsin 
farm, and by Shaw and Norton at the Michigan Station 56 with 57 calves : 

Feed eaten by heifers up to 2 yrs. of age 

Connecticut Wisconsin Michigan 

First year 

Whole milk, lbs 445 342 405 

Skim milk, lbs 2,953 3,165 3,968 

Concentrates, lbs 303 547 1,144 

Hay, lbs 918 857 1,007 

Silage, roots, or soilage, lbs 1,245 353 1,354 

Pasture, days 135 123 .... 

Second year 

Concentrates, lbs 434 .... 

Hay or other dry fodder, lbs 2,227 1,792 

Silage, lbs 1,693 3,250 

Pasture, days 165 171 .... 

In the Connecticut trial the heifers were fed a limited allowance of 
concentrates during their second year, while in the Wisconsin test they 
were fed only hay and silage during the winter and grazed on pasture 
without additional feed in the summer. In the Michigan test the calves 

w Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 63. 55 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 49. 56 Mich Bui. 257. 



428 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

were not turned to pasture during the summer and were fed a heavier 
allowance of grain than is usual thruout the year. 

Trueman estimates the cost of rearing a heifer to 2 years of age in 
Connecticut as follows: Cost of feed, first year, $28.34; cost of feed, 
second year, $27.25; labor for both years, $10.00; bedding for both 
years, $2.00; barn rent, insurance, and taxes, $4.00; total gross cost, 
$71.59 ; credit for manure, $5.00 ; net cost for two years $66.59. 

From records for 117 calves Bennett and Cooper found that the cost 
of rearing dairy heifers born in the fall was as follows : 

Cost of rearing dairy heifers in Wisconsin 

Cost to 1 year Cost to 2 years 

Dollars Dollars 

Initial value of calf 7 .04 7 .04 

Feed 24 .67 40 .83 

Labor 4.45 7.81 

Other costs 6 .36 13 .73 

Gross cost 42.52 69.41 

Credit for manure 3 .00 8 .00 

Net cost 39.52 61.41 

Under "other costs" are included charges for barn equipment and 
utensils, interest, bedding, losses by death and from discarding poor 
individuals, share of general overhead expense in running farm, and 
miscellaneous expenses. Many of these items are not ordinarily taken 
into consideration by the dairyman in estimating how much it costs him 
to raise heifers. Labor, both man and horse, is charged at a uniform 
figure thruout the year. It should be remembered that with fall calves 
most of the labor comes in the winter when farm work is light and labor 
worth much less than in summer. The cost of raising heifers will natur- 
ally vary widely in different districts depending on prices for feed and 
labor, the shelter required, etc. 



V. The Bull 

Despite the fact that improvement in the productive capacity of the 
dairy herd rests as much with the bull as with the cows, the feed and 
care of the sire at the head of the herd is often neglected. To build up 
a profitable herd a pure-bred bull which has been bred for dairy pro- 
duction should be selected; this done, he should be so fed as to keep 
in the best condition for breeding. 

707. The young bull. — The same principles apply to the rearing of the 
bull calf as to the heifer. The bull should be fed from birth to maturity 
so as to make normal growth, for, while the offspring of an animal which 
is thrifty but is undersized on account of insufficient feed will not neces- 
sarily be smaller than those from a larger sire, such an animal will bring 
a lower price when it is desired to sell him to another dairyman. From 
6 months of age, when the bull calves should be separated from the 



RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 429 

heifers, they should be fed a somewhat heavier allowance of grain. The 
bull should be sufficiently mature for very light service at 10 to 12 
months of age. He should be halter broken as a calf and when about 
1 year old should have a stout ring inserted in his nose. He should 
be so handled from calfhood that he will recognize man as his master 
and should never be given an opportunity to learn his great strength. 
Stall and fences should always be so strongly built that there is no possi- 
bility of his learning how to break loose. 

708. Feed and care of the bull. — The ration for the bull in full service 
should be about the same as for a dairy cow in milk. He should be given 
good legume hay or hay from mixed legumes and grasses and fed from 4 
to 8 lbs. of concentrates, supplying an ample amount of protein. When 
idle or but in partial service less concentrates will be required. Some 
breeders hold that feeding corn silage impairs the bull's breeding powers 
and therefore prefer roots. Hoard's Dairyman, 57 holds that a bull may 
be fed 10 to 15 lbs. of silage per day with satisfactory results in a 
properly balanced ration. 

Except in severe climates the best quarters for the bull are an open 
shed with an adjoining paddock where he may exercise. Tho this 
open-air treatment is admirable for the health of the animal, it results 
in a heavier and rougher coat of hair, and hence breeders offering ani- 
mals for sale usually prefer to keep the bulls in comfortable box stalls, 
turning them out only on fair days. Rather than confine the bull in 
isolation, it is well to have his stall so located and built that he can see 
the other members of the herd. The hoofs of the bull spending most 
of his time in the stall need regular trimming. The bull should be tied 
by a strong halter to one end of the manger and by his ring to the other 
end, so that the attendant may approach him from either side without 
danger. The bull should be dehorned and should always be handled 
with a strong, safe staff. Even with a quiet, peaceable bull safety lies 
only in handling him without displaying fear and yet as if he were 
watching for an opportunity to gore his attendant. Nearly all the acci- 
dents occur with "quiet" bulls that have been too much trusted. 

To maintain health and virility, the bull must have ample exercise. 
This is perhaps most conveniently furnished by a tread power, where he 
may run the separator, pump water, do other useful work, or run the 
power for exercise only. Many declare that the purchase of a tread 
power merely to furnish exercise for the bull is a wise investment. 
Others fix a long sweep on a post and tie the bull at the end, allowing 
him to walk around the circle. Another device is a light cable stretched 
between 2 high posts, the bull being attached to it by a sliding chain 
so that he is able to walk back and forth the length of the cable. The 
bull may also be harnessed and hitched to cart or wagon for such odd 
jobs as hauling manure or feed. "Whatever the plan adopted, it is 
essential that the bull receive ample and regular exercise, else he is 
almost certain to develop an ugly disposition and may become impotent. 
57 Hoard's Dairyman. 46, 1914, p. 339. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 

During recent years the number of beef cattle in the United States 
lias decreased, rather than increased, while our population has been 
growing rapidly. Hence we find that the number of beef cattle per 
thousand people has fallen off markedly. In 1900 there were about 660 
cattle, other than milch cows, per 1,000 inhabitants in this country, but 
in 1910 the number had decreased to 450, and later estimates indicate 
a further failure of beef cattle to keep pace with population. Among 
the reasons for this condition are the breaking up of large areas of the 
western ranges into farms, the high prices ruling for grain and the 
consequent tendency of many farmers to sell their crops for cash rather 
than feed them to stock, the increase in the number of tenant farmers 
who have insufficient capital to stock their farms, the growth in dairying 
due to the demand from the rapidly growing cities for dairy products, 
and the fact that not infrequently the fattened steer has been grown or 
finished at a loss. 

Beef production has naturally become separated to a considerable 
extent into 2 distinct phases. In sections where the land is unsuited for 
tillage, either by reason of its rough nature or deficient rainfall, breed- 
ing herds are maintained and cattle raised to be sold as feeder steers. 
On the other hand, in the corn belt, where land is high in price, the 
majority of the steers which are fattened for market are not raised by 
the men who finish them, but are shipped in from the range districts. 
Altho many steers are still fed by farmers who handle only a few head 
each year, the fattening of cattle has passed to a considerable extent 
into the hands of professional feeders, who fatten from a few carloads 
to hundreds of animals yearly. In many instances these men make but 
little use of the manure produced and purchase most of their feed. On 
such a basis the enterprise is largely speculative. 

Fortunately for the American public, which would be exceedingly 
loath to give up beef as a common article of diet, our experiment stations 
have pointed out the manner in which the cost of beef production may 
be brought down to where it yields a reasonable profit to the farmer 
without the finished product being unduly costly to the consumer. The 
trials reviewed in these chapters show how the breeding herd may be 
maintained cheaply, utilizing the roughage which would otherwise be 
Avasted on the farm, and the steer finished for market on a much smaller 
allowance of concentrates than was formerly believed to be necessary. 
The next few years should see beef breeding herds established on 
thousands of farms in the corn belt, where the maximum use will be 

430 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 431 

made of corn silage and only limited pasture be employed, in the eastern 
states, with their low-priced grazing land, and in the South, with its 
tremendous possibilities for beef production, especially where the cattle 
tick has been eradicated. These farmers will look for their profits 
largely in the increased fertility which will come to their fields and in 
the profitable utilization of roughages which would otherwise be wasted. 
As is explained in Chapter XXIX, the general methods followed will be 
adapted to the local conditions in each region. 



I. Influence op Age; Long and Short Feed 

709. Margin. — Under usual conditions, the cost of the feed consumed 
by fattening cattle or sheep per 100 lbs. of gain is greater than the sell- 
ing price per cwt. of the finished animal. With normal market con- 
ditions, this is offset by the fact that fattened animals usually sell for 
a higher price per 100 lbs. than feeders, which are animals in thinner 
flesh. This difference between the cost per cwt. of the feeder and the 
selling price per cwt. of the same animal when finished is called the 
margin. In studying all commercial aspects of the fattening of meat- 
producing animals a clear understanding of this term is most essential. 

The principle of the margin may be illustrated thus : If a 1000-lb. steer 
costs the feeder $7.00 per cwt. when placed in the feed lot, its initial cost 
is $70.00. If during fattening it gains 400 lbs. at a feed cost of $36.00, 
each cwt. of gain costs $9.00. Assuming that the manure produced 
pays for the labor, the steer, now weighing 1,400 lbs., has cost $106.00 
and accordingly must bring $8.14 per cwt. at the feed lot to even the 
transaction. On account of the high cost of the gains, under all usual 
conditions a margin must be secured in fattening cattle or sheep to 
make a profit or "break even" on the transaction. The term necessary 
margin is used to denote the margin needed to prevent loss. In this 
case it will be $1.14, the difference between $8.14 and $7.00. The actual 
margin is the difference between the actual selling price and the purchase 
price. 

The factors which influence the necessary margin in fattening are: 
1, the initial cost of the cattle; 2, their initial weight; 3, the cost of the 
gains ; and 4, the expenses incidental to getting the steers to the feed lot 
and then to the market when finished. 

Other conditions remaining the same, the higher the initial cost, or 
purchase price, of the feeder the narrower, or smaller, is the necessary 
margin. For example, let us assume that a feeder steer weighing 1,000 
lbs. is fed until he has reached a weight of 1,300 lbs., the gain costing 10 
cents per pound for feed. If the feeder costs $4.00 per cwt., he will have 
to bring $70.00, or $5.38 per cwt., to break even. The necessary margin 
Avould then be $5.38 -$4.00 = $1.38. Had the feeder been bought for 
$7.00 per cwt., no money would be lost if he were sold for $100.00, or 
$7.69 per cwt. In this case the necessary margin would be only $0.69. 



432 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The heavier the animal when placed on feed the narrower will be 
the necessary margin, for the increased selling price is secured for a 
greater number of pounds of initial weight. This factor may be offset, 
as is shown later, if the heavier cattle are older and hence make more 
expensive gains. 

It is evident that any factor which increases the feed cost of the gains 
makes necessary a wider margin. The necessary margin is thus greater 
when feeds are high in price, and is wider with mature animals than with 
younger ones, which make more economical gains. (709-12) Since 
gains on grass are usually cheaper than in the dry lot, a wider margin 
is required for winter feeding than in fattening animals on pasture. 
(814) The higher the degree of finish, or fatness, to which the animals 
are fed, the more expensive the gains become and the wider the necessary 
margin. (714) 

From statistics gathered from feeders in Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois 
in 1902, Waters 1 found that an average margin of $1.02 was required 
to cover the entire cost of fattening cattle in summer — that is, they 
must sell for $1.02 per cwt. above the purchase price to break even on 
cost of production. For the 6 months of winter feeding with 2-yr.-olds, 
"Waters held that a margin of $1.50 per cwt. was necessary. Skinner 
and Cochel of the Indiana Station 2 found in 1906 that with Indiana 
cattlemen it cost $4.80 per cwt. for summer gains and $7.20 per cwt. for 
winter gains, and that an average margin of $1.07 per cwt., or 20 cents 
per cwt. per month, was required. Conditions have changed materially 
since these dates. Any one can readily compute the approximate margin 
required under his local conditions from the cost of feeders, the price 
of the available feeding stuffs, and the amount of feed required for 100 
lbs. gain. 

710. Feed and gains from birth. — To determine the amount of feed 
consumed by a steer from birth to maturity and the feed-cost of gains 
in successive periods of its growth, Zavitz 3 of the Ontario Agricultural 
College confined an animal from 3 days of age until 3 years old in a 
well-bedded box stall, giving exercise, when required, by leading. Ac- 
count was kept of all water and food supplied, and of the voidings, as 
shown in the table : 

Feed and gains by steer from birth to maturity , 



Daily gain 

Total gain 

Feed per 100 lbs. gain 

Milk 

Concentrates 

Hay 

Succulent feed 

Digestible nutrients per 100 lbs. gain 

Water drank daily 

Excrement voided daily 

1 Mo. Bui. 76. 2 Ind. Cir. 12. 



First year 



Lbs. 
2.2 
785 

492 
159 
184 
314 
315 

27 

30 



Second year 



Lbs. 

1.2 
456 



480 

777 

1,928 

875 

43 

48 



Third year 



Lbs. 

1.0 
350 



689 

776 

2,637 

1,183 

47 

50 



; Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1893. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IX BEEF PRODUCTION 



433 



During the first year the steer gained 2.2 lbs. per day, or a total of 
785 lbs., while the daily gain for the second year was only 1.2 lbs. and 
for the third year but 1.0 lb. In the first year there were required on 
the average for 100 lbs. gain 492 lbs. of milk, 159 lbs. of concentrates, 
184 lbs. of hay and 314 lbs. of succulent feed (roots, silage, or green 
fodder), containing a total of only 315 lbs. digestible nutrients. The 
second year nearly 3 times and the third year nearly 4 times as much 
digestible nutrients were required for the same amount of gain. A 
small part of this difference is accounted for by the fact that the flesh 
of the calf is more watery and contains less nutrients per pound than 
that of the older animal. (123) The average amount of water con- 
sumed and of excrement voided is shown in the last lines of the table. 

At the end of the 3 years the steer weighed 1,588 lbs. and would have 
yielded about 1,000 lbs. of dressed carcass. During this time it had 
consumed a total of 3,862 lbs. of milk (in the first 6 months), 5,857 lbs. 
of concentrates, 7,716 lbs. of hay, and 20,511 lbs. of succulent feed. 
Accordingly, for each pound of meat as sold by the butcher there was 
required about 3.9 lbs. of milk, 5.9 lbs. of concentrates, 7.7 lbs. of hay 
and 20.5 lbs. of succulent feed. "When we realize that there are many 
other items of expense besides the mere cost of the feed consumed by the 
steer, it is evident that the price which the producer gets for the live 
steer is less rather than more than it should be. It is doubtful .if any 
other article of universal use and necessity is continuously sold on so 
narrow a margin over cost, if any, as the live fattened steer. 

711. Influence of age on cost of fattening. — At the Ottawa Experi- 
mental Farms 4 in trials during 4 winters with 153 head in all, Grisdale 
compared the rate and cost of gains made by steers of different ages 
during feeding periods of about 6 months. The results are shown in the 
following table, partially as arranged by Waters. 5 



Rate and cost of gains for fattening steers of various ages 




Av. wt. at 
beginning 


Av. daily 
gain 


Av. cost of 

100 lbs. 

gain 


For equal profit compared with calves 




Purchase price Or selling price 

per cwt. must be | per cwt. must be 

less by: greater by: 


Calves* 

Yearlings 

2-vr.-olds 

3-vr.-olds 


Lbs. 
397 

883 
1,011 
1,226 


Lbs. 
1.8 
1.6 
1.8 

1.7 


Dollars 
4.22 
5.31 
5.62 
6.36 


Cents 

35 
43 
53 


Cents 

27 
33 
43 



•Three trials. 

It is seen thai 6-months calves averaging 397 lbs. in weight made 
an average daily gain of 1.8 lbs. during the fattening period of about 6 
months, yearlings to 3-yr.-olds averaging about the same. The feed cost 
for 100 lbs. of gain was $4.22 with the calves, and increased with the 
age of the animals, the gains made by the 3-yr.-olds costing $6.36, or 50 
per ct. more than the calves, for each 100 lbs. 

'Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpts. 1900-1904. 5 Mo. Bd. Agr. Rpt. 1907. 



l:;i 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The greater cost of the gain by the older animals might have been 
offset by buying these steers as feeders at slightly lower prices per 100 
lbs. than the younger animals, or by a small increase in their selling 
price when fattened, because of their superior condition. Had the 
yearlings been purchased for 35 cents per 100 lbs. less than was paid 
for the calves and sold at the same price per 100 lbs., or if after fattening 
they had been sold for 27 cents more per 100 lbs., the increased cost of 
the gains by the yearlings would have been met. 

712. Fattening calves, yearlings, and 2-yr.-olds. — During each of 3 
winters, Skinner and Cochel fed 1 lot of ten 2-yr.-old steers, 1 of 10 
yearlings, and another of 20 calves at the Indiana Station" to determine 
the influence of age on the economy of gains and the profit from feeding 
cattle. The calves were of the best type and breeding possible to obtain, 
as it is not practicable to attempt to produce fine yearling beef from 
inferior calves. The yearlings and 2-yr.-olds compared favorably with 
the calves in capacity and condition at the beginning of each test, though 
not of quite so good type. Each lot was fed until all would sell as prime 
beeves. The following table, in which the results for 2 winters in which 
the same feeds were used are averaged, shows that the time required to 
make the steers fat was greater with the younger animals because the 
older ones had more nearly reached their limit in growth : 

Fall cuing calves, yearlings, and 2-yr.-olds 



Number of cattle 

Initial value per cwt 

Av. initial weight, lbs 

Length of feeding period, months 

Av. daily gain, lbs 

Av. total gain, lbs 

Av. feed consumed per head: 

Shelled corn, lbs 

Cottonseed meal, lbs 

Clover hay, lbs 

Corn silage, lbs 

Feed per L00 Lbs. gain by steers: 

Shelled coin, lbs 

Cottonseed meal, lbs 

Clover hay, lbs 

Corn silage, lbs 

Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* 

Selling value per cwt with prices during trial 

stationary* 

Profit per head with stationary prices* 

Pork per bushel of corn fed to steers, lbs* 



Calves 



50 



ss 



20 

$4 

518 

9 

1. 

508 

3,026 
445 
857 

1 ,950 



596 

88 

168 

385 

$7.74 

$6.60 

$4.25 

1.00 



Yearlings 



10 

$4.15 
888 
6.5 
2.22 
431 

3,034 

480 

714 
2,849 

704 
111 
165 
660 
$9.09 

$6 .45 

$6 .43 

1.85 



2-yr-olds 



10 

$4.12 
1,067 
6 

2.6 
471 

3,212 

510 

760 
2/700 

681 
108 
160 

573 

$9.37 

$6.35 

$7.95 
2.50 



*Av. of 3 trials. 

As is usual, the calves cost more per 100 lbs. live weight than did the 
older feeders. The rate of daily gain increased with the age of the 
steers, yet the older ones required more feed per 100 lbs. gain than did the 
calves, thus making their gains more expensive. The calves ate less feed 

u Ind. Bui. 146. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEP PRODUCTION 435 

per head daily, but required a longer time to finish, and so there was 
little difference in the amount of feed required to make the steers of the 
various ages prime. Skinner and Cochel state that with quality, breed- 
ing, and type the same, calves, yearlings, and 2-yr.-olds will sell at about 
the same price per 100 lbs. if equally fat. From the 3 trials they con- 
clude that the average margin required between buying and selling 
prices to prevent loss was $1.60 per cwt. on calves, $1.71 on yearlings, 
and $1.55 on 2-yr.-olds. The smaller necessary margin with the 2-yr.- 
olds was due to their greater initial weight and the smaller gains neces- 
sary to finish them. These factors are more than offset by the cheaper 
gains made by the calves and their higher cost per 100 lbs. With the year- 
lings, the differences in the initial weight and in the amount of gain re- 
quired for finishing were not sufficient to overcome the advantage due 
to the cheaper gains and greater cost of the calves. Hence a larger 
necessary margin was required with the yearlings than with the calves. 
Based on stationary market prices thruout the trial, the profit per 
head increased with the age of the animals fed. Skinner and Cochel 
conclude that the experienced farmer who buys feeders and finishes 
them for the market should handle older cattle in preference to calves, 
while one who both raises and finishes his cattle may find calves more 
profitable. The table shows an added advantage with the older cattle 
in the amount of pork produced by the pigs following the cattle, per 
bushel of corn fed the steers. In similar trials at the South Dakota Sta- 
tion 7 Wilson found with 2- and 3-yr.-old steers that 1 lb. of pork was 
made for every 5 lbs. of beef produced, while with yearlings only 1 lb. 
was made for every 9 lbs. of beef. 

In a survey of the cattle feeding industry in Indiana, Skinner and 
Cochel 8 found that of 929 feeders, 76 per ct. fed 2-yr.-olds, 16 per ct. 
yearlings, and only 7 per ct. calves. The average weight desired in a 
2-yr.-old was 1,000 lbs. Some feeders preferred steers 3 years old or 
over, the reason being that such cattle usually carry more flesh and make 
more rapid gains, thus requiring a shorter feeding period. They also 
need less grain to finish them, utilize coarser food, feed out more uni- 
formly, and withstand severe weather better. 

713. Utilization of feed by range steers. — Under southwestern range 
conditions the calves, dropped in the spring or summer, run with the 
cows until weaned in the fall, normally making good growth during this 
period. About weaning time the ranges dry up, and the calves must 
subsist on scanty pickings with usually a small allowance of concentrates, 
generally cottonseed cake or meal. Hence, before the calves are a year 
old they will have passed thru a semi-starvation or sub-maintenance 
period, and this will occur each year of the steer's life. To determine 
whether these periods had any permanent effect on the animal's ability 
to utilize feed, and to study the efficiency of steers of different ages, 
Christensen and Simpson of the New Mexico Station conducted trials 

'S. D. Bui. 125. s Tnd. Cir. 12. J N. Mex. Bui. 91. 



436 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

lasting 120 days with range steers, calves, yearlings, 2-yr.-olds, and 3- 

\ r olds all fed alfalfa hay alone, securing the results shown in the table : 

Utilization of alfalfa hay by range steers of different ages 

\\ . ration por A\. doily Dry matter Hay per 100 
1,000 lbs, live \vt, gain tUaostod lbs. gain 

i bs Lbs, Por ot> l bs. 

Calves --'ii 1.61 56.6 777 

Yearlings 23.3 t .33 55.2 1,111 

2 vr. olds 23.5 1.55 57.1 1,146 

3-yr.-olds IS I I .03 57.1 2,034 

The calves made the largesl gains and the 3-yr.-olds decidedly the 
lowest, but this was undoubtedly due to the fact that they were wilder 
find more nervous. There were no consistent differences in the ability 
of the steers of the various ages to digest the hay. the variations in the 
different periods and between the different animals of the same age being 
greater than between the different ages. The calves, however, consumed 
much loss hay per 100 lbs. gain, as we would expect, since the flesh of 
calves is more watery, contains loss fat, and hence has a lower energy 
value than the increase o( more mature animals. (183) 

714. Influence of degree of finish, -Other conditions being equal, 
the higher the degree of finish to whieh the animal is carried the larger 
the quantity of feed required to produce a given gain. Georgeson of 
the Kansas Station 11 ' found the grain required for 100 lbs. of gain with 
fattening steers for different periods to be as follows: 

Grain for Increase of 

100 lbs, gain feed required 

tip to 56 days the steel's required 730 pounds oi grain 

Up to si days the steers required 807 pounds of grain L0 por cent 

l'p to 1 12 days the steers required S40 pounds of grain 15 por cent 

Up to 1 10 daj s the steers required 901 pounds of grain 23 por cent 

Up to 168 days t ho steel's required 927 pounds of grain 27 per cent 

Up to is_ days the steel's required 1,000 pounds of grain 37 per cent 

We learn that while at first only 730 lbs, of grain wore required per 
100 lbs. o( gain, for the whole 6-months period 1,000 lbs., or 37 per ct, 
more, was required, 'The heavy cost of thoroly fattening the steer and 
the importance of selling at the earliest possible date are hero made 
plain. In a trial at the Illinois Station 11 with 96 steers fed for IT; 1 
days, following a limited allowance of grain for 3 weeks. Mumford found 
that loss digestible nutrients were required for LOO lbs. gain during the 
last half than in the first half of the fattening period, lie points out 
that with these steers the "fill" was eliminated, which often makes the 
gains during the first part of the period appear largo and economical. 
As those steers wore sufficiently finished to moot the high demands of 
the Chicago market, o( good typo and all grading good, to prime, he con- 
cludes that it is unnecessary to carry steers to that degree o( fatness 
which necessitates small gains for food consumed, 
Bui m 'ill. Bui. DO. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 



437 



715. Short vs. long feed. — Two distinct methods arc Hollowed in fatten 
ing steers in dry lots. In "short feeding," mature, fleshy feeders are 
usually given a heavy grain feed for 90 to 100 days or less. In "long 
feeding" younger or lighter and thinner cattle are fed for a longer 
period. To determine the relative profitableness of these methods, dur- 
ing each of 4 winters Skinner ami Cochel short-fed one Lot of steers for 
f)0 to 120 days at the Indiana Station 1 - while another Lot was long fed 
for 160 to 180 days, with the results shown in the table : 

Short vs. long feeding periods 



A v. Length of feeding period, days 
Total number of steers 

Av. weight at beginning, lbs 

Av. gain per head, Lbs 

Av. daily gain, lbs 

Av. ration: 

Shelled corn, lbs 

Cottonseed meal, lbs 

Clover hay, lbs 

Corn silage, lbs 

Feed per LOO lbs. gain: 

Shelled corn, lbs 

Cottonseed meal, lbs 

Clover hay, lbs 

Corn silage, lbs 

Feed cost of 100 lbs. gain 

Initial cost of steers per 100 lbs . . 

Necessary margin 

Necessary selling price 

Actual selling price 

Profit per steer, including pork . . . 



Lot l 


Lot II 


Short fed 


Long- 


ed 


III) 


175 




50 


40 




1,165 


1,000 




307 


431 




2.81 


2 


46 


L9.72 


Hi 


66 


2.96 


2 


78 


•1 .11 


4 


48 


L5.33 


II 


42 


702 


678 




Kill 


III 




152 


L83 




558 


584 




$9.03 


$9 


34 


.11 .69 


$■1 


36 


$] .03 


$1 


61 


$5.72 


$5 


97 


$6.31 


$6 


64 


$15.27 


$16.41 



Lot I, the short-fed steers, which were given the heavier and more 
concentrated ration, made larger gains and at a less feed-cost per 100 
lbs. gain. Due to the fact that they were in better flesh, the initial cost 
of the steers in Lot I was 33 cents per 100 Lbs. more than those in Lot II. 
However, on account of their heavier initial weight, the smaller amount 
of gain needed to finish them, and their cheaper gains, they could have 
been sold without loss on a narrower margin than the long-fed steers. 
This brought the necessary sidling price of Lot I 25 cents per 100 Lbs. 
lower than that of Lot II. The long-fed steers, however, brought enough 
more when sold to more than counter-balance this advantage, and hence 
returned a slightly larger profit, when the pork produced by hogs follow- 
ing was included. 

The kind of cattle to be fed should largely determine the length of 
feeding period, since a longer time is required to finish young or thin 
cattle than those which are fleshier or more mature. Another determin- 
ed. Buls. 130, 136, 153. 



438 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



ing factor should be the relative supply and cost of grain and roughage, 
for short-fed cattle, which are usually in higher condition when placed 
on feed, should be given a iarger proportion of grain to roughage than 
is needed with long-fed cattle. 

716. Feeding steers chiefly on roughage in early part of fattening 
period. — During each of 3 years Skinner and King 13 fed 1 lot of steers 
clover hay and corn silage during the first 60 to 70 days of the fattening 
period, with 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per 1,000 lbs. live weight in ad- 
dition, in 2 of the trials. The steers were then finished on the same 
feeds with all the shelled corn they would eat. A second lot was fed an 
unlimited allowance of corn from the start, the results being shown in 
the following table : 



Limiting concentrates during early part of fattening period 








Feed per 100 lbs. gain 








Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 




Feed cost 






Concen- 


Hay or 


Ccrn 


of 100 


margin 








trates 


straw 


silage 


lbs. gain 




Lot I, no corn at first 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Dols. 


Dols. 


Shelled corn, 9.0 lbs. 
















Cottonseed meal, 2.4 lbs. 
















Hay or straw, 3.6 lbs. 
















Corn silage, 35.2 lbs 


1,013 


2.15 


529 


170 


1,637 


8.71 


0.72 


Lot II, corn thruout trials 
















Shelled corn, 14.0 lbs. 
















Cottonseed meal, 2.8 lbs. 
















Hay or straw, 2.5 lbs. 
















•Corn silage, 27.5 lbs 


972 


2.41 


697 


103 


1,143 


8.87 


0.87 



Lot I, fed no corn during the first 2 months of the fattening period, 
made smaller gains than Lot II, fed corn thruout the trials, and required 
more roughage but less concentrates per 100 lbs. gain. The relative feed 
cost of the gain under these systems of feeding will depend on the cost 
of concentrates compared with roughage. In these trials the cost aver- 
aged slightly lower for steers in Lot I. Owing to the slightly cheaper 
gains, the necessary margin was somewhat lower with Lot I. The steers 
in this lot, however, sold at a lower price each year on account of in- 
ferior finish, and returned less profit than those in Lot II. 

Feeding roughage alone or with only a small allowance of concen- 
trates during the early part of the feeding period is often advisable when 
it is desired to carry the steers longer than usual before marketing, 
with the hope of a better price. They will then not become excessively 
fat and hence will not make uneconomical gains before they are 
marketed. 

In a trial at the Pennsylvania Station 14 Cochel fed a lot of twelve 
880-lb. steers only corn silage and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 
1,000 lbs. live weight for the first 56 days of a 126-day trial and ear corn 
in addition thereafter. Another lot was given the same feeds with ear 

18 Ind. Buls. 153. 163, 167. M Penn. Bui. 118. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 439 

corn from the start. The steers fed no corn during the first part of 
the period made as large gains as the others and returned a larger profit, 
tho selling for 20 cents less per 100 lbs. In a later trial at the same 
Station 15 Tomhave and Severson found that it was preferable to begin 
feeding a small amount of corn after the first month of the fattening 
period owing to the better finish thus secured. 



II. Value of Breed in Beef Making 

Everyone with experience in the cattle business knows that "blood 
tells" in beef production. Where there is such unanimity of opinion 
the fact must exist, but the reasons given are not always the same. Let 
us, therefore, consider the trials conducted by the various stations which 
bear on this important point. 

717. Fattening steers of the various market grades. — To determine the 
rapidity and economy of gains made by feeders of the 6 different market 
grades and the dressing percentages and the quality of the beef from 
the steers when fattened, Mumford fed 16 steers of each grade at the 
Illinois Station 16 for 179 days. Lot I, fancy selected feeders, contained 
nearly 100 per ct. of the blood of the beef breeds and possessed the 
quality and comformation that characterize the typical beef-bred steer. 
As it was desired that the steers in each lot weigh 900 to 1,000 lbs. when 
placed on feed, the animals in the higher grades were naturally the 
youngest, for well-bred and well-developed steers mature earlier and 
reach a given weight sooner than do scrubs. Thus the steers in Lot I 
were the youngest steers in the trial, being only 2 years old at the time 
of marketing. Lot II, choice feeders, were high-grade beef steers possess- 
ing large frames and averaging about 6 months older than Lot I. Lot 
III, good feeders, did not show the quality so manifest in Lots I and II, 
tho beef blood still predominated and the steers were of better type than 
the average feeders offered on the central markets. Lot IV, medium 
feeders, were 3-yr.-olds of mixed breeding, tho carrying some beef blood, 
and showing coarseness and angularity. Lot V, common feeders, showed 
little evidence of beef blood. They were rather coarse boned and large 
headed, were plain thruout, and all showed a lack of quality and confor- 
mation. They were the result of indiscriminate breeding and the use of 
inferior grade bulls. Lot VI, inferior feeders, were scrubs showing no 
beef blood and were inferior in quality and conformation. 

The feeds were the same for all lots. During the first half of the trial 
the steers were fed cracked ear corn, and later corn-and-cob meal. An 
average allowance of 2.1 lbs. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daily 
was supplied in addition thruout the trial. The roughage, consisting of 
alfalfa or clover and timothy hay, was cut and mixed with the con- 
centrate allowance. During a part of the trial a small amount of corn 
stover was given to all lots. The steers were fed in paved feed lots with 
"Information to the authors. "111. Bui. 90. 



440 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



an adjacent open shed. The results secured in the trial are summarized 
in the following table : 



Fattening steers of the various market grades 



Lot I 

Fancy 
feeders 


Lot II 

Choice 
feeders 


Lot III 
Good 
feeders 


Lot IV 
Medium 
feeders 


Lot V 

Common 

feeders 


935 


1,115 


1,019 


1,022 


966 


15.2 

6.8 


16.0 

7.0 


16.0 
7.0 


15.8 
7.1 


15.6 
7.1 


2.57 


2.54 


2.34 


2.13 


2.21 


995 


1,209 


1,208 


1,305 


1,200 


61.6 
9.5 

$4.75 
$7.00 


61.5 
9.7 

$4.55 
$6.90 


60.7 
10.6 

$4.20 
$6.50 


59.7 
10.8 

$3.85 
$5.80 


59.9 
10.1 

$3.60 
$5.50 



Lot VI 

Inferior 

feeders 



Wt. at beginning, lbs 

Dry matter in ration per 1000 
lbs. live wt. 

Concentrates, lbs 

Roughage, lbs 

Daily gain, lbs 

Dry matter per 1000 lbs. gain, 
lbs 

Dressed carcass, per ct 

Caul and rough fat, per ct . . . . 

Cost of steers per cwt 

Selling price of steers per cwt. * 



965 



15.2 
7.0 

1.96 

1,293 

59.4 
11.8 

$3.35 
$5.40 



*On the basis of stationary market prices. 

Evidently because considerably younger, the steers in Lot I consumed 
less dry matter daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight than any of the others, 
except those in Lot VI. Considering Lots II to VI, the better-bred 
steers ate slightly more feed per 1,000 lbs. live weight than those of 
lower grade. The fourth column shows that the feeders of the 3 higher 
grades made noticeably more rapid gains than those of the lower grades. 
Lot I made by far the most economical gains, measured either by the 
dry matter per 100 lbs. gain or by the feed cost of gains, but this was 
probably due, for the most part, to the fact that these steers were younger 
than the others. 

With the other lots there is no consistent difference in dry matter 
required per 100 lbs. gain or in the feed cost of the gains. The steers 
of the better grades yielded a higher percentage of dressed carcass than 
those of the poorer grades. This was due to their beef conformation and 
not to any greater degree of finish, for the steers in Lots IV, V, and VI, 
which were older, were nearer their maximum degree of finish at the 
end of the trial than the younger steers in Lots I, II, and III. The 
better steers also had less internal fat but carried a heavier layer of 
the more valuable surface fat. Tho the lower-grade feeders cost less 
than the better-bred animals, they were worth correspondingly less when 
fattened. 

718. Amount of feed consumed. — Occasionally the claim is yet ad- 
vanced that well-bred cattle eat less than natives or scrubs. This opinion 
is not substantiated by feeding trials nor is it generally held by owners 
of pure-bred or high-grade stock, who believe rather that the well-bred 
and well-formed animal has a large capacity to consume feed and con- 
vert it economically into meat, 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEP PRODUCTION 441 

719. Rapidity of gains. — Tests at other stations corroborate the findings 
of the Illinois Station, that steers of the beef breeds and conformation 
make larger gains than do those lacking in these points. During 2 years 
Willson of the Tennessee Station, 17 determining the individual gains of 
feeders of various types, secured the following results : 

Average gains of feeders of various types 

No. of 
Type of feeder steers Daily gain Total gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Very good feeder 24 1 .76 159 

Good feeder 65 1.60 144 

Medium feeder 70 1 .36 122 

Poor feeder 37 1 .39 125 

The table shows that the very good and good feeders made consider- 
ably more rapid gains than those which were classed as medium and 
poor feeders. The trials at the various stations 18 show that dairy-bred 
steers, especially those of the larger breeds, do not necessarily make 
smaller gains than beef-bred steers. This is reasonable, for in the de- 
velopment of both the beef and the dairy breeds one of the chief objects 
has been the securing of animals with large capacity for food and vig- 
orous assimilative powers. In these qualities the native, or scrub, steer 
is apt to be lacking. 

It is well known that there is great difference in the capacity of in- 
dividuals of the same breed to make gains when given the same feeds and 
fed under the same conditions. Bliss and Lee found that in a lot of 8 
Hereford-Shorthorn steers fed at the Nebraska Station 19 the best steer 
gained 166 lbs. more in 154 days than did the poorest. This emphasizes 
the necessity in scientific trials of selecting uniform animals, feeding 
as many as possible in each lot so as to eliminate differences due to the 
individuality of the animals, and of repeating the experiment before 
drawing hard and fast conclusions. An experienced judge of cattle can 
generally pick out the good gainers from a bunch of feeders, by selecting 
those of beef conformation. Such animals are low-set, deep, broad, and 
compact, with roomy digestive tracts and vigorous constitutions. Smith 
and Lee 20 found that the middle girth, or the width and depth in the 
region of the paunch, was a more important factor in determining the 
rate of gain of steers than the heart girth. The size of bone did not 
appear to influence the rate of gain, some of the best gainers being large 
in bone and others small. Cattle feeders well know that temperament 
is of great importance in determining gain in the feed lot; the calm, 
quiet animal which eats and then lies down is almost sure to outgain 
the restless, active one. 

"Term. Bui. 104. 

ls Mich. Buls. 44, 69; Iowa Bui. 20. 

1B Nebr. Bui. 151. 

^Nebr. Buls. 132, 151. and information to the authors. 



442 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



720. Early maturity. — The most common claim for superiority with 
the beef breeds is that such animals mature earlier than others. Ex- 
perienced feeders know that only the blocky calf of beef conformation 
is suited for early fattening as baby beef. Tho dairy steers grow rapidly 
and make large daily gains, they do not become well-finished at as early 
an age. 

721. Dressed carcass. — The following table shows the daily gain from 
birth and the percentage of dressed carcass yielded by steers of various 
breeds fattened at several stations 21 : 



Daily gain and dressed weight 


of steers 


of different breeds 




Breed 


No. of 
animals 


No. of 

stations 


Av. age 


Av. live 
weight 


Daily gain 
from birth 


Limits of 
dressed weight 


Dressed 
weight 


Hereford 


11 

2 
16 
2 
26 
6 
7 
1 
1 
6 
3 
9 


4 
1 
4 
1 
5 
3 
3 
1 
1 
3 
2 

3 


Days 

983 
1,000 

976 
1,000 
1,011 

923 
1,021 
1,095 
1,021 

937 
1,058 
1,038 


Lbs. 
1,515 
1,520 
1,493 
1,570 
1,510 
1,503 
1,376 
1,320 
1,625 
1,469 
1,440 
1,259 


Lbs. 
1.54 
1.52 
1.53 
1.57 
1.50 
1.62 
1.35 
1.20 
1.59 
1.57 
1.36 
1.26 


Per ct. 
63.0-68.0 
63.8-66.5 
63.2-69.0 
64.8 

62.1-68.0 
62.0-66.7 
62.5-65.8 


Per ct. 
65.0 


Red Poll 


65.2 


Aberdeen-Angus . . . 

Swiss 

Shorthorn 

Galloway 

Devon 


64.8 
64.8 
64.4 
63.9 
63.6 
63.3 






63.0 


Holstein 

Jersey 


60.6-64.4 
58.7-63.9 
57.9-61.5 


62.6 
60.5 


Native 


60.2 



The data referring to daily gain from birth bears out the statement 
previously made that dairy steers do not necessarily make smaller gains 
than those of the beef breeds. While the gains of the 3 Jerseys and the 
single Ayrshire were smaller than of any of the beef breeds, the Hol- 
steins compared favorably with the beef-bred steers. Too few animals 
of most of the breeds are included to make breed comparisons concern- 
ing the yield of dressed carcass. It is evident, however, that the native 
and dairy steers are inferior to the beef steers, a finding which agrees 
with the results of the Illinois trial, already discussed. 

More important than breed in determining the yield of dressed carcass 
is the condition, or degree of fatness, of the animal. Mumford points 
out from the results of the Illinois trial that it is possible to secure 
reasonably high percentages of dressed beef even from steers of inferior 
breeding if they are well-finished. He notes the fact that there is more 
difference in the appearance on foot in the feed lot and gains during 
fattening between the well-bred steer and the mongrel than there is in 
the carcasses when the animals have been fed to a high finish. 

722. Internal fat. — Trials at the stations show that native and dairy 
steers have a larger quantity of fat about the internal organs than do 

a Iowa Buls. 20, 28; Kan. Bui. 51; Mich. Buls. 44, 69; Mo. Bui. 23; Ont. Agr. 
Col. Rpt. 1892. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 443 

beef animals. Commenting on the character of the carcasses of steers 
of various breeds slaughtered at the Michigan Station, 22 Davenport wrote : 
"Note the excess of rough tallow in Walton (a Holstein steer) as com- 
pared with the others. Walton was 'all cow' as the saying goes, and 
the fat about his kidneys was astonishing. ' ' 

There is evidently a specific difference between the beef and dairy 
breeds in the distribution of fat within the body. It appears that the 
beef representatives place more of the fat between the fibers of the 
muscles. On the other hand, steers of the dairy breeds deposit propor- 
tionately more fat about the intestines and kidneys. Fat intimately 
mingled with the muscular fibers of the lean tissues renders such meat 
tender, juicy, and toothsome. Placed in separate masses anywhere about 
the body, and especially within the body cavity, it has but low value. 
Such storage is doubtless best for animals whose function is milk pro- 
duction, but it is certainly against their highest usefulness for beef. 
In this second characteristic, which sets beef animals somewhat apart 
from dairy animals, we have a remarkable example of specialization for 
a definite end, and this lesson is important and far-reaching. 

723. Proportion of valuable parts. — Tho somewhat conflicting, the data 
from the various stations indicate that the well-finished steer of beef 
conformation yields a somewhat higher percentage of loins and ribs, the 
most valuable cuts, and less of the cheap parts than do mongrel or dairy 
steers. This difference is less, however, than many believe. The small 
difference usually found is due to the fact that the beef steer has a 
broader back and fuller hind quarters than the native or dairy steer. 

724. Quality. — Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated 
percentagely lies that indefinable something described by the word 
"quality" which enters into all objects of barter. No one can compare 
a bunch of well-fed beef-bred steers with one representing the dairy 
breeds or natives without being impressed by a difference not measured 
by the scales. Speaking of the breed tests at the Iowa Station, Wilson 23 
writes: "The carcasses of the dairy breeds lacked in thickness of cuts, 
and the marbling of the fat and lean was not equal to that of the others 
(beef breeds)." Georgeson wrote after conducting a trial at the Kansas 
Station: 24 "The Shorthorns gave the best returns, not simply because 
the gross weight of their carcasses was greater than that of the scrubs, 
but also because their meat was esteemed better by experts in the 
packing-house who were asked to judge of the quality and assign 
prices." Of a native steer fed in comparison with others of the beef 
breeds Shaw 25 wrote : ' ' There was a lack of thickness of carcass thruout, 
the deficiency in the rib and loin being very noticeable, and the absence 
of what may be termed fleshiness was conspicuous. ' ' 

The thick-fleshed cuts from well-finished beef steers command a much 
higher price on the large markets than do the thin-fleshed cuts, thereby 
giving to the carcass that furnishes them a marked advantage in the 

"Mich. Bui. 24. ^Iowa Bui. 20. M Kan. Bui. 51. s Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1892. 



444 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

market. In the Iowa trial the carcasses of the beef steers were valued 
by experts at $1.66 per 100 lbs. higher than those of the dairy steers. 
In the Kansas trial the loins of the best Shorthorns were rated at 18 
cents per pound and of the natives as low as 14 cents. 

The matter at issue may be illustrated by a condition in the fruit 
world: No orchardist will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily 
grows faster than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood and 
fruit on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that 
Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seedlings, nor 
that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more juice or human 
food than the same measure of common seedling apples. Fruit growers 
do rightfully assert, however, that the market wants Baldwin apples and 
will pay more for them than for common seedling fruit, due to the fact 
that their quality is generally far superior, and that from this judgment 
of the market there is no appeal. Beef cattle have been bred for meat 
production — it would be passing strange if they did not excel for that 
purpose. 

725. The most profitable type of steer. — For the beef producer who 
raises the animals he fattens it is evident that well-bred specimens of 
the beef breeds are the most profitable. The question is more compli- 
cated for one who purchases feeders on the market. He must consider 
the price at which he can secure the various grades and the probable 
price at which they can be sold when fattened. As Mumford con- 
cludes: 26 Opportunities for larger profits, and losses as well, lie with 
the better grades of feeders, for as a rule the price of common, rough, 
fat steers fluctuates less than the price for prime steers, and the price of 
inferior and common feeders varies less than those of the choice and 
fancy grades. The greater the difference in the price of the various 
grades of feeders, the more is the advantage in favor of the commoner 
grades. On the other hand, the greater the difference between the prices 
for the various grades of fat steers, the more is the advantage in favor of 
the better feeders. When prices rule low for beef cattle and the market 
is dull or downward, the range of prices between prime steers and com- 
mon rough steers is narrow, and as a result, condition or fatness is more 
important than beef blood. On account of the greater speculation in- 
volved in feeding prime or choice feeders, Mumford advises the beginner 
to first handle a few carloads of the commoner kinds, which must be 
purchased at correspondingly lower prices, since the margin for profit 
in feeding low-grade cattle is usually slight. 

726. Gains of steers of various breeds. — The most extensive data avail- 
able concerning the gains made by steers of various breeds are furnished 
by the records of the Smithfield England Fat-Stock Show. 27 The follow- 
ing table, compiled by the authors from the London Live Stock Journal, 
summarizes the data for 20 years, 1895 to 1914: 

"111. Bui. 90. 

-'London Live Stock Jour. 1895-1914. 



(J EN ERA L PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 



445 



Age, weight and daily gain from birth of steers slaughtered at the 
Smithfield, England, Fat-Stock Show, 1895-1914 



Breed 



No. 
of 
ani- 
mals 


Age 


Weight 


Av. 

daily 
gain 




Days 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


93 

86 

2 


672 
1,025 
1,269 


1,416 
1,848 
2,130 


2.11 

1.83 
1.70 


91 
123 

4 


664 

993 

1,218 


1,216 
1,609 
1,753 


1.82 
1.63 
1.45 


47 
51 


630 
975 


800 
1,039 


1.27 
1.06 


72 

73 

2 


662 
1,018 
1,236 


1,229 
1,655 
1,794 


1.86 
1.63 
1.44 


77 

84 

2 


670 

999 

1,316 


1,426 
1,844 
2,066 


2.13 
1.85 
1.57 


2 
71 
75 
12 


730 

996 

1,334 

1,704 


1,448 
1,498 
1,806 
1,923 


1.98 
1.51 
1.35 
1.13 



Breed 



No. 
of 
ani- 
mals 


Age 


Weight 




Days 


Lbs. 


1 

4 


644 
954 


658 
1,134 


52 

54 

3 


659 

999 
1,247 


1,254 
1,637 
1,736 


85 

91 

4 


674 
1,012 
1,353 


1,446 
1,901 
2,363 


98 

106 

5 


678 
1,015 
1,316 


1,463 
1,831 
2,019 


76 
90 

7 


698 
1,039 
1,231 


1,463 
1,831 
1,919 


96 

100 

4 


682 
1,006 
1,293 


1,469 

1,897 
2,076 



Av. 
daily 
gain 



Aberdeen- Angus 

1 year old. . . 

2 years old . . 

3 years old . . 
Devon 

1 year old. . . 

2 years old . . 

3 years old . . 
Dexter 

1 yea ■ old. . . 

2 years old . . 
Galloway 

1 year old. . . 

2 years old . . 

3 years old . . 
Hereford 

1 year old. . . 

2 years old . . 

3 years old . . 
Highland 

1 year old.. . 

2 years old . . 

3 yea -sold. . 

4 years old . . 



Kerry 

1 year old. . 

2 years old . 
Red Poll 

1 year old. . 

2 years old . 

3 years old . 
Shorthorn 

1 year old. . 

2 years old . 

3 years old . 
Sussex 

1 year old. . 

2 years old . 

3 years old . 
Welsh 

1 year old.. 

2 years old . 

3 years old . 
Cross-bred 

1 year old. . 

2 years old . 

3 years old . 



Lbs. 

1.02 
1.18 

1.90 
1.64 
1.38 

2.14 
1.88 
1.74 

2.17 
1.80 
1.53 

2.09 
1.76 
1.55 

2.15 
1.89 
1.60 



In the "average daily gain" here given is included in all instances 
the birth weight of the steer. The table well shows that the daily gain 
of the highly-fed steer decreases as the animal becomes more mature. 
The records of the slaughter tests at the Show from 1889 to 1895 show 
that with steers equally well finished, the more mature the animal, the 
higher is the percentage of dressed carcass yielded. The average dressing 
percentage of the 3-yr.-olds was 68.2 per ct. and of the yearlings 65.6 
per ct. 

III. Miscellaneous Problems in Beef Production 

727. Shelter. — A survey of the trials conducted at the Utah, Texas, 
Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Alabama 
Stations 28 in which steers have been fattened in open sheds with adjacent 
yards in comparison with others housed in barns shows that the fatten- 
ing steer, consuming an abundant ration, a considerable portion of which 
is roughage, has no need for warm quarters. Similar conclusions are 
reached by Ingle 29 from English trials. Sufficient heat is produced in the 
body of the steer thru the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the 

^Partially reviewed by Armsby, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 108; 
see also Penn. Rpt. 1906 and Buls. 88, 102; Ala. Bui. 163. 
29 Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1909. 



446 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

food to maintain the body temperature under ordinary conditions with- 
out diminishing the amount of net nutrients available for fattening. (91) 
A reasonable degree of cold is a benefit rather than a detriment, provid- 
ing the coats of the animals are kept dry. The loss of heat in the evapor- 
ation of the water from a wet skin, coupled with that by radiation, may 
be so great that a portion of the food nutrients is burned up merely to 
keep the animal warm. 

During 7 winters Mairs and Cochel 30 fed one lot of 975-lb. steers in 
a yard with an open shed for shelter at the Pennsylvania Station, while 
another lot was confined in a well-ventilated barn. The average gains of 
the confined steers were no larger than of those sheltered only by the 
open shed, and practically the same amount of feed was required per 
100 lbs. gain by both lots. During the last 5 years when the yard was 
kept dry by means of cinders, the steers fed therein made larger gains 
on the average than those in the barn. 

Waters fattened one lot of dehorned steers during each of 4 winters 
at the Missouri Station 31 in an open shed located in a small yard, while a 
second lot was housed in a comfortable barn, but turned out daily for 
water and allowed to remain in the yard for 7 hours, except in stormy 
weather. The steers fed in the open shed made average daily gains of 
1.9 lbs., which was 0.2 lb. more than those fed in the barn. They required 
10.3 lbs. digestible matter per pound of gain, or 1 lb. less than the steers 
housed in the warmer and more expensive quarters. During 3 winters 
Waters also fed similar lots of steers in an open yard without any shelter 
and with only a pile of corn stalks on which to lie. These steers made 
slightly larger gains than those fed in the open shed or in the barn, and 
required no more digestible nutrients per pound of gain. 

Feeding in open yards with no shelter other than windbreaks is 
common in western sections with little rainfall, even in regions with rig- 
orous winters. In experiments at the Manitoba Experimental Farm 32 
steers fattened with no shelter except trees and brush made nearly as 
large gains as others fed in the barn, providing a convenient supply of 
water was furnished. For humid regions with severe winters an open 
shed should be provided where the animals may find shelter from storms. 
Where the winters are mild the saving thru providing shelter may not be 
great enough to warrant the expense. Gray and Ward 33 found in Ala- 
bama that steers fattened in the open in winter made practically as large 
gains as those allowed access to an open shed. Shelter saved only 6 
cents per 100 lbs. of gain in the cost of feed. 

From his trials Waters concludes : "It is of more importance that 
fattening animals lie down regularly and during a large portion of the 
time than that they be protected from the cold. Abundance of sunshine 

30 Penn. Buls. 64, 68, 74, 83, 88, 102; Rpt. 1906. 
31 Mo. Bui. 76. 

^Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpts. 1910, 1911, 1912. 
33 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 159. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 447 

and fresh air, a comfortable place in which to lie, and freedom from all 
external disturbances are ideal conditions for large and economical 
gains. ' ' 

Stock cattle being carried over winter are not crowded with heavy 
rations and hence no great excess of heat is generated in their bodies. 
The loss of heat by radiation is greater in young animals, for the body 
surface is larger in proportion to the weight. Yearlings, especially, may 
hence well be given greater protection than fattening steers, but their 
quarters should always be well-ventilated. Waters found that yearlings 
wintered on hay alone or with a small allowance of corn in addition 
came thru in better condition when housed in an amply ventilated barn 
and turned out for exercise than when kept in a yard with an open shed. 
Under usual conditions mature breeding beef cows when in thrifty con- 
dition in the fall need no winter shelter other than an open shed. 

728. Loose vs. tied steers — At the Ontario Station 34 Day found that 
box-fed steers made larger and cheaper gains, had better appetites, and 
did not get off feed as easily as tied steers. Trials at the Ottawa Sta- 
tion 30 by Grisdale were also decidedly in favor of loose box feeding. Not 
only is there less expense for equipment when this method of feeding is 
followed but less labor is needed. 

729. Self-feeder. — By the use of a large receptacle called a self-feeder, 
cattle may be supplied with concentrates twice a week. At the Illinois 
Station 30 Mumford and Allison fed 2 lots, each of 17 fleshy 3-yr.-old 
steers, the following rations for 89 days. Lot I was fed whole clover 
hay and a concentrate mixture of 7 parts ground corn and 1 part linseed 
meal separately at regular feeding periods twice daily, while Lot II was 
supplied chaffed (cut) hay mixed with the concentrates, the whole being 
fed in a self-feeder to which the cattle had access at all times. 

Value of self-feeder for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Concentrates Clover hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot. I, hand-fed 

Concentrates, 22.0 lbs. Long hay, 13.5 lbs 3 .0 737 451 

Lot II, self-fed 

Concentrates, 24.6 lbs. Chaffed hay, 12.8 lbs . . 3.3 743 385 

The self- fed steers consumed a heavier concentrate allowance and were 
brought to full feed in a shorter time without any set back from over- 
eating. Tho consuming more feed than Lot I, this was more than offset 
by their larger gains. Even after adding the cost of chaffing the hay, the 
self-fed steers made the cheaper gains. Both systems required about the 
same amount of labor, but by the use of the self-feeder the necessity for 
a skilled feeder was reduced. Mumford reports that steers visit the self- 
feeder with remarkable regularity, and once accustomed thereto do not 

34 Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1907. "111. Bui. 142. 

15 Ottawa Expt. Farms. Rpt. 1904. 



448 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

over eat. He holds that the system is often unjustly condemned because 
careless cattle feeders do not use it properly. Skinner and CocheP 7 
found self-feeders more generally used in summer than in winter. The 
grain in the self-feeder should be protected from rain and snow and care 
is necessary to avoid clogging, as an abundance of feed must be available 
at all times. 

730. The paved feed lot. — In parts of the corn belt the feed lot in 
winter often becomes a sea of mud and mire. Mumford of the Illinois 
Station 3S fed one carload of steers during winter in a brick-paved lot 
and another in an ordinary mud lot, both lots having access to an open 
shed, the bedding in which was kept dry. Due to this fact the paved-lot 
steers made no cheaper gains than the others. However, because of their 
dirty appearance, tho not inferior finish, the mud-lot steers sold for 10 
cents less per 100 lbs. Pigs following the paved-lot steers gained 1 lb. 
more from each bushel of corn fed to the steers than did those following 
the mud-lot steers. 

731. Heifers vs. steers. — At the Iowa Station 39 Wilson and Curtiss con- 
ducted 2 experiments with steers and spayed and open heifers. The 
cattle topped their respective classes in the Chicago market, the heifers 
of the first trial selling for $4.75 and the steers for $5.75 per cwt. on the 
same market. In the second trial the heifers brought $4.25 and the steers 
$4.50 per cwt. All lots yielded practically the same amount of dressed 
carcass, but the heifers yielded about 1 per ct. more in the high-priced 
cuts of meat. But little, if any, benefit was derived from spaying heifers. 

"Ind. Cir. 12. M Beef Production, p. 155. "Iowa Bui. 33. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

732. Indian corn. — Of all the concentrates Indian corn is and mnst 
continue to be the great fattening feed for cattle in America. While we 
cannot vie with England in the luxuriance of her pastures, the ad- 
vantages given the American farmer by the corn crop cannot be surpassed 
and place us in the very forefront in beef production. No other concen- 
trate is so toothsome and palatable to cattle as the corn grain. Not only 
is corn loaded with starch but it carries much oil and has but little fiber 
or other inert matter, the whole forming the best concentrate for quickly 
filling the tissues of the steer's body with fat, and thereby rendering the 
lean meat tender, juicy and toothsome. (201-6) 

Numerous trials at our experiment stations have clearly shown that 
corn is too low in protein, even for fattening animals, and should there- 
fore be fed with legume hay, or, when carbonaceous roughages only are 
used, some nitrogenous concentrate should be added to balance the ration. 
The superior results from properly balanced rations are shown in the 
following table, in the first division of which are summarized the results 
of 8 trials, averaging 144 days in length, in each of which corn was fed 
with carbonaceous roughage, such as timothy hay, prairie hay, corn 
stover, or kafir stover, to one lot of 2- or 3-yr.-old steers, and with clover or 
alfalfa hay to others. In the second division the results are given for 4 
trials, averaging 132 days, in which the effect of adding a nitrogenous 
supplement, either linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten feed, to a 
ration of corn and carbonaceous roughage was studied : 

Corn requires supplement for fattening 2-yr.-old steers 

. . Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Concentrates Roughage 

Legume hay as supplement to corn* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Unbalanced ration, 90 steers 
Corn, 15.2 lbs. 

Carbonaceous roughage, 13.0 lbs 839 1 .7 930 832 

Balanced ration, 71 steers 
Corn, 15.4 lbs. 

Legume hay, 13.2 lbs 952 2.3 689 575 

Nitrogenous concentrate as supplement to corn] 
Unbalanced ration, 44 steers 
Corn, 16.3 lbs. 

Carbonaceous roughage, 8.3 lbs 995 1 .6 1,082 522 

Balanced ration, 54 steers 
Corn, 16.7 lbs. 

Nitrogenous supplement, 2.1 lbs. 
Carbonaceous roughage, 8.6 lbs. . '..'." 1,002 2.2 862 402 

♦Average of 1 trial by Haney (Kan. Bui. 132), 2 by Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1900, 1901), 1 bv Mumford 
(111. Bui. S3), 2 by Skinner and Cochel (Ind. Buls. 115, 129), and 2 by Smith (Nebr. Buls. 90, 93). 

t Average of 1 trial bv Mumford (111. Bui. 83), 1 by Skinner and Cochel (Ind. Bui. 115), and 2 bv Smith 
(Nebr. Bult. 90. 93). 

449 



450 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

While the steers fed corn and legume hay gained 2.3 lbs. per head 
daily, the daily gain of those fed corn and carbonaceous roughage was 
only 1.7 lbs., and these steers, receiving the unbalanced ration, required 
35 per ct. more corn and 44 per ct. more roughage per 100 lbs. gain. 
Where the ration of corn and carbonaceous hay was supplemented by 2.1 
lbs. of a nitrogenous concentrate, the steers made 37 per ct. larger gains 
and required much less feed per 100 lbs. of gain. When the corn allow- 
ance is properly balanced, not only is the feeding value of this grain 
greatly increased with both the cattle and the pigs which follow the 
steers, but it keeps the animals more healthy, shortens the feeding period 
and gives a higher finish than can be secured with unbalanced rations. 

When other carbonaceous concentrates, such as barley, wheat, kafir, 
milo, hominy feed, or dried beet pulp, are fed it is just as important 
that protein-rich feed be included in the ration as when the chief con- 
centrate is corn. 

733. Adding a nitrogenous concentrate to corn and clover hay. — To 
determine whether it was profitable to add a nitrogenous concentrate to 
a ration of corn and clover hay for fattening 2-yr.-old steers, Skinner 
and Cochel conducted 2 trials at the Indiana Station, 1 and Mumford 1 
trial at the Illinois Station- for periods averaging 172 days, with the 
results summarized in the following table : 

Adding a nitrogenous concentrate to corn and clover hay for steers 





Initial 


Av. daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


weight 


gain 


Concentrates Hay 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs. 


Lot I, 85 steers 








Corn, 1S.4 lbs.* 








Clover hay, 9.4 lbs 


1,032 


2.0 


940 484 



Lot II, 85 steers 
Com, 17.7 lbs.* 
Nitrogenous concentrate, 2.9 lbs. 

Clover hay, 9.1 lbs 1,047 2 .4 854 376 

*Ear oorn fed in the Illinois trial has been reduced to the equivalent of shelled corn. 

Fn each of the 3 separate trials Lot II, receiving a nitrogenous concen- 
trate (cottonseed meal or linseed and gluten meal) in addition to corn 
and clover hay made larger and more economical gains from the stand- 
point of feed required per 100 lbs. gain. With feeds at the market prices, 
the gains were also cheaper than in Lot I. Due to better finish the steers 
in Lot II sold for a higher price in both trials, bringing 25 cents more 
per 100 lbs. on the average than those in Lot I. 

Whether it will pay to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn 
and legume hay will depend on the relative prices of these feeds. Steers 
supplied all the corn and legume hay they will clean up, during the early 
part of the fattening period eat a much larger proportion of hay than 
during the later stages. Until well advanced in fattening they will eat 

'Ind. Buls. 129, 136. -111. Bui. 103. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 451 

enough hay to balance their ration fairly well. Later, as the propor- 
tion of corn increases, the ration becomes unbalanced and there will be 
more benefit from the addition of a nitrogenous concentrate. With 
alfalfa hay for roughage, there is less need of adding protein-rich con- 
centrates than with clover, which is lower in protein than alfalfa. 

734. Heavy vs. light corn feeding. — When corn was low in price, fatten- 
ing steers on full feed in the corn belt were commonly given all the corn 
they would clean up. In recent years, with corn higher in price, it is 
often more economical to restrict the allowance and thereby induce the 
steers to eat a larger proportion of roughage. At the Nebraska Station 3 
Smith fed 2 lots, each of 10 steers grown under range conditions and 
averaging 978 lbs., the first for 140 and the second for 168 days, on light 
and heavy rations of corn together with alfalfa hay and corn stover, with 
the results shown in the table : 

Heavy and light corn feeding for steers 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration Daily gain Gain per head Corn Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Corn, 22.3 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 4.9 lbs. 

Corn stover, 4.9 lbs 2 .4 339 922 403 

Lot II 

Com, 13.9 lbs. 
Alfalfa hay, 10.9 lbs. 
Corn stover, 7.2 lbs 2 .0 339 691 896 

Lot II, fed the light allowance of corn, gained 0.4 lb. less per head 
daily and required 168 days to put on 339 lbs., the same amount that Lot 
I did in 140 days. The steers in Lot II required 25 per ct. less grain per 
100 lbs. gain than Lot I, but over twice as much hay. In another trial 
Smith found that 870-lb. steers fed 12.0 lbs. of corn meal and 17.2 lbs. 
of alfalfa, made practically as rapid gains as others fed 18.8 lbs. of corn 
meal and 8.7 lbs. of alfalfa. The heavy-fed steers required 36 per ct. 
more corn per 100 lbs. gain but only half as much hay as those fed the 
light allowance of corn. 

Cochel and Doty found at the Pennsylvania Station 4 that 2-yr.-old 
steers fed a full allowance of corn, supplemented by cottonseed meal, and 
with corn stover, corn silage, and mixed hay for roughage, gained only 
0.15 lb. more per head daily than others fed two-thirds as much corn. 
The steers on the lighter feed of corn made cheaper gains and returned 
the greater profit. 

The amount of corn to be fed should be governed by the relative price 
of corn and roughage and by the time it is desired to have the cattle 
ready for market. 

735. Preparation of corn for beef cattle. — The practice of successful 
stockmen in the corn belt and trials at the experiment stations show that, 

3 Nebr. Buls. 100, 114. 4 Penn. Bui. 102. 



452 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

in general, getting corn to cattle in the simplest manner and with the 
least preparation and handling is the most economical, when pigs follow 
the steers to consume any grains which escape mastication. Waters, 5 
gathering replies from hundreds of cattle feeders in Missouri, Iowa, and 
Illinois, found that 50 per ct. fed husked or unhusked ear corn, 25 per 
ct. shelled corn, and the remainder, crushed, soaked, or ground corn. 
Only 3 per ct. fed ground corn as a regular practice. Skinner and 
Cochel 6 report that of 929 Indiana feeders 73 per ct. used broken ear 
corn at some time during the feeding period, 46 per ct. shock corn at some 
time, 35 per ct. snapped corn, 27 per ct. corn-and-cob meal, and 21 per 
ct. used shelled corn. 

In finishing prime beeves many skilled feeders seek to "keep the feed 
better than the cattle," i.e., prepare the feed more as the cattle gain in 
flesh. Thus, they may start the steers on shock corn, then as they require 
more concentrates, add snapped corn or ear corn ; still later the ear corn 
is broken or shelled; and at the close of the fattening period, to tempt 
the steers to consume a heavier allowance of grain, corn meal or corn- 
and-cob meal is employed. 

Silage from well-matured corn is the most palatable form in which the 
entire corn plant can be offered to the steer. In addition to the grain in 
this succulent feed, some additional corn should be fed, usually in the 
form of ear corn or shelled corn. Next to silage, corn is never so palat- 
able to the steer as when given unhusked on the stalk, for there is an 
aroma and palatability about the ear in Nature's own wrappings that 
every steer recognizes and appreciates. Such being the case, wherever 
possible let shock corn with its wealth of ears be thrown into the long 
feed racks standing in the open lot or under the shed and allow the 
steers to do their own husking and grinding. Where corn cannot be fed 
unhusked, ear corn should be given, whole, chopped, or split, as best suits 
the animal. Corn long stored in the crib becomes dry and hard, losing 
fragrance and aroma thru exposure to air and vermin. For summer 
feeding such grain should be specially prepared by soaking or shelling, 
or possibly by grinding. Corn should be soaked from 12 to 18 hours, 
care being taken to change the water frequently and to keep the feed 
boxes clean and sweet. Old cattle can utilize ear corn, stover, and coarse 
feed more advantageously than can younger animals. 

To induce young steers to consume sufficient corn to overcome their 
tendence to grow rather than to fatten, more preparation of the corn is 
warranted than with older animals. (423) 

736. Feeding corn in various forms. — To determine the economy of 
preparing corn in various ways, Mumford fed 5 lots of choice 1000-lb. 
feeders the rations shown in the table for 186 days at the Illinois Station. 7 

'Mo. Bui. 76. a Ind. Cir. 12. '111. Bui. 103. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 



453 



Feeding com in 


various forms to fattening steers 




Average ration 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain 


Pigs 
per 10 
steers 


Gain of pigs 

per 100 lbs. 

corn fed to 

steers 


Feed cost 


Concen- 
trates 


Rough- 
age 


returned 
by pigs 


Lot I, 15 steers 
Ear corn, 20.1 lbs. 
Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. 
Clover hay, 8.0 lbs 


Lbs. 
2.3 
2.3 
2.0 
2.4 

2.1 


Lbs. 
986 

993 

9S4 
822 

991* 


Lbs. 
344 
350 
454 
370 

782 


No. 
5 
3 

7 
3 

6 


Lbs 
1.7 
0.5 
3.6 
0.7 

1 .8* 


Per ct. 
9 7 


Lot II, 15 steers 

Corn-and-cob meal, 20.0 lbs. 
Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. 
Clover hay, S.l lbs 


2 6 


Lot III, 10 steers 

Shelled corn, 16.6 lbs. 
Gluten or oil meal, 3.0 lbs. 
Clover hay, 9.0 lbs 


16 7 


Lot IV, 15 steers 
Corn meal, 16.6 lbs. 
Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. 

Clover hay, 8.7 lbs 

Lot V, 10 steers 
Ear corn, 13.5 lbs. 
Oil meal, 1.4 lbs. 
Shock corn, 14.7 lbs. 
Clover hay, 7.2 lbs 


3.0 
12.7 



♦Including ear corn in the shock corn. 

While the steers in Lot IV, fed corn meal, made the largest gains and 
required the least feed for 100 lbs. gain, for combined gains of steers 
and pigs ear corn proved the most economical. Lot III, getting shelled 
corn, made the poorest gains, due to the fact that, as shown by the gains 
of the pigs following, the steers in this lot did not masticate their corn 
so thoroly as the others. While about the same amount of concentrates 
was required for 100 lbs. gain as with Lots I and II, it must be remem- 
bered that the ear corn and the corn-and-cob meal rations contained over 
i7 per ct. cob. Thus shelled corn proved inferior to ear corn or corn-and- 
cob meal in beef production. Lot V, fed shock corn at first and ear 
corn during the finishing period, made larger gains than Lot III, fed 
shelled corn. In economy of combined gains of steers and pigs the shock- 
corn ration ranked second. 

Where shelled corn was fed, the 7 hogs following each 10 steers gained 
3.6 lbs. from each 100 lbs. of corn fed to the steers, the hogs returning 
16.7 per ct. of the value of the corn given to the steers. Where ground 
corn was fed, the hogs returned but 0.7 lb. increase for 100 lbs. of corn 
fed to the steers, and corn-and-cob meal made still poorer returns. 

Good of the Kentucky Station 8 finds that steers fed silage often fail to 
eat sufficient corn when it is supplied in the form of ear corn, possibly 
due to the fact that the silage makes their gums tender. By feeding 
shelled corn this difficulty is obviated. 
"Information to the authors. 



454 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

737. Soft corn. — Kennedy and Rutherford of the Iowa Station, 8 study- 
ing the feeding value of soft corn with 2 lots of 8 steers each, fed for 6 
months, found that soft corn, containing 35 per et. of moisture at the 
beginning of the trial and 16 per et. at its elose, made rather more 
economical gains than mature com, taking dry matter as the basis of 
comparison, and that the eattle finished equally well on it. ^205) 

73S. Barley. — In sections of the West where corn does not thrive, 
barley is of much importance as a grain for fattening cattle. To com- 
pare this grain with corn, Wilson fed 866-lb. steers the rations shown 
below in il trials at the South Dakota Station 10 averaging 108 days in 
length : 

Barley vs. corn for fattening steers 

Daily Food tor 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Concentrates Corn silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

.' . S s ( ->■ 

ad barley, l-t.S lbs. 
Linseed meal, 1.5 lbs. Com silage, 14.2 lbs 2.1 790 674 

Lot II, S s 
Ground corn, 16. S lbs. 
Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. Corn silage, 14.2 lbs 2 2 856 64S 

The steers fed barley did not consume quite as much grain as those 
fed the more palatable corn and hence did not make quite as rapid gains. 
However, less concentrates were required for 100 lbs. gain than with 
corn. In a trial at the Hays. Kansas, Station 11 Haney secured similar 
results with 8- to 10-months-old steer calves fed alfalfa hay and either 
ground barley or corn-and-eob meal. The calves fed corn gained 0.2 lb. 
more per head daily, but required 5 per et. more grain than those fed 
barley. ^226^ 

739. Wheat. — This grain is not commonly fed to cattle except when 
off grade or unusually low in price. Lintield of the Montana Station 12 
found wheat and barley of practically the same value when fed in 
limited allowance with clover hay to 936-lb. steers. At the Nebraska 
Station 1 " Burnett and Smith found wheat superior to corn for fattening 
yearling steers, when fed with 20 to 30 per et. of bran and linseed meal 
along with alfalfa hay, prairie hay, and wheat straw for roughage. Two- 
yr.-old steers fed ground wheat and alfalfa hay in a trial by Haney at 
the Hays. Kansas. Station 14 gained 0.4-3 lb. less per head daily than others 
fed ground corn, due to the fact that the wheat was less palatable and 
hence the steers ate less grain than those fed corn. The wheat-fed steers, 
however, required less grain per 100 lbs. gain. We may conclude that, 
while steers fed wheat may consume less grain than others fed an un- 
limited allowance of corn, no more wheat than corn is required for 100 
lbs. gain. 

•'Iowa Bui. 75. n Kan. Bui. 128. ls Nebr. Bui. 75. 

S. D. Bui. 160. '-Mont. Bui. 58. "Kan. Bui. 128. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 456 

At the North Dakota Station 18 Sheppard arid Richards found that fat- 
tening steers fed low-grade ground wheat and bran, with poor quality 
hay for roughage, required about twice as much feed per LOO lbs. gain as 
others fed com meal The wheat-fed rather than fattened, 

indicating that low-grade wheat, which is usually higher in protein than 
at of good quality, should be used for growing animals rather than 
for fattening ones. ^215; 

740. Oats. — Since oats are usually high in price compared with other- 
grains, they m-<- seldom used as the sole concentrate for fattening, tho 
they are well liked by cattle and produce beef of good quality, [n 2 
trials of 101 and 115 < pectively, Wilson of the South Dak 

fed steers averaging 875 Lbs. about 14 lbs. of corn silage per head 
daily and concentrates as shown in the table, to compare the value of 
ground oats and ground corn: 



Oa ■'-,< for fattenmg stei i 

i 

... r 

Lot /, Oats 15.0 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.5 lba 2 744 

/. //, Corn, lo.8 lba. Linseed meal, 1 .7 lbs 2.2 



Tho first year the oa large gan ; 

but the second year when the oats were rather light in weight, the corn- 
fed steers made better gains. The table shows that thi 
required about the same amount of concentrates for 100 11 
those fed corn, but consumed somewhat more silage. Linfield at the 
Montana Station 17 found oats, wheat, and barley about eqm 
when fed with clo to fattening si dxture of the 3 g 

somewhat superior to any single one. Oats are excellent for g] 
attle, and ar< - with corn in star' 

feed, especially calves being fattened for baby beef. For fa1 
oats should be ground. >le grains escaping 

so readily recovered by pigs a ... '223. 

741. Kafir. — Thruout the southern portion of the great pi air. 
the grain sorghun . great importance in the feed.'. 

The following table presents the resull 

. : ind kafir and alfalfa hay were fed to one lot of si 
ind corn and alfalfa hay to another lot. In the seeon 
table are summarized the results of 4 trials, averag.' 

• grains were fed as the sole concentrate with kafir or 
or ka . Corn or kafir with these carbons 

unbalanced ration, from which as good gains could not be exp 
from corn or kafir with alfalfa hay. 

I D. Bui. 7S. D. Bui. 160. 



456 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Kafir vs. com in balanced and unbalanced rations 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Grain Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

With alfalfa hay* 
Lot I, total of 18 steers 
Ground kafir, 16.7 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 15.1 lbs 952 2.4 697 636 

Lot II, total of 18 steers 
Ground corn, 15.5 lbs. J 

Alfalfa hay, 15.2 lbs 943 2.5 612 610 

With carbonaceous roughage^ 
Lot I, total of 35 steers 
Ground kafir, 18.1 lbs. 

Carbonaceous roughage, 14.6 lbs. . . 958 1.7 1,081 936 

Lot II, total of 31 steers 
Ground corn, 16.7 lbs. J 

Carbonaceous roughage, 14.8 lbs ... 953 1.8 934 872 

^Average of 2 trials by Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1899, 1900, 1901) and 1 by Haney (Kan. Bui. 132). 
fAverage of 2 trials bv Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1900, 1901), 1 by Georgeson (Kan. Bui. 67), and 1 by Haney 
(Kan. Bui. 132). 

JCorn-and-cob meal fed in trial by Haney reduced to equivalent of ground corn. 

These trials well show the value of kafir for fattening steers. When 
given alfalfa hay, the steers fed kafir required only 14 per ct. more kafir 
grain for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn. With poorly balanced ra- 
tions of carbonaceous roughage and either kafir or corn, about 16 per ct. 
more kafir than corn was consumed per 100 lbs. gain. (237) 

742. Milo and kafir vs. corn. — At the Texas Station 18 Burns fed 3 lots, 
each of six 2-yr.-old grade Angus steers averaging about 875 lbs. in weight, 
12.6 lbs. of cottonseed hulls and 3.0 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head 
daily with 15.1 lbs. of corn chop, milo chop, or kafir chop, for 120 days 
with the results shown in the table. The grains were all ground to the 
same fineness. 

Milo and kafir compared with corn for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Concentrate allowance gain Concentrates Hulls 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn and cottonseed meal 2.1 858 599 

Lot II, Milo and cottonseed meal 2.1 853 596 

Lot III, Kafir and cottonseed meal 2.5 731 510 

Fed with cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, kafir produced the 
largest and most economical gains, and milo proved equal to corn. There 
was no material difference in the quality of meat from the 3 lots. (238) 

743. Emmer (spelt). — To compare the value of ground emmer and 
ground corn for fattening steers, Wilson conducted 2 trials at the South 
Dakota Station 10 in which 880-lb. steers were fed an average of 14 lbs. 
corn silage per head daily with the concentrate allowances shown in the 
table for periods averaging 1.08 days : 

"Tex. Bui. 110. ,0 S. D. Bui. 160. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 457 

Emmer vs. corn for fattening steers 

Average concentrate allowance 



Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Concentrates Silage 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


2.2 


840 


648 


2.2 


856 


648 



Lot I, Emmer, 16.7 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. 
Lot II, Corn, 16.8 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. 

In this fairly well balanced ration ground emmer was fully equal to 
ground corn. Wilson concludes that under South Dakota conditions 
emmer is the best small grain to grow for feeding with corn silage. In a 
previous trial at the same Station 20 in which the unbalanced rations of 
prairie hay and either corn or emmer were fed, Wilson and Skinner 
found that it required 125 lbs. of emmer to replace 100 lbs. of corn. Fed 
to calves fattened for baby beef, 21 emmer produced a hard fat the same 
as did oats, and meat of as good quality as that from corn. (233) Emmer 
closely resembles oats in composition, having considerable bulk, and there- 
fore should be especially useful in starting cattle on feed. (740) 

744. Millet. — That the seed of hog, or broom-corn, millet, which is a 
reliable grain crop on the northern plains, is a satisfactory feed for fat- 
tening cattle was shown by Wilson and Skinner at the South Dakota 
Station. 22 Calves weighing about 500 lbs. fattened for baby beef on 
ground millet and clover hay gained 1.5 lbs. per head daily for 431 days, 
while others fed corn and clover hay gained 1.8 lbs. The steers fed 
millet required 6 per ct. more grain and 32 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. 
gain than those fed corn. Millet produced carcasses of as good quality as 
corn, but with somewhat softer fat. (243) 

745. Rough rice and by-products. — In feeding trials with steers at the 
Texas Station 23 Craig and Marshall found that when fed with cottonseed 
meal and cottonseed hulls 2.3 lbs. of ground rough rice was equal to 1 lb. 
of cottonseed meal in the ration. Ten lbs. of rice bran proved equal to 6 
lbs. of cottonseed meal when forming two-fifths of the concentrates of 
the ration. Rice polish was about equal to cottonseed meal. Rice hulls 
proved to be without value. Cruse secured satisfactory results with a 
ration of 7.3 lbs. rough red rice (a pest in the rice fields), 4.2 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal, and 12.5 lbs. Johnson grass hay in a trial at the Fort Worth, 
Texas, Substation. 2 * Rice should always be ground for cattle. (234) 

746. Sugar-beet pulp. — In the vicinity of the western beet sugar fac- 
tories thousands of cattle are fattened annually on beet pulp with alfalfa 
hay, which admirably supplements the protein-poor pulp, and usually 
with a limited allowance of grain in addition. To study the most profit- 
able method of feeding pulp Carlyle and Griffith fed 4 lots, each of twelve 
956-lb. steers, the rations shown in the table for 100 days at the Colorado 
Station. 25 Alfalfa hay of poor quality was fed to all without limit. 

»S. D. Bui. 100. "S. D. Bui. 97. 24 Tex. Bui. 135. 

a S. D. Bui. 97. = 3 Tex. Buls. 76, 86. - 5 Colo. Bui. 102. 



458 FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Value of wet beet pulp in steer feeding 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Corn Hay Grain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



3,545 



5,283 



Lot I 

Beet pulp, 93.4 lbs. 
Alfalfa hay, 20.0 lbs. 


Ground corn, 6.6 lbs. . 


. 2.6 


251 


759 


Lot II 

Alfalfa hay, 31.3 lbs. 


Ground corn, 6.6 lbs. . 


. 1.8 


376 


1.778 


Lot III 

Beet pulp, 97.3 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 21.9 lbs 
Lot IV 

Alfalfa hay, 41.5 lbs. 




1.8 

. 1.5 




1,189 
2,829 



The steers in Lot I, fed an unlimited allowance of wet beet pulp and 
alfalfa hay with 6.6 lbs. of corn per head daily, made the excellent daily 
gain of 2.6 lbs. each, considerably larger than that of Lot II, fed only 
alfalfa hay and corn, or Lot III, fed beet pulp and hay, with no corn. 
Thruout the trial the pulp-fed steers were more thrifty than those getting 
no pulp. The conclusion was that for 2-yr.-old fattening steers 1 ton of 
wet beet pulp was equal to 620 lbs. of alfalfa hay or 220 lbs. of ground 
corn. In feeding this succulent food, care should be taken that refuse 
pulp does not accumulate in the troughs and decompose. Animals should 
be gradually accustomed to the pulp, later being usually given all they 
will clean up. (274) 

747. Dried beet pulp. — Shaw and Norton of the Michigan Station 26 
found as the result of 3 winter trials that dried beet pulp tended to 
growth with cattle rather than to fattening, and conclude that while in 
the earlier part of the feeding period dried pulp can be fed advantage- 
ously in large quantities because it produces rapid gains, during the 
finishing period it should be largely replaced by corn meal. They found 
a 1000-lb. steer will not consume over 10 lbs. of dried beet pulp daily. 
(275) 

748. Molasses. — In the sngar-cane districts of the South, cane molasses 
is an economical carbonaceous concentrate for cattle. In a 120-clay trial 
at the Texas Station 27 Burns fed 2 lots, each of 6 high-grade 2-yr.-old 
Aberdeen-Angus steers, averaging about 870 lbs., a basal ration of 12.6 
lbs. cottonseed hulls and 3 lbs. cottonseed meal, with corn or corn and 
blackstrap molasses, as shown in the table : 

Cane molasses as a partial substitute for corn 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Concentrates Hulls 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn, 15.1 lbs. Basal ration 2.1 858 599 

Lot II, Molasses, 6.5 lbs. 

Corn, 8.6 lbs. Basal ration 2.3 798 559 

^Mich. Bui. 247. J7 Tex. Bui. 110. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 459 

When 6.6 lbs. of molasses replaced an equal weight of corn the gains 
were slightly increased and less feed was required for 100 lbs. gain, 
showing molasses to be somewhat the higher in feeding value per pound, 
when replacing not more than half the corn in the ration. 

In a 140-day trial at the Pennsylvania Station 28 Tomhave and Sever- 
son fed a lot of six 1040-lb. choice feeders all the corn and mixed hay 
they would consume, in addition to 20 lbs. of corn silage per head daily 
and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. Another 
lot was given the same feeds with 5 lbs. of molasses in addition. The 
steers fed 5 lbs. of molasses per head daily made no larger gains than the 
first lot, and their gains were more expensive, with molasses at $20 per 
ton and shelled corn at 70 cents per bushel. 

At the Indiana Station 20 Skinner and King found in a 150-day trial 
that steers fed 2.8 lbs. molasses, 10.9 lbs. shelled corn, and 3.3 lbs. cot- 
tonseed meal gained 0.34 lb. more per head daily than others fed 13.6 
lbs. shelled corn and 3.3 lbs. cottonseed meal, both lots receiving corn 
silage and clover hay without limit in addition. The steers fed molasses 
consumed over 4 lbs. more silage per head daily than the others. With 
corn ranging from $21.60 to $24.75 per ton and molasses at 13.5 cents 
per gallon ($22.50 per ton), the steers fed molasses made the cheaper 
gains. From these trials we may conclude that in the North as heavy 
an allowance of molasses as 5 lbs. per head daily is not ordinarily econ- 
nomical, tho a small amount may be profitable in stimulating the appe- 
tite. Molasses is especially useful in getting animals to clean up rough- 
age which would otherwise be unpalatable. 

Ware 30 reports that beet molasses has been fed to oxen for many 
years at the Hohenau sugar factory, Germany. During the first month 
3.3 lb^. is fed per head daily, and after this 4.4 lbs., the molasses being 
mixed with beet pulp. The oxen so fed have better appetites than those 
fed no molasses, and fatten rapidly. Not more than 4 to 8 lbs. of beet 
molasses daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight should be fed to fattening cat- 
tle. When fed at this maximum rate of 8 lbs. per head daily, with alfalfa 
hay valued at $3.50 per ton and bran and shorts at $14 per ton, mo- 
lasses was worth only $2.35 per ton for fattening steers. Morton 31 of 
the Colorado Station states that the use of molasses is greatly increasing 
in the beet-sugar districts. The molasses is spread over hay or cut straw, 
either by means of a force pump on an ordinary wagon water tank, or is 
thinned with water and poured over it from buckets. Large feeders 
heat the molasses in tanks and mix it with cut hay or straw in mixing 
machines. (276) 

749. Hominy feed. — At the Kansas Station 32 Cochel fed 2 lots each of 
fifteen 540-lb. calves for baby beef on 19.7 lbs. sorghum silage, 1.7 lbs. cot- 
tonseed meal, and either 9.3 lbs. ground corn or 8.9 lbs. hominy feed per 

:s Information to the authors. 30 Cattle Feeding, p. 245. 

:9 Information to the authors. 31 Information to the authors. 

32 Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915; information to the authors. 



460 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

head daily for 120 days. For the first 2 months the hominy-fed calves 
made the most rapid gains, but later they were passed by those fed on 
corn, apparently because they would not eat as heavy an allowance of 
hominy feed, which is rather high in fat. The hominy-fed calves gained 
1.87 lbs. per head daily and those fed corn 1.96 lbs., the feed require- 
ments per 100 lbs. gain being practically the same for the 2 lots. (213) 



II. Nitrogenous Concentrates 

750. Cottonseed meal. — This rich concentrate is the basis of the fatten- 
ing of beef cattle in the South and is widely used in the northern states 
as a supplement to rations deficient in protein. Trials at the Indiana 
Station, which are reviewed later (777), show that 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed 
meal per head daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight is sufficient to balance a 
ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw or clover hay. In the 
South, owing to the cheapness of cottonseed meal, it is commonly fed as 
the sole concentrate. Since the meal is a heavy, highly nitrogenous feed, 
and is poisonous to fattening cattle when fed in excess, the determination 
of the allowance to be fed for the best results is of great importance. 
(249-50) 

During each of 3 years Willson fed 2-yr.-old steers, averaging 944 lbs. 
in weight, for 90-day periods at the Tennessee Station 33 on corn silage and 
different amounts of cottonseed meal, as is shown in the table. The 
steers fed low cottonseed meal allowances received 3 lbs. of meal for the 
first 30 days, 4 lbs. for the second 30 days, and 5 lbs. for the last month. 
Those on medium allowances received 4 or 5 lbs. for the first month, 5 or 
6 for the second, and 6 or 7 for the third, while those on the heavy 
allowances received 7, 8, and 9 lbs. respectively, for the 3 months of the 
feeding period. 

Low, medium, and heavy allowances of cottonseed meal 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Cost of 100 
Average ration gain Meal Silage lbs. gain* 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Low allowance, total of 32 steers 

Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs. Corn silage, 56 lbs. . 1.62 253 3,542 8.47 

Medium allowance, total of 24 steers 

Cottonseed meal, 6 lbs. Corn silage, 52 lbs. . . 1.70 335 3,124 8.87 

Heavy allowance, total of 24 steers 

Cottonseed meal, 8 lbs. Corn silage, 59 lbs. . . 1.66 491 3,622 11.56 

♦Cottonseed meal at $25 and corn silage at $3 pel ton. 

In none of the trials did the heavy allowance of cottonseed meal pro- 
duce larger gains than the medium allowance. On the average the 
medium allowance made slightly larger but more expensive gains than 
the low allowance. "Willson concludes that the use of as much as 7 to 9 

33 Tenn. Bui. 104. 



FEEDS FOft FATTENING CATTLE 461 

lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily is uneconomical except for short 
feeding periods of only 30 to 50 days. 

Since the feeders of the south Atlantic states have access to the large 
eastern markets, which demand well-finished cattle, Gray and Curtis 
conducted trials at the North Carolina Station 34 to determine the maxi- 
mum amount of cottonseed meal which could be fed with good results to 
2-yr.-old steers with corn silage or cottonseed hulls given in unlimited 
amount. In a 99-day trial 8 lots, each of 9 to 10 steers, were fed the 
allowances of cottonseed meal shown in the table. 

Amount of cottonseed meal to feed with corn silage or cottonseed hulls 

Daily Feed cost of Selling price 
Average daily allowance of meal gain 100 lbs. gain* . per 100 lbs. 

Lbs. Dollars Dollars 

( 'am silage for roughage 

Lot I, Cottonseed meal, 6.0 lbs 1.19 11.39 7.90 

Lot II, Cottonseed meal, 7.5 lbs 1 .49 10.34 8.00 

Lot III, Cottonseed meal, 9.0 lbs 1.76 9.79 8.20 

Lot IV, Cottonseed meal, 10.5 lbs 1.89 10.03 8.40 

Cottonseed hulls for roughage 

Lot V, Cottonseed meal, 6.0 lbs 1 .43 9 .86 7 .90 

Lot VI, Cottonseed meal, 7.5 lbs 1.55 10.30 8.00 

Lot VII, Cottonseed meal, 9.0 lbs 1.59 11.17 8.15 

Lot VIII, Cottonseed meal, 10.5 lbs 1 .45 13 .29 8 .00 

♦Cottonseed meal, $25; cottonseed hulls, $6; and corn silage, S3. 50 per ton. 

With corn silage for roughage the allowance of 10.5 lbs. of cottonseed 
meal produced the largest gains and the highest finish, as shown by the 
selling price, and brought the most profit. The gains were, however, 
cheaper when 9 lbs. of meal was fed. With hulls the gains were largest, 
the finish highest, and the profit greatest on the allowance of 9 lbs. of 
meal. In another trial lasting 107 days with 4 lots, each of 20 steers, 9 
lbs. of meal fed with silage made smaller gains than 7.5 lbs., but pro- 
duced slightly better finish. When fed with hulls 9 lbs. of meal pro- 
duced decidedly lower gains at a much higher cost than 7.5 lbs. From 
these and other trials Curtis concludes that cattle fed 7.5 lbs. of meal 
per head daily with either silage or hulls will continue to gain and finish 
quite satisfactorily for 130 to 140 days, which is the maximum period 
for feeding this allowance with hulls. With corn silage the feeding 
period may be extended 30 to 50 days or even somewhat longer without 
harm. When 9 to 10.5 lbs. of meal is fed with hulls, the daily gains 
decrease after 120 to 130 days until finally the animal begins losing 
weight. The same amount of meal may be fed with silage for 30 to 60 
days longer with continuous gains and consequent high finish. The 
retarding of the poisonous effect of cottonseed meal by silage seems to 
be due to the succulent nature of the silage, for the same effect is also 
produced by pasturage. Owing to the protein-rich nature of cottonseed 
meal, with young steers it tends to produce growth rather than to 
fatten; hence 2- or 3-yr.-olds are best suited for heavy cottonseed meal 

"Information to the authors. 



462 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

feeding. When fattening yearlings on cottonseed meal, McLean of the 
Mississippi Station 35 recommends that they be given not over 5 lbs. per 
head daily. 

Gray and Ward 36 found a daily allowance of 2.3 lbs. cottonseed meal 
and 1.2 lbs. corn-and-cob meal somewhat superior, for 6- to 8-months old 
calves fed for baby beef, to an allowance of 3.1 lbs. cottonseed meal, 
cottonseed hulls and mixed alfalfa and grass hay being fed to both lots. 
In feeding cottonseed meal it is exceedingly important that the steers be 
started on the feed slowly, as many animals are injured by failure to 
observe this precaution. 

Soule of the Georgia Station 37 states that with cattle to be fed 180 days 
about 4 lbs. per head daily is enough for the first 60 to 90 days, the 
allowance eventually being increased to 8 to 10 lbs. The meal should also 
be mixed thoroly with the roughage, so that the greedy steer will not be 
able to gorge on the meal. 

751. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — To compare the value of cold- 
pressed cottonseed cake, or "caddo cake," with choice cottonseed meal, 
Kennedy and Robbins fed 2 lots, each of seven 714-lb. steers, the follow- 
ing rations at the Iowa Station 38 for 168 days : 

Caddo cake vs. cottonseed meal for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Cake or meal Corn Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Caddo cake, 4.4 lbs. 

Corn-and-cob meal, 14.4 lbs. Clover hay 5.3 lbs. 1.8 239 793 290 

Lot II 

Cottonseed meal, 3.1 lbs. 

Corn-and-cob meal, 14.2 lbs. Clover hay, 5.4 lbs. 1.7 180 815 310 

Lot I, fed 4.4 lbs. caddo cake containing 28.9 per ct. crude protein, 
made slightly larger gains than Lot II, fed 3.1 lbs. choice cottonseed 
meal containing 42.9 per ct. crude protein. In feed required per 100 
lbs. gain, 133 lbs. of caddo cake was more than ecpial to 100 lbs. of cot- 
tonseed meal, a somewhat higher value than would correspond to the 
amounts of crude protein in the 2 feeds. Kinzer states that in a trial at 
the Kansas Station 30 steers fed caddo cake likewise made slightly larger 
gains than others fed cottonseed meal, and Smith reports from trials at 
the Nebraska Station 40 that cattle relish caddo cake even better than 
cottonseed meal. (248) 

752. Cotton seed. — The practice of feeding cotton seed to beef cattle 
in the South is rapidly declining according to Soule of the Georgia Sta- 
tion, 41 both because of the demand for the seed for oil production and 
because cottonseed meal gives uniformly better results than the whole 

83 Miss. Bui. 121. 89 Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 350. 

30 Ala. Bui. 158. <0 Nebr. Bui. 116. 

"Breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 1163. "Breeder's Gaz.. 66, 1914, p. 713. 

^Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 303. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 463 

seed. In a 90-day trial at the Texas Station 42 Burns fed 2 lots, each of 
6 high-grade Angus steers, 16.0 lbs. of kafir chop and 12.8 lbs. of cotton- 
seed hulls per head daily with the allowance of cottonseed meal or meal 
and cotton seed shown in the table : 

Cotton seed vs. cottonseed meal for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Cottonseed meal and cotton seed per head daily gain Concentrates Hulls 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

/, Cottonseed 4.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 1.0 lbs.. 2.0 1,026 626 

II, Cottonseed meal, 2.9 lbs 2.5 750 508 

Substituting 4 lbs. of cotton seed for 1.9 lbs. of cottonseed meal pro- 
duced smaller gains. In this trial cottonseed meal at $26 per ton was 
cheaper than cotton seed at $12. In a later trial with steers fed sorghum 
and cowpea silage, Burns 43 found that when the allowance of cotton seed 
was increased beyond -8 lbs. per head daily the animals scoured badly ; 
on substituting cottonseed meal for the cotton seed they recovered and 
made much larger gains. Cottonseed meal at $27 per ton was more 
profitable than cotton seed at $17. (245) 

753. Linseed meal. — Thruout the northern states linseed meal is wide- 
ly used as a nitrogenous supplement for beef cattle. Smith of the Ne- 
braska Station, 44 as a result of 3 trials with steers, fed corn and prairie 
hay, in comparison with others fed 90 per ct. corn and 10 per ct. linseed 
meal with prairie hay, found that it required 23 per ct. less concentrates 
for 100 lbs. gain w T hen the ration containing linseed oil meal was used. 
For steer fattening linseed meal was slightly superior to cottonseed meal, 
and much more valuable than wheat bran for supplementing a ration of 
corn and prairie hay or corn stover. As a supplement to corn and prairie 
hay, in 2 trials 45 with yearling steers linseed meal was worth $29.74 to 
$32.00 per ton, compared with cold-pressed cottonseed cake at $25. (254) 

754. Soybeans. — The protein-rich seed of the soybean is well suited to 
serve as a nitrogenous supplement for fattening cattle. To compare 
this concentrate ' and choice cottonseed meal, Skinner and King con- 
ducted 2 trials at the Indiana Station 48 with 900-lb. steers, fed the fol- 
lowing rations for 180 and 175 days, respectively : 

Ground soybeans vs. cottonseed' meal for fattening steers 





Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. 


gain 


Average ration 


gain 


Concentrates Straw 


Silage 




Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs. 


Lbs. 



Lot I 

Shelled corn, 13.0 lbs. Oat straw, 1.1 lbs. 

Ground soybeans 2.7 lbs. Corn silage, 22.1 lbs. 2.2 722 52 1,011 

Lot II 

Shelled corn, 13.9 lbs. Oat straw, 0.9 lb. 
Cottonseed meal, 2.8 lbs. Corn silage, 26.3 
lbs 2.5 676 36 1,062 

u Tex. Bui. 110. "Nebr. Bui. 100. "Ind. Buls. 167, 178. 

"Tex. Bui. 159. 45 Nebr. Bui. 132. 



ICI FEEDS AND FEEDING 

While Lot ll made somewhat Larger gains and required slightly less 
I'rcd per LOO lbs. gain, the results from Lot I, fed ground soybeans, were 
on the whole satisfactory. The steers showed a greater tendency to go 
off Heed during the Last ;{ months of Hie Seeding period on soybeans than 
on cottonseed meal, due undoubtedly to the Large amount of oil that soy- 
beans contain. Willi soybean meal, from which the oil has been ex- 
tracted, this condition would probably not result. In ;i, third trial 47 
lasting L50 days, steers fed the same ration as Lot I made slightly Larger 
gains than lots l!ed cottonseed meal, shelled corn, corn silage, and either 
(•lover or alfalfa hay. (256) 

755. Soybeans, COWpeas, and corn. In the soul hern slides it is possible 
in grow ;i winter crop of small grain and harvest it in time to plant 
soybeans, cowpeas, or corn, thus securing 2 crops each year from the 
same land. During 7 years the following crops have been grown on 
different acres at the Tennessee Station 48 by Quereau and Willson and 
\'c(\ to steers, to determine the amount of beef produced per acre under 
the different systems of cropping. In addition to the product from the 
given acre, the steers were each fed ^o lbs. of corn silage per head daily. 
'The manure resulting from the crops on each acre was returned thereto. 

Acre yields of beef from various crops in the South 

Boot Boof 

Crops find uorn virlil por norc Crops and aoro yiold por aoro 

[,bs. Lbs, 

Acre I Acre IV* 

Soy lie H i (grain, 1,189 lbs. Soybean grain, 1,202 lbs. 

Soybean stover, 2,877 ll>n. Soybean stover, 2,552 lbs. 

Barley grain, 1,411 1I>m 508 Wheat grain, 1,216 lbs 402 

Acre I J Acre \ \ 

Cowpoa grain, 550 lbs Soybean hay, 3,727 lbs. 

( lowpon ..lover, 2,10-1 lbs. Barley grain, L,443 Ihs 435 

Barley grain, 1,656 lbs 451 

Acre VI* 
Acre III Soybean hay, 3,376 lbs. 

( 'or., grain, 1,839 lbs. Oat grain, L,610 lbn 456 

( lorn stover, 3,045 lbs. 

Barloy grain, 1,332 lbs 434 Acre VII\ 

Alfalfa hay, 8,228 Ihs 515 

'Av. for l yours, I A v. for yoars, |Av. for yoars. 

of the various combination crops, Acre I, on which soybeans were 
grown for grain and stover, with barley as a winter grain crop, pro- 
duced the Largest amount of beef per acre. Cowpeas yielded much less 

grain and stover and produced less beef per acre. Acre Ml, on which 
were grown coin tor grain and stover, with barley as the winter crop, 

made considerably less beef per acre than Acre I, due in no small 
measure to the unbalanced nature of the ration of corn grain, corn 
stover, corn silage, and barley grain. Alfalfa, tested for 5 years, slightly 

surpassed even Acre I. The returns from these acres well illustrate the 
possibilities of the South tor beef production in a System whereby more 

than a. single crop is grown each year. (262) 
"Information to the authors, '"Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOB FATTENING CATTLE 4(if> 

756. Wheat bran. — Since wheat bran is lower in protein khan cotton 
seed or linseed meal, a correspondingly Larger amount is needed to 
balance ;i ration deficienl in this nutrient. While l>i"m is used more 
extensively Cor dairy cows than for feeding beef cattle it is often 
employed for the latter, especially in starting cattle on feed. Skinner 
;iikI Cochel 40 found in replies from 929 [ndiana cattle feeders, secured 
in L906, that 40 per ct. of those using some supplement to com pre 
ferred bran, doubtless because ii was available in almost every Locality. 
in 'I iritis at ili<' Nebraska Station 50 Smith round that when fed as a 
supplement to corn and prairie hay, corn stover, or corn silage, bran 
produced somewhat smaller gains than linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or 
cold pressed cottonseed cake and the gains were more e pensive. 

In 2 trials iii the Pennsylvania Station 65 by Torahave, Hickman, and 
Severson the common Pennsylvania ration of wheat bran, corn, mixed 
hay and corn stover proved inferior to one of corn, cottonseed meal, 
mixed hay, and corn silage, undoubtedly due in large part to the sub- 
stitution of silage for the stover. (218) 

757. Gluten feed. — Tho most commonly led to dairy cow::, gluten feed 
is a satisfactory nitrogenous concentrate for fattening cattle. Cn trials 
;ti the Missouri Station 82 in which the value of various supplements to 
corn For steers of various ages on good bluegrass pasture was compared, 
Mumford round that steers fed linseed or cottonseed meal and corn 
generally made slightly Larger gains than others fed gluten Iced and 

corn. (210) 

758. Dried distillers' grains; distillery slop, — That a limited allowance 
of dried distillers' grains is satisfactory for fattening cattle is shown in 
a trial by May a1 the Kentucky Station" 3 with 2 Lots, each of 4 steers, 
running on closely cropped bluegrass pasture, and fed an unlimited 
allowance of clover hay. Lot [, fed L4.3 Lbs. of corn-and-cob meal 
and 5.4 lbs. of dried distillers' grains per head daily, made 2.2 Lbs. aver 
age daily gain, and required 882 Lbs. of concentrates per LOO Lbs, gain. 
Lot II, fed a daily allowance of 2:'..0 lbs. corn and cod meal, gained only 
1.8 lbs. daily per head and required about 400 lbs, more concentrates 
per 100 Lbs. gain. (282) 

In ihe vicinity of distilleries manj cattle are fattened on the wet 
distillery slop or mash, Hooper of the Kentucky Station 04 reports that 
in 1!H I about 25,000 steers were so l''u\ in Kentucky. The slop is pumped 
from the distillery to the iced lots, where i1 is fed in troughs. In addi 
lion to the slop an average of about '■'< lbs. of cottonseed meal is fed per 
head daily, with 10 to L5 ll»s. of hay, straw bluegrass chaff, or cotton 
seed hulls. The roughage and the cottonseed meal arc usually mixed 
with the slop, tho sometimes the steers are permitted to drink the clear 

slof). 

"Ind. Cir. 12. 8 Mo. Bui. 90. 

Nebr. Bul». 100, 182. w Ky. Bui. 108. 

r.-nn liui L88; Information to the authors -'Ky. Sta, Mlscel, Circular, 



466 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

759. Dried brewers' grains. — According to Pott, 05 in Germany dried 
brewers' grains are well esteemed as a concentrate for fattening mature 
cattle, meat of especially good quality being produced on dried brewers' 
grains, fed as the sole concentrate with potatoes, beets, and dry rough- 
age. (228) 

760. Velvet bean. — At the Florida Station 58 Scott fed velvet beans 
in the pod in comparison with other feeds to sixteen 700-lb. steers di- 
vided into 4 lots, of 4 each, for 84 days, with the results shown in the 
table : 

Velvet beans compared with other southern feeds for steers 

A v. daily Feed cost of 
Average ration per 1,000 lbs. of steer gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I 

Corn, 80 lbs. 

Velvet beans in pod, 12.0 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 10.0 lbs 2.9 7 .55 

Lot II 

Corn, 10.5 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 3.8 lbs. Crab-grass hay, 13.5 lbs 2.6 9 .07 

Lot III 

Corn, 6.0 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 14.0 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 5.0 lbs. Sorghum silage, 20.0 lbs 2.7 10.65 

Lot IV 

Cottonseed meal, 6.5 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 25.0 lbs 1.9 12 .00 

It is shown that the steers getting 12 lbs. of velvet beans in the pod 
per 1,000 lbs. of live weight, together with corn and cottonseed hulls, 
made the high average gain of 2.9 lbs. daily for 84 days. "While all gains 
were satisfactory, those of the steers fed velvet beans were the largest 
and cheapest. (361) 



III. Legume Hay and Other Dry Roughages 

761. Value of legume hay. — The great importance of hay from the 
legumes in balancing the carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley, and 
wheat, has already been pointed out. (732) On account of their richness 
in protein and also because of their palatability, the legume hays are 
the most valuable of dry roughages. Even when a ration of corn and 
such carbonaceous roughages as timothy hay, prairie hay, or corn fodder 
is properly supplemented by linseed or cottonseed meal or some other 
protein-rich concentrate, smaller gains will nearly always be produced 
than when the ration consists of corn and legume hay. This is shown 
in the following table, which summarizes the results secured in 4 trials 
in which 2-yr.-old 942-lb. steers were fed for periods averaging 158 days : 

"'Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1909, p. 241. 
C0 Fla. Bui. 102. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 467 

Legume hay vs. carbonaceous roughage plus nitrogenous supplement 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration gain Concentrates Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, total of 40 steers* 

Legume hay, 9.3 lbs. Corn, 17.9 lbs 2.3 778 405 

Lot II, total of 43 steers* 

Carbonaceous roughage 8.0 lbs. Corn, 16.4 lbs. 

Supplement, 2.2 lbs 2.0 916 387 

*Av. of 1 trial bv Bliss and Lee (Nsbr. Bui. 151), 1 by Mumford (111. Bui. 83), 1 by Skinner and Cochel 
(Ind. Bui. 115), and 1 by Smith (Nebr. Bui. 90). 

Lot I, fed legume hay and corn, gained on the average 0.3 lb. more 
per head daily and required 15.1 per et. less concentrates and about the 
same amount of roughage as Lot II, fed the equally well-balanced but 
less palatable ration in which the roughage was prairie hay, timothy 
hay, or corn stover with a small amount of oat straw. Only when silage, 
appetizing as well as nutritious, is fed is it possible to provide a ration 
which will be equal to one where the roughage is legume hay. (775) 

Waters 57 points out that where cattle are being fattened on corn, the 
use of legume hay instead of hay from timothy, millet, or sorghum, or 
such roughages as corn stover and straw, results in the following 
advantages : 

1. Increased gains by the cattle. 

2. Increased selling price of the cattle due to extra bloom. 

3. Increased gains by hogs following the steers. 

4. Increased fertility of the land where the feeding operations are conducted. 

5. The better condition of the fields on which the leguminous crops are grown. 

762. Legume hay plus carbonaceous roughage. — Even on farms where 
large areas of legumes are raised for hay much carbonaceous roughage, 
such as corn and sorghum stover, straw, and hay from the grasses, is 
normally produced in addition. In economical beef production these 
roughages should be wisely and fully utilized, for while they do not equal 
legume hay in nutrients or palatability, when judiciously combined with 
it satisfactory and cheap gains may be secured. This is shown in a 
116-day trial by Snyder at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation 58 in 
which 5 lots, each of 20 good grade steer calves averaging about 425 lbs., 
were wintered on 2 lbs. of a mixture of 2 parts corn and 1 part oats, 
with the roughages shown in the table : 

Value of legume hay combined with carbonaceous roughages 

Av. daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average daily roughage allowance gain Concentrates Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 12.3 lbs 1.2 162 1,000 

Lot II, Sorghum hav, 14.3 lbs 0.4 504 3,666 

Lot III, Alf. hav, 8.5 lbs. Sorghum hay, 8.5 lbs. 1.2 165 1,416 

Lot IV, Prairie hav, 10.9 lbs 0.7 305 1,676 

Lot V, Alfalfa hay, 7.5 lbs. Prairie hay, 7.5 lbs . 1.1 174 1,315 

"Mo. Bui. 76. M Nebr. Bui. 105. 



468 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

"When fed as the only roughage sorghum hay produced unsatisfactory 
gains, but when the roughage allowance was half sorghum and half 
alfalfa, the gains were as rapid as those made by Lot I, fed alfalfa only. 
Likewise Lot IV, fed prairie hay, made much poorer gains than Lot I, 
while Lot V, fed half prairie hay and half alfalfa made satisfactory gains 
for calves being carried over winter. In all cases the gains on the rations 
containing alfalfa were made with a surprisingly small amount of feed. 

The good results from combining legume hay with carbonaceous rough- 
age are further shown in a trial by "Waters at the Missouri Station. 59 
Two-yr.-old steers fed timothy hay and corn made much smaller gains 
than those fed clover hay and corn. However, on clover hay, corn stover, 
and corn, as large gains were produced as when clover hay was the sole 
roughage. 

Smith 00 reports that cattle full fed on corn with alfalfa as the only 
roughage are more subject to scours, which cause them to go off feed, 
than when some such carbonaceous roughage as prairie hay, sorghum 
hay, or corn stover is fed with the alfalfa. 

763. Legume hay with cottonseed meal. — Since legume hay is rich in 
protein it should not be fed as the chief roughage with cottonseed meal, 
which is itself so rich in this nutrient. Craig and Marshall found in 
trials at the Texas Station 01 that steers fed 5 lbs. of cottonseed meal and 
2.8 lbs. rice bran per head daily with peanut hay developed looseness of 
the bowels and showed redness of the eyes and some swelling about the 
sheath ; when changed to prairie hay the unfavorable symptoms disap- 
peared and the gains increased. Similar poor results were secured when 
alfalfa hay was fed with cottonseed meal. When shelled corn was sub- 
stituted for a part of the cottonseed meal, gains became normal. Legume 
hay serves its highest purpose when combined with such carbonaceous 
concentrates as corn, kafir, and milo. Where cottonseed meal is the chief 
concentrate leguminous roughages should be fed in limited amount, at 
most, along with such carbohydrate-rich roughages as forage from corn 
or the sorghums, or cottonseed hulls. 

764. Clover hay. — The value of this standard roughage of the eastern 
corn belt compared with timothy hay, when both are fed with corn, is 
shown in the following table. This summarizes the results of a 180-day 
trial by Skinner and Cochel at the Indiana Station 02 and a 105-day trial 
by Waters at the Missouri Station, 63 both with 2-yr.-old steers : 

Clover hay and shelled corn compared with timothy hay and shelled corn 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Corn Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Clover hay, 9.8 lbs. Shelled corn, 21.5 lbs. ... 2.4 919 416 

Lot II, Timothy hay, 6.4 lbs. Shelled corn, 18.8 lbs .... 1 .8 1,086 380 

' u Mo. Bui. 76. '"Tex. Bui. 76. ,3 Mo. Bui. 76. 

-Nebr. Bui. 116. " 2 Ind. Bui. 129. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 469 

In both trials the clover-fed lot ate more grain and roughage than 
Lot II, fed timothy, and made larger and more economical gains, requir- 
ing about 15.4 per ct. less corn for a given increase. Skinner and Cochel 
report that thruout the experiment the clover-fed steers were in better 
condition, had better appetites, and were more regular feeders. The 
timothy-fed steers were irregular in their appetites, and even when eat- 
ing a full feed seemed unsatisfied. At the close of the 6-months feeding 
period the average weight of the clover-fed steers was 1,373 lbs., and 
thai of the timothy-fed steers 1,281 lbs. Waters found that corn was 
worth about 8 cents per bushel more when fed with clover or cowpea 
hay to fattening steers than when fed with timothy hay. (312, 347) 

765. Clover vs. alfalfa hay. — In 2 trials at the Indiana Station 04 
Skinner and King compared the value of clover and alfalfa hay when 
fed either with shelled corn and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 
1,000 lbs. live weight or with the same feeds and an unlimited amount 
of corn silage. When fed without silage, clover haj^ made slightly 
larger gains and with slightly less feed per 100 lbs. gain than alfalfa 
hay. With corn silage, the results were reversed. We may therefore 
conclude that these hays have about equal value when fed in such 
rations. It should be pointed out, however, that all of these rations con- 
tained sufficient cottonseed meal to balance the ration fairly well without 
the legume hay. Since alfalfa hay is considerably richer than clover hay 
in protein, it is reasonable to hold that it is more efficient than clover in 
balancing a ration deficient in this nutrient. This view is substantiated 
in a trial by Wilson at the South Dakota Station 05 in which yearling 
steers fed only alfalfa hay and corn silage during the first 91 days of 
the fattening period gained 2.5 lbs. per head daily, while others fed 
clover hay and silage gained only 2.3 lbs. and required more feed per 
100 lbs. of gain. 

766. Alfalfa hay as a nitrogenous supplement. — The value of alfalfa 
hay as a supplement to rations low in protein is shown in a series of 5 
trials by Bliss at the Nebraska Station. 66 Yearlings or 2-yr.-old steers 
were fed rations of corn and carbonaceous roughage (prairie hay, corn 
stover, or corn silage) to which were added quantities of alfalfa hay, 
linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and cold-pressed cottonseed cake, supply- 
ing approximately equal amounts of protein. In these trials the lots fed 
alfalfa hay as the sole nitrogenous supplement made, on the average, 
the largest gains and reached the best finish, a fact of great importance 
to the corn-belt farmer who can grow this legume. (339) 

767. Alfalfa with and without silage. — The results of 4 trials in which 
a ration of alfalfa hay and corn has been compared with one of alfalfa 
hay, corn silage, and corn are summarized in the following table. In 
these trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 945 lbs. were fed for periods rang- 
ing from 150 to 157 days. 

n4 Ind. Bui. 178: information to the authors. M Nebr. Buls. 100, 116, 132. 

• !5 S. D. Bui. 160. 



470 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Alfalfa with and without silage for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Corn Hay Silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, total of 30 steers* 

Alfalfa hay, 8.3 lbs. Corn, 16.4 lbs.f .... 2 .1 770 391 

Lot IT, total of 49 steers* 

Alfalfa bay, 3.9 lbs. 

Corn silage, 20.6 lbs. Corn, 14.7 lbs.f ... 1 .9 761 200 1,070 

*Average of 2 trials by Bliss and Lee (Nebr. Bui. 151), 1 by Lee at the Nebr. Station (Information to 
the authors), and 1 by Rusk at the 111. Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041). 
t Broken ear corn fed in Illinois trial reduced to shelled corn equivalent. 

The addition of corn silage to the excellent ration of alfalfa hay and 
corn decreased rather than increased the gains. We might suppose that 
this was due to Lot II not eating sufficient alfalfa to balance their ration. 
However, at both the Nebraska and the Illinois Stations adding cotton- 
seed meal or cake to the ration fed Lot II, brought no larger gains. 
The relative economy of the rations fed Lot I and Lot II will depend 
on the cost of alfalfa and silage. In the Nebraska trials the cheaper 
gains were produced without silage. On the other hand, Rusk concludes 
that in Illinois the larger the proportion of silage to alfalfa, the cheaper 
will be the gain. 

768. Fattening cattle on alfalfa and other roughage. — In some sections 
of the West where alfalfa is abundant and the market does not pay a 
higher price for a well finished animal than for one in only fair flesh, 
cattle are fed on alfalfa alone or alfalfa and other roughages without 
concentrates, when they are not marketed directly from the range. To 
determine whether it would be profitable to feed a limited allowance 
of corn in addition to alfalfa, either thruout the feeding period or for the 
last part only, Simpson fed yearling range steers as shown below for 90 
days at the New Mexico Station. 67 

Alfalfa alone, vs. alfalfa and corn stover, vs. alfalfa and corn 

Daily Feed cost per 

gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Dollars 

Alfalfa alone 1 .84 3 .92 

Alfalfa plus corn stover 1 .17 4 .01 

Alfalfa plus 8 lbs. corn meal per day 2 .58 7 .33 

Alfalfa plus corn during last 30 days 2 .06 5 .55 

The steers fed alfalfa alone made larger gains than those fed alfalfa 
and corn stover, and were in much better condition at the end of the 
trial. Those fed corn, either thruout the trial or during only the last 
month made better gains than those feci hay alone, but under New 
Mexico conditions the gains were much more expensive, with corn at 
$35 and alfalfa hay at $10 per ton. In a trial by Vernon and Scott 
at the same Station 68 2-yr.-old range steers averaging 550 lbs. gained 1.7 

eT N. Mex. Rpt. 21, p. 32. M N. Mex. Bui. 57. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 471 

lbs. per head daily on alfalfa hay alone, making a total gain of 205 lbs. 
per steer, and requiring only 1,100 lbs. of alfalfa hay per 100 lbs. of 
gain. This shows the marked economy of alfalfa for feeding steers for 
the local markets in the western alfalfa districts. 

True and McConnell of the Arizona Station, 69 after 6 feeding trials, 
conclude that, where no concentrates are fed, alfalfa hay alone is about 
equal in feeding value to alfalfa hay combined with such carbonaceous 
roughages as corn, kafir, and sweet sorghum. Where water is abundant 
alfalfa hay is cheaper than the other roughages, but where it is in scant 
supply or the soil is excessively alkaline, kafir and the sweet sorghums 
form economical roughages in combination with alfalfa. 

769. Sweet clover hay; cowpea hay. — When fed with corn silage and 
without concentrates to yearling steers during the first 91 days of fat- 
tening, Wilson of the South Dakota Station 70 found sweet clover hay 
practically equal to alfalfa hay. The steers in both lots made average 
daily gains of over 2.4 lbs. Some difficulty was experienced in getting 
the steers to eat the sweet clover hay until it was run thru a hay 
cutter. (352) 

Waters found cowpea hay fully equal to clover hay when fed with 
shelled corn in a trial at the Missouri Station 71 in which 2-yr.-old steers 
were fed for 105 days, the average daily gain for both lots being 2.7 
lbs. (357) 

770. Grazing cowpeas and corn. — Bennett of the Arkansas Station 72 
sowed cowpeas in a five-acre corn field. In October, after gathering 
the corn, steers were turned into a portion of the field to graze on the 
corn forage and cow r peas, with cotton seed accessible. When one-third 
of the field was grazed off, another portion was set aside, and so on until 
it was all grazed over. Six steers averaging 770 lbs. when turned into 
the field made an average daily gain of 2 lbs. each for 64 days, con- 
suming 250 lbs. of cotton seed in that time, besides corn forage and 
pea vines with pods. Bennett states that allowing for all expenses the 
gains made by the steers cost but $1.60 per 100 lbs. Such practice tends 
to soil improvement as well as cheap meat production. 

771. Corn fodder or shock corn; stover. — It has already been pointed 
out that shock corn is often the most economical way to supply corn to 
fattening steers, especially during the first part of the fattening period. 
(735) As is shown later, fattening cattle fed bright corn fodder with 
legume hay, may make practically as large gains as those fed silage. 
(780) The economy of feeding silage lies in the smaller amount of feed 
required per 100 lbs. gain. (295, 302) 

The value of corn stover when combined with legume hay is shown 
in 2 trials by Smith at the Nebraska Station 73 in which lots of ten 2-yr.- 
old range steers, averaging 957 lbs., were fed the following rations : 

68 Ariz. Bui. 50. "Mo. Bui. 76. 73 Nebr. Buls. 90, 93, 100. 

70 S. D. Bui. 160. "Ark. Rpt 1899. 



472 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Corn stover fed in combination with alfalfa hay to fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration gain Corn Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Trial lasting 84 days 

Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 22.2 lbs. Corn, 9.5 lbs 2.1 460 1,075 

Lot II, Corn stover, 11.2 lbs. 

Alfalfa hay, 11.2 lbs. Corn, 9.6 lbs 2.0 490 1,144 

Trial lasting 168 days 

Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 9.2 lbs. Corn, 18.6 lbs 2.3 814 402 

Lot II, Alfalfa hay, 4.9 lbs. 

Corn stover, 4.9 lbs. Corn, 18.4 lbs 2.4 789 456 

Replacing half the alfalfa hay by corn stover did not affect the rate 
of gain in these trials. Thru thus combining such cheap roughage as 
corn stover with legume hay the cost of beef production may often be 
materially lowered. In these trials there is brought out incidentally 
the interesting fact that the short-fed steers required less than 500 lbs. 
of corn for 100 lbs. of gain, while the long-fed steers, which were of 
course much better fattened, required 800 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of 
gain — 69 per ct. more than the short-fed steers. (715) 

772. Roughages for the plains district. — In the semi-arid districts 
fodder and stover from the sorghums, both sweet sorghum and the grain 
sorghums, are most useful feeds in beef production, when fed with 
legume hay or with a sufficient amount of nitrogenous concentrates to 
balance the ration. At the Hays, Kansas, Station 74 Cochel wintered 
4 lots each of 25 yearling heifers, averaging 667 lbs., on the following 
roughages with 1 lb. of linseed meal per head daily : 

Wintering yearling heifers in western Kansas 

Daily Cost per 

Average roughage allowance gain head daily* 

Lbs. Cents 

7, Kafir stover, 12.9 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs. . . 0.69 5.8 

II, Sorghum stover, 6.6 lbs. Silage. 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs.. 0.67 5.7 

III, Sudan hay, 7.5 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs .67 5.7 

IV, Alfalfa hay, 8.2 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs .66 6 .3 

*Kafir and sorghum stover, S3, Sudan hay, So, damaged alfalfa hay, S6, silage, $3, straw, S0.50, and 
linseed meal, S30.80 per ton. 

These heifers were carried thru the winter, making satisfactory gains 
to put them into condition to make good use of pasture the next sum- 
mer, at a surprisingly low cost. (The figures given include expenses 
for both feed and labor.) The alfalfa hay had been damaged and was 
therefore not marketable. This trial well shows the possibilities in beef 
production, where wise use is made of by-product roughages which 
would be wasted in a system of grain farming. (308) 

773. Cottonseed hulls. — For many years the standard ration for fat- 
tening cattle in the South was cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. 
This combination has been compared with a ration of cottonseed meal 

"'Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915. 







Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Feed cost 


Initial 


Daily 


Cottonseed Hulls or 


of 100 


weight 


gain 


meal silage 


lbs. gain 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. Lbs. 


Dollars 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 473 

and corn silage in 8 trials averaging 110 days, at 4 different stations, 
with the results summarized in the table : 

Cottonseed hulls vs. com silage for fattening steers 

Average ration 

Lot J, total of 121 steers* 
Cottonseed hulls, 25.2 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 6.9 lbs. .. . 924 1.5 466 1,690 12.78 

Lot II, total of 111 steers* 
Corn silage, 42.0 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 6.9 lbs... . 927 1.7 439 2,574 10.72 

♦Average of 4 trials by Curtis (N. C. Buls. 199, 218, 222), 1 by Lloyd (Miss. Station, information to the 
authors), 1 by Smith (S. C. Bui. 169), and 2 by Willson (Tenn. Bui. 104). 

In these trials the steers fed silage usually made slightly larger gains 
than those receiving hulls, but the chief difference was that with a single 
exception the silage-fed lot made by far the cheaper gains. As has 
already been shown (750), the longer the feeding period, the greater 
is the superiority of silage over hulls. In these trials the silage-fed steers 
almost uniformly showed better finish and better handling quality than 
those fed hulls. Willson points out that cottonseed hulls are so success- 
fully fed that there is a tendency on the part of many southern farmers 
to purchase hulls and allow more valuable roughage to waste on the 
farms. 

Willson reports that when 6 lbs. of hulls were given per head daily 
with corn silage to steers fed cottonseed meal, slightly larger gains were 
produced than with corn silage as the sole roughage. On the other hand, 
in 3 trials at the North Carolina Station 75 Curtis found that on the 
average steers fed corn silage as the sole roughage with 7.5 lbs. of 
cottonseed meal per head daily made slightly larger gains than others 
fed corn stover in addition to corn silage and the same allowance of 
cottonseed meal. Whether silage should be fed as the sole roughage 
with cottonseed meal will therefore depend on the price at which dry 
roughages are available. Silage from sweet sorghum or the grain sor- 
ghums is but little inferior to corn silage as a roughage for steers fed 
cottonseed meal. (782) Compared with other dry roughages cottonseed 
hulls are exceedingly well suited to feed with cottonseed meal. Gray 
and Ward™ found in an Alabama trial with 855-lb. steers that when fed 
with cottonseed meal cottonseed hulls produced better gains than a 
combination of Johnson grass hay and cottonseed hulls. Duggar and 
Ward" report that 2-yr.-old steers fed cottonseed meal and hulls made 
larger gains than others fed cottonseed meal with either shredded corn 
stover or cut sorghum hay. At the Texas Station 78 Craig found that 
yearling steers fed cottonseed meal and hulls made nearly as large gains 
as those fed corn-and-cob meal and alfalfa hay. 

"N. C. Bui. 222. "Ala. Bui. 103. 

T0 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 159. re Tex. Bui. 76. 



474 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In a 119-day trial with. 1230-lb. steers at the Kentucky Station 70 Good 
found that slightly larger gains were produced on a ration of 21.3 lbs. 
broken ear corn, 3.5 lbs. cottonseed meal, 4.7 lbs. cottonseed hulls, and 
4.3 lbs. clover hay than when the steers were fed the same feeds and all 
the corn silage they would consume. The silage ration, however, pro- 
duced the cheaper gains, and returned a greater profit. The great 
value and usefulness of corn silage in combination with cottonseed 
meal for fattening cattle, as demonstrated by the experiment stations 
of the South, should greatly stimulate cattle rearing and fattening in 
the cotton belt. 

III. Succulent Feeds 

774. Importance of silage in beef production. — The use of silage is 
fast revolutionizing the feeding of beef cattle, just as it has the feeding 
of milch cows in the leading dairy sections of our country. "Wherever 
either corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these crops, cut when 
well matured, has proven of great value in cheapening the cost of 
beef production. (411) As is shown later (788-90), breeding cows and 
stock cattle may be maintained in winter in good condition on silage 
from well-matured corn or the sorghums, with a limited amount of 
legume hay or a small allowance of such nitrogenous concentrates as 
cottonseed or linseed meal. For growing animals this palatable suc- 
culence can not be excelled, when fed in proper combination with legume 
hay or concentrates rich in protein. (798-9) 

On well-balanced rations in which silage is the chief roughage the 
steer will fatten rapidly and reach a high finish on a moderate allow- 
ance of expensive concentrates. By feeding, during the first stages 
of fattening, only silage and either legume hay or a small allowance of 
some nitrogenous concentrate to balance the ration, the feed cost of 
the gains may usually be still further reduced. At first it was thought 
that silage-fed cattle shrank more in shipment than those finished on 
dry roughage. Trials have now abundantly demonstrated, however, 
that if silage is withheld for the last day or two before shipment and 
dry roughage fed instead, cattle thus fattened will not shrink any more 
than those receiving no silage. 

775. Corn silage. — Silage from well-matured corn, carrying an abund- 
ance of ears, is the best of all silage for beef cattle. (300-4) Such silage 
carries a high proportion of grain and aids materially in reducing the 
amount of concentrates which need be supplied in addition, Many ex- 
perienced cattle feeders prefer silage from corn which is even more 
mature than the stage at which it is usually cut for dairy cattle. When 
the corn is cut when nearly mature, especial care must be taken in tramp- 
ing the silage, or it may mold. To show the good results from feeding 
corn silage there are summarized in the following table the results of 10 
trials where corn silage was added to the already excellent ration of 

'"Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 475 

shelled corn, cottonseed or linseed meal, and clover or alfalfa hay. In 
these trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 1,006 lbs. in weight were fed for an 
average of 162 days. 

Value of corn silage when added to an already excellent ration 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed cost 

. .. Daily Concen- of 100 

Average ration gain trates Hay gilage i bs . gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I, total of 105 steers* 
Legume hay, 10.7 lbs. 
Shelled com, 18.0 lbs. 
Supplement, 2.8 lbs 2 .47 849 435 ... 11 .56 

Lot II, total of 105 steers* 
Corn silage, 23.6 lbs. 
Legume hay, 3.8 lbs. 

Shelled corn, 15.0 lbs. 

Supplement, 2.9 lbs 2 .51 716 152 952 10.18 

*Average of 8 trials by Skinner, Cochel, and King (Ind. Buls. 129, 136, 153, 163, 167, 178, and informa- 
tion to the authors) , 1 by Allison (Mo. Bui. 112) , and 1 by Evvard at the Iowa Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 
1912, p. 1040). 

The steers in Lot II, given a heavy allowance of silage, consumed 
23.6 lbs. per head daily and ate 3 lbs. less corn and 6.9 lbs. less legume 
hay than those in Lot I. The silage ration did not produce appreciably 
larger gains than did legume hay fed as the sole roughage. The prin- 
cipal advantage from feeding silage is shown in the feed required per 
100 lbs. gain and in the feed cost of the gains. The 952 lbs. of silage 
eaten by Lot II per 100 lbs. gain saved 133 lbs. of concentrates and 
283 lbs. of legume hay, or about 16 per ct. of the concentrates and 65 
per ct. of the hay eaten by Lot I. Substituting silage for this amount 
of concentrates and hay reduced the feed cost of the gains $1.38 per 100 
lbs., a sum which would often make the difference between feeding at 
a loss and making a goodly profit. The silage-fed steers were slightly 
better finished on the average and sold for 3 cents more per 100 lbs. 
than those fed no silage. 

776. Feeding a supplement with unlimited silage allowance. — We have 
seen that a ration of corn and legume hay is fairly well balanced and 
that the addition of a nitrogenous concentrate does not greatly increase 
the rate of gain with 2-yr.-old steers. (733) When steers are allowed 
an unlimited allowance of silage in addition to corn and legume hay, 
owing to the great palatability of the silage they will generally eat 
but 3 to 6 lbs. of hay per head daily. To determine whether this small 
amount of clover hay is sufficient to balance the large quantity of corn 
and corn silage consumed, Skinner and Cochel conducted 2 trials at the 
Indiana Station 80 and Allison 1 at the Missouri Station 81 with 2-yr.-old, 
1035-lb. steers fed for an average of 153 days. 

90 Ind. Bui. 129. s, Mo. Bui. 112. 



476 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Adding a nitrogenous supplement to corn, corn silage, and clover hay 



Avertge ration 


Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
Concen- 
trates Hay 
Lbs. Lbs. 


gain 

Silage 
Lbs. 


Feed cost 
of 100 

lbs. gain 
Dollars 


)l I 

Shelled corn, 16.7 lbs. 

Corn silage, 17.0 lbs. 

Clover hay, 4.2 lbs 


2.0 


852 215 


855 


9.05 


nil 

Nitrogenous supplement, 
Shelled corn, 17.3 lbs. 

Corn silage, 17.3 lbs. 

Clover hay, 4.2 lbs. . . . 


2.8 lbs. 

2.8 


722 151 


610 


7.95 



The steers in Lot II, fed 2.8 lbs. of nitrogenous supplement (cotton- 
seed or linseed meal) in addition to shelled corn, corn silage, and 
clover hay, gained 0.8 lb. more per head daily than Lot I, receiving 
no supplement. The feed cost of 100 lbs. gain for Lot II was $1.10 
lower than for Lot I, and furthermore Lot II sold for 30 cents per 100 
lbs. more on account of better finish. The nutritive ratio of the rations 
fed Lot I in these trials was 1 : 9 or wider, while with Lot II it was 1 : 7 
or narrower. These trials hence indicate that for the most rapid 
fattening the 2-yr.-old steer should receive a narrower nutritive ratio 
than 1 : 9. 

There appears to be less advantage in adding a nitrogenous concen- 
trate to a ration of corn, corn silage, and alfalfa hay, doubtless due 
to the richness of this hay in protein. Bliss and Lee have studied 
this problem in 2 trials at the Nebraska Station 82 and Rusk in 1 trial 
at the Illinois Station. 83 In no trial did the addition of a supple- 
ment (cottonseed meal or cold-pressed cake) increase the gains. The 
use of the supplement did, however, result in better finish and a con- 
sequent higher selling price. When a carbonaceous roughage, such as 
prairie or timothy hay, corn or kafir fodder, or straw, is fed with corn 
and corn silage the need of a nitrogenous supplement will be greater 
than when clover hay is used. 

777. Amount of nitrogenous supplement with silage. — To determine 
how much cottonseed meal should be given to 2-yr.-old steers full fed 
on shelled corn, corn silage and clover hay, Skinner and King fed one 
lot of 10 steers 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live 
weight and another lot 1.25 lbs. daily in 2 trials at the Indiana Sta- 
tion, 84 lasting 150 and 160 days. Two similar trials lasting 175 and 
180 days, were conducted 85 to determine whether it was more profitable 
to feed 2.5 or 4.0 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
to steers fed shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw, with the results 
shown in the table : 

62 Nebr. Bui. 151 and information to the authors. ,J Ind. Bui. 153. 

•""Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041. s6 Ind. Buls. 167. 178. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 477 

Amount of cottonseed meal to feed with com and corn silage 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Nutri- 

Daily allowance of cottonseed meal Initial Daily Concen- Dry Q'laea ** ve 

per 1,000 lbs. live weight weight gain trates roughage Blla E e ratio 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

With clover hay and silage 
Lot I 

Cottonseed meal, 2.5 lbs 1,011 2.6 760 261 671 1:6.7 

Lot II 

Cottonseed meal, 1.25 lbs... . 1,004 2.3 792 280 714 1:7.9 

With oat straw and silage 
Lot I 

Cottonseed meal, 2.5 lbs 908 2.5 676 36 1,062 1:7.0 

Lot II 

Cottonseed meal, 4.0 lbs 904 2.4 707 33 1,072 1:5.6 

With corn silage and clover hay for roughage, 1.25 lbs. of cottonseed 
meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight (the ration having a nutritive 
ratio of 1 :7.9) was not sufficient to balance the ration, as is shown 
by the larger and more economical gains of the steers fed 2.5 lbs. (this 
ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:6.7). The second division of the 
table shows that with corn silage and oat straw for roughage, 2.5 lbs. 
of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight (the nutritive ratio 
being 1 :7.0) produced larger and more economical gains than the allow- 
ance of 4 lbs. (the nutritive ratio of the latter ration being 1 : 5.6). The 
steers fed the smaller allowance were also equally well finished at the 
end of the trials. 

778. Silage as the sole roughage. — Whether steers fed silage alone for 
roughage will make as large gains as those supplied some dry roughage 
in addition, is a question of great importance to the cattle feeder. The 
following table summarizes the results of 9 trials, in each of which 
corn silage was fed as the sole roughage with corn and a nitrogenous 
supplement (cottonseed or linseed meal) to one lot of steers, while 
another received the same feeds with legume hay in addition. In these 
trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 942 lbs. were fed for an average of 156 
days. 

Silage as the sole roughage vs. silage and legume hay 

Daily Feed consum ed for 100 lbs. gain F of d l00 S * 

Average ration gain Concentrates Hay Silage lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I, total of 87 steers* 
Corn silage, 29.2 lbs. 
Corn, 13.5 lbs. 
Supplement, 2.7 lbs. 2.24 693 ... 1,283 9.13 

Lot II, total of 87 steers* 

Legume hay, 4.3 lbs. 

Cora silage, 24.3 lbs. 

Com, 13.8 lbs. 

Supplement, 2.7 lbs . 2.36 701 195 1,065 9.87 

*Av. of 5 trials by Skinner, Cochel, and King (Ind. Buls. 136, 153, 163,167), 1 by Allison (Mo. Bui. 112), 
1 by Eward at the Iowa Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1040), 1 by Rusk at the 111. Station (Breeder's 
Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041), and 1 by Tomhave and Hickman (Penn. Bui. 133). 



478 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Lot II, receiving legume hay in addition to corn silage, made slightly 
larger gains than Lot I, which was fed no dry roughage. The addition 
of clover hay to the ration increased the feed cost of 100 lbs. gain by 
$0.74 on the average but resulted in slightly better finish, the steers in 
Lot II selling for 7 cents more per 100 lbs. than those in Lot I. In 
some of the trials the selling price of Lot II was enough higher 
to offset the more expensive gains, and return a greater profit. In 
others, feeding silage as the only roughage was the most economical. 
Where the silage was from corn which had nearly matured and hence 
was high in dry matter, the addition of dry roughage did not always 
increase the gains. 

As steers fed clover hay in addition to corn silage, ate but little hay, 
Skinner and King thought that possibly the benefit from the hay 
lay more in satisfying the appetites of the steers for dry roughage 
than in the nutrients actually supplied. Accordingly, they conducted 
2 trials 86 in which either clover hay or oat straw was fed with corn 
silage, shelled corn, and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 
lbs. live weight. In both trials, tho the steers ate an average of but 
1.5 lbs. oat straw, this seemed to satisfy their desire for dry roughage, 
and they made as large gains, at less cost for feed, and sold for fully 
as high a price as those fed clover hay. It should be pointed out that 
these results would not have been secured had not sufficient cotton- 
seed meal been fed to balance the oat straw, corn silage, and corn 
ration. 

In a trial at the Nebraska Station 87 Bliss and Lee found that adding 
4.0 lbs. of prairie hay per head daily to a ration of corn silage, corn, 
and cold-pressed cottonseed cake, while not increasing the gains of 
2-yr.-old steers, did decrease the feed cost of the gains and result- 
in better finish and greater profit. In a similar trial at the South 
Dakota Station 88 "Wilson secured larger and cheaper gains with yearling 
steers when prairie hay was added to a ration of corn silage, shelled 
corn, and linseed meal. 

These extensive trials teach that steers will usually make larger 
gains and reach a higher finish when fed a small amount of dry rough- 
age in addition to silage. An important fact is that this dry roughage 
may consist of such cheap material as oat straw, rather than the far 
more expensive legume hay, when a nitrogenous concentrate is fed to 
balance the ration. 

779. Restricting concentrates during first stages of fattening. — It has 
already been pointed out that it is often profitable to feed only rough- 
ages during the first few weeks of the fattening period, with 2 or 3 
lbs. of some nitrogenous concentrate, if needed, to balance the ration. 
(716) Especially good results are secured with this system where the 
chief roughage is silage from well-eared corn. At the Kentucky Sta- 
tion in a 159-day trial Good 89 fed a lot of ten 1062-lb. steers receiving 

66 Ind. Buls. 163, 167. 88 S. D. Bui. 137. 

"Nebr. Bui. 151. 80 Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 479 

corn silage and cottonseed hulls for roughage, broken ear corn and 
cottonseed meal, while a second lot, otherwise fed the same, was fed no 
corn for the first 2 months, and thereafter shelled corn. 

Cheapening gains by limiting concentrates during first of 
fattening period 





Feed for 100 lbs. 


gain 


Feed cost 




Daily Concen- 


C seed 


Corn 


of 100 


Average ration 


gain trates 


hulls 


silage 


lbs. gain 




Lbs. Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lot I, corn thruout trial 










Broken ear corn, 13.6 lbs. 










Cottonseed meal, 3.4 lbs. 










Corn silage, 22.6 lbs. 










Cottonseed hulls, 3.7 lbs 


2 .0 866 


188 


1,150 


13.12 


Lot II, no corn for first 2 mo. 










Shelled corn, 7.0 lbs. 










Cottonseed meal, 4.0 lbs. 










Corn silage, 36.3 lbs. 










Cottonseed hulls, 4.3 lbs 


2.4 472 


182 


1,541 


10.43 



In this trial the gains of Lot II, fed no corn during the first 2 
months, were not only considerably cheaper, but also somewhat larger 
than those of Lot I, fed corn from the beginning of the trial. The 
cause of the larger gains of Lot II, which received less corn, is prob- 
ably to be found in the fact that, as has already been mentioned, (736) 
shelled corn gives somewhat better results with corn silage than does 
ear corn. 

780. Silage with small concentrate allowance. — To determine the gain 
made by yearling steers fed corn silage as the sole roughage and only 
a small allowance of concentrates, Wilson 90 fed 3 lots each of four 
648-lb. steers the rations shown in the table for 146 days at the South 
Dakota Station : 

Fattening steers on silage with a small concentrate alloivance 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed 

Daily Coneen- Corn cost of 100 

gain trates silage lbs. gain. 

Average ration Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

/, Linseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 48.3 lbs 2.4 120 1,970 5.86 

II, Cottonseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 41.3 lbs 2.0 150 2,120 6.64 

III, Dried distillers' gr., 3.0 lbs. Silage, 44.0 lbs. . . 2.2 130 2,030 5 .50 
*Linseed meal and cottonseed meal, $32.00; dried distillers' grains, $24.00; and corn silage, $4.00 per ton 

The silage was of poor quality, for it was cut after having been 
thrice frosted and when most of the ears were in the milk stage. 
With only 3 lbs. of concentrates per head daily and this poor silage as 
the sole roughage, these steers made surprisingly good gains. With feeds 
at the high prices indicated the gains were exceedingly cheap. This 
trial shows the possibilities of producing cheap beef thru the use of 
silage and but a small amount of high-grade concentrates. Tho steers 
so fattened may not yield "prime" beef, yearlings such as these will 
furnish meat of a quality which will please all but the most exacting. 
In this trial the steers fed linseed meal made somewhat the largest 
gains and at the close of the trial had the appearance of corn-fed 

30 S. D. Bui. 148. 



480 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

animals. Owing to the low price of dried distillers' grains, the gains 
on this concentrate were the cheapest. 

781. Corn silage vs. shock corn. — Mumford of the Illinois Station 91 
divided a bunch of 50 good, thrifty 8-months-old grade Hereford and 
Shorthorn steer calves, weighing about 500 lbs. each, into 2 lots of 
25 each. During 88 days each lot was fed 2 lbs. of oats per head daily, 
with mixed hay and either corn silage or shock corn from the same 
field, part having been placed in the silo and the remainder cured in 
the shock. The calves were not heavily fed, but merely kept in good 
growing condition, with the results shown in the table : 

Com silage vs. shock corn for wintering steer calves 

Daily Corn forage fed Total gain of 
Average roughage allowance gain Weight Area Steers Pigs 

Lbs. Tons Acres Lbs. Lbs. 

J, Silage, 26.1 lbs. Mixed hay, 4.6 lbs 1.7 28 .8 3.7 3,693 87 

//, Shock corn, 13.2 lbs. Mixed hay, 4.0 lbs 1.4 14 .6 5 .3 3,133 587 

The table shows that the silage-fed calves gained 560 lbs. more than 
those getting shock corn. Lot I consumed 28.8 tons of corn silage, 
grown on 3.7 acres. In the same time Lot II consumed 14.6 tons of 
shock corn, grown on 5.3 acres, or 43 per ct. more area than was re- 
quired to furnish the corn silage. The silage-fed calves in Lot I 
gained 3,693 lbs. and the pigs following them only 87 lbs. The steers 
in Lot II, getting shock corn, gained only 3,133 lbs., but the pigs fol- 
lowing them gained 587 lbs. Combining the gains of calves and pigs, 
the gross returns were practically equal for the 2 lots, but, measured 
by the area of land required, corn silage was 30 per ct. ahead of shock 
corn in feeding value. 

In a 130-day trial at the Missouri Station 92 Allison found that 2-yr.- 
old steers fed corn silage with clover hay, shelled corn, and linseed 
meal made no larger gains than those getting shock corn. However, 
the silage-fed steers required less concentrates for 100 lbs. gain, made 
cheaper gains, and sold for 10 cents more per 100 lbs. Including the 
returns from the pigs following the steers, a ton of dry matter in 
silage had over 50 per ct. greater feeding value than a ton of dry 
matter in shock corn. (302) 

782. Kafir and sorghum silage. — In silage from the sorghums the 
feeder in the semi-arid sections has an admirable substitute for corn 
silage. (309) During each of 3 years Cochel wintered steer calves at 
the Kansas Station 93 on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sorghum, 
with the results shown in the table. In addition to the silage, during 
the first and third years 1 lb. of cottonseed meal was fed per head daily 
and during the second year 1 lb. of corn and 1 lb. of linseed meal. 
Forty-two calves were fed each kind of silage for periods averaging 
107 days. 

91 111. Bui. 73. » 2 Mo. Bui. 112. 
Kan. Bui. 198; Kansas Industrialist, Apr. 18, 1914, May 1, 1915. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 481 

Kafir and sorghum silage compared ivith corn silage 

Daily . Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Silage eaten per head daily gain Concentrates Silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn silage, 26.8 lbs 1.15 113 2,330 

Lot II, Kafir silage, 26.3 lbs 1.25 104 2,104 

Lot III, Sweet sorghum silage, 26.6 lbs 1 .08 127 2,467 

In these trials the different kinds of silage had about the same value, 
kafir being slightly superior to corn, and sweet sorghum ranking lowest. 
Cochel advises growing for silage whichever crop will yield the greatest 
tonnage. 

783. Comparison of silages for the South. — Lloyd of the Mississippi 
Station 94 conducted a 137-day trial with 4 lots, each of 4 to 5 steers 
averaging 1,145 lbs., to compare the values of silage from corn, sweet 
sorghum, cowpeas and Johnson grass, and corn stover. The steers 
in each lot were fed 6.5 lbs. cottonseed meal per head daily, with silage 
as shown in the table : 

Silage from sorghum, cowpeas and Johnson grass, and corn stover 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Silage per head daily gain Meal Silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn silage, 46.1 lbs 1.8 365 2,588 

Lot II, Sweet sorghum silage, 46.1 lbs 1.6 411 2,911 

Lot III, Cowpea and Johnson-grass silage, 46.1 

lbs.. 1.3 495 3,510 

Lot IV, Corn-stover silage, 46.1 lbs 0.7 997 7,070 

Corn silage gave the best results, followed closely by sweet sorghum 
silage. Corn stover silage produced the lowest gains, due to the fact 
that it contained no grain and also because much was refused by the 
steers. 

784. Roots. — Wherever corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these 
crops provides cheaper succulence than do roots. In northern districts 
where root crops flourish but where corn will not mature sufficiently 
for silage, roots are a valuable feed for beef cattle. At the South 
Dakota Station 95 in a 90-day trial Wilson fed lots of 4 yearling steers, 
each averaging 800 lbs., 19.4 lbs. of shelled corn and 1.7 lbs. linseed 
meal per head daily with hay and silage from corn in the dent stage 
or roots, as indicated in the table, to compare the value of these succu- 
lent feeds: 

Roots vs. com silage for fattening steers 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Daily Concen- Prairie Silage 

Allowance per head daily gain trates hay or roots 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn silage, 7.0 lbs. Prairie hay, 

5.8 lbs 2.54 835 227 277 

Lot II, Sugar beets, 6.3 lbs. Prairie hay, 

5.5 lbs 2 .55 823 217 248 

Lot III, Mangels, 9.0 lbs. Prairie hay, 7.4 

lbs 2 .61 813 284 343 

Lot IV, Stock beets, 8.9 lbs. Prairie hay, 

6.1 lbs 2 .39 873 257 374 

04 Information to the authors. M S. D. Bui. 137. 



482 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In this trial when fed in a limited allowance of 6 to 9 lbs. per head 
daily, roots were fully equal, pound for pound, to good corn silage. 
Mangels were more palatable than the other roots and produced the 
largest gains. In 2 trials at the Ontario Agricultural College 00 in 
which a larger allowance of silage or roots was fed than in the fore- 
going trial, Day found that silage had a somewhat higher value, pound 
for pound, than roots, due to the larger percentage of dry matter it 
contains. (365-73) 

785. Sweet potatoes; cassava; Japanese cane. — At the Florida Station 97 
Stockbridge fed 3 lots of 4 steers each averaging 446 lbs. the following 
rations for 70 days to test the value of sweet potatoes and cassava in 
beef production. 

Cassava and sweet potatoes for fattening steers 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration per 1,000 lbs. live weight gain Concentrates Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Sweet potatoes, 35 lbs. 

Pea- vine hay, 10 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs . . 1.8 226 2,541 

Lot II 

Pea-vine hay, 10 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs. . . 2.1 195 2,188 

Lot III 

Crab-grass hay, 20 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 5 lbs. 

Corn meal, 5 lbs 1 .9 517 1,033 

It is shown that cassava and sweet potatoes are satisfactory in beef 
production when combined with pea-vine hay and cottonseed meal. 
The steers fed crab-grass hay required more than twice as much con- 
centrates for 100 lbs. of gain as those in the other lots. Scott of the 
same Station 955 reports that steers fed on corn, velvet beans, and sweet 
potatoes barely maintained their weight, due to the fact that sweet 
potatoes are too laxative when fed without some roughage. "When 
Japanese cane was added to the ration the results were satisfactory. 

In another trial by Scott 99 930-lb. steers fed an average ration of 
21.3 lbs. Japanese cane, 7.3 lbs. corn, and 4.2 lbs. cottonseed meal gained 
1.6 lbs. per head daily for 90 days, requiring 698 lbs. of concentrates 
and 1,298 lbs. of Japanese cane for 100 lbs. gain. 

786. British system of fattening cattle. — The great value of succulence 
in reducing the amount of high-priced concentrates needed to fatten 
cattle is well shown in the extensive compilation by Ingle 100 of all the 
cattle-feeding trials carried on in Great Britain between the years 1835 
and 1908 — 201 in number. From this report the following examples 
are chosen as broadly illustrating the British system of fattening beef 
cattle. 

M Ont. Agr. Col. Rpts. 1901, 1902. 

^Fla. Rpt. 1901. M Fla. Rpt. 1909. "Fla. Rpt. 1912. 

100 Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. of Scotland, 1909. 



FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 483 

Rations used by British farmers in beef production 

Initial Daily Total gain 

Average ration No. weight gain per head 

fed Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Shorthorns, 2 to 5 years old, fed 98 days 

Swedes, 171 lbs. Linseed cake, 2.4 lbs. 

Straw, 14 lbs. Corn meal, 2.0 lbs. .. .• 4 1,305.0 3.0 292 

Irish yearlings, fed 112 days 

Turnips, 50 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 3.6 lbs. 

Oat straw, 8.4 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5.8 lbs. 10 942.2 1.3 149 

Irish 2-yr,-olds, fed 133 days 

Roots, 112.0 lbs. 

Hay and straw, 8.0 lbs- Linseed cake, 8.7 lbs. 4 1,030 .4 2.1 280 

Aberdeen-Angus, fed 112 days 

Mangels, 108.8 lbs. 

Oat straw, 8.0 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 3.0 lbs. . 6 947 .6 1 .9 211 

Galloways, 2 to 3 years old, fed 100 days 

Swedes, 150.0 lbs. 

Oat straw, 7.0 lbs. No concentrates 3 933.0 1 .4 143 

Irish 3-yr.-olds, fed 8S days 

Pasture Cottonseed cake, 2.8 lbs. 

Corn meal, 2.8 lbs 10 876 .2 3.7 322 

Shorthorn S-yr.-olds, fed 123 days 

Swedes, 40.5 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 5.0 lbs. 

Hay, 16.2 lbs. Linseed cake, 3.0 lbs. 

Barley, 1.0 1b 8 1,178.4 2.4 294 

The American cattle feeder who critically reviews the data given 
will be impressed first of all with the surprisingly small amount of 
concentrates employed in the ration. In the 201 trials presented by 
Ingle the largest amount of concentrates fed per head daily to any lot 
was 13 lbs. In a few cases no concentrates were fed, but usually the 
allowance for each bullock was 6 or 7 lbs. per day. The rich nitroge- 
nous concentrates such as linseed meal, cottonseed meal, dried brew- 
ers' and distillers' grains, and peanut cake are the ones commonly 
employed, followed by barley and corn meal more sparingly used. 
Equally striking is the heavy use of roots, the amount fed ranging 
from 35 lbs. per head daily to above 150 lbs. in extreme cases. The 
light feeding of concentrates and the heavy feeding of roots is accom- 
panied by the large consumption of hay and straw, which the British 
feeder chaffs or cuts, and mixes with the pulped or sliced roots and 
meal before feeding. It will be further observed that the British farmer 
generally feeds quite mature bullocks, and that the feeding period is 
relatively short, ranging from 80 to 120 days. It is probable that the 
cattle are usually in good flesh when the feeding begins. 

In studying these figures we should remember that it was the British 
farmer who originated and developed all the valuable breeds of beef 
cattle now scattered over the globe, and his ability and success in pro- 
ducing beef of high quality is unquestioned. "With the high prices now 
prevailing for concentrates in this country and the ever upward tendency, 
our feeders may wisely adopt a similar system of beef production, em- 
ploying silage from corn and the sorghums instead of the roots which are 
the basis of English feeding. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

RAISING BEEF CATTLE 

I. The Breeding Herd 

In establishing a herd from which to breed animals for beef produc- 
tion the first step should be to select well-bred individuals of the beef 
breeds, having the conformation which betokens off-spring that will make 
economical gains, mature early, and yield carcasses with a large per- 
centage of high-priced cuts of meat. (717-25) Where cows are kept only 
for raising calves for beef, the cost of their keep for an entire year 
must be charged against the fatted steer. In reducing the cost of beef 
production it is therefore essential that the breeding herd be maintained 
as cheaply as possible, yet kept in vigorous breeding condition. 

787. Breeding cows. — Cows kept solely for beef production are com- 
monly grazed on pasture during the growing season, the suckling calves 
running with their dams. Usually the pastures thus utilized will be 
the land least suited to tillage. Where land is high-priced and there is 
but little waste land for grazing, the herd may often be maintained 
most cheaply on limited pasturage supplemented by summer silage. (412) 
Pure water, salt, and shade should always be supplied the herd at 
pasture. 

In winter the herd may be maintained entirely on roughage where 
legume hay is available, or on carbonaceous roughages with enough of 
some such nitrogenous concentrate as cottonseed or linseed meal to 
balance the ration. They should not be allowed to run down in flesh, 
else they will be unable to produce vigorous calves and nourish them 
with a goodly flow of milk. (91, 120) 

The winter feed and care may range from the most intensive system, 
where the herd is fed in barn or shed with the freedom of exercise 
paddocks, to the practice yet followed in some of the grazing districts 
of the West, where the only feed is that furnished by the winter range 
on which the grass has been allowed to grow up and mature. However, 
bitter experience has taught the western stockman that he must provide 
against winter's rigors by having available a supply of feed to supple- 
ment the range. On many farms the herd may glean much of their 
living from aftermath and stalk or stubble fields, thereby materially 
reducing expenses. 

788. Wintering beef cows. — Mumford of the Illinois Station 1 divided 
a lot of 860-lb. grade Angus cows which had suckled their calves the 
previous summer and were thin in flesh into bunches of 10 each and 

'ill. Bui. 111. 

484 



RAISING BEEF CATTLE 485 

fed them the rations shown below during 140 days in winter. Twenty- 
eight per ct. of the corn silage and 54 per ct. of the shock corn con- 
sisted of ears. 



Wintering breeding cows on silage and shock com 

Daily Av. gain 

;ain per he 
libs. Lbs. 



Average ration gain per head 

Lb 



Lot I 

Corn silage, 16.7 lbs. 

Oat straw, 9.6 lbs. Clover hay, 3.5 lbs 1.1 150 

Lot II 

Shock corn, 8.7 lbs. 

Oat straw, 10.8 lbs. Clover hay, 3.5 lbs 0.8 106 

Lot III 

Corn stover (42 days), 21.7 lbs. 

Shredded stover (98 days), 10.3 lbs. 

Oat straw, 8.2 lbs. Clover hay, 1.6 lbs 0.4 58 

At the close of the trial the cows in Lot III, fed only 1.6 lbs. of clover 
hay, were in poor condition, having made but small gain. The cows 
of Lots I and II, which had made good gains, appeared about the same 
until after calving, when those in Lot I, which had been fed silage, 
were in decidedly superior form. It required the feed grown on one- 
third of an acre to support a cow making fair gains for 140 days with 
Lots I and II, and that from one-fifth of an acre to little more than 
maintain a cow of Lot III. 

789. Wintering beef cows on silage and cottonseed meal. — During 3 
winters Cochel, Tomhave, and Severson maintained one lot of 10 pure- 
bred Shorthorn cows and another of Aberdeen- Angus cows at the Penn- 
sylvania Station 2 on silage as the sole roughage with 1 lb. of cottonseed 
meal per head daily. Both, lots were kept in an open shed or a barn 
open on one side, with access to an adjacent lot. The results of the 
trials, which averaged 155 days, are shown in the following table : 

Wintering beef cows on silage and cottonseed meal 

Initial Gain per Feed cost Total cost Value of Net cost 

Average ration weight head per head per head manure per head 

Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars 

Lot I, Shorthorns 
Corn silage, 58.8 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 1.01b. 1,180 51 18.28 26.47 7.33 19.14 

Lot II, Angus 

Corn silage, 57.8 lbs. 

Cottonseed meal, 1.01b. 1,143 47 18.05 26.24 7.33 18.91 

The cows in both lots were maintained in satisfactory condition on 
all the silage they would eat, with only 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head 
daily, even tho several were suckling calves during the winter. With 
corn silage at $3.50 and cottonseed meal at $30.00 per ton, the feed-cost 
of wintering the cows was $18.28 and $18.05. Including the straw used 
for bedding (1,088 lbs. per cow at $8 per ton), $2.34 per cow for labor, 
and $1.50 per cow for interest on shed and silo, the total gross cost per 

-Penn. Bui. 118; Rpt. 1913; and information to the authors. 



486 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

cow was $26.47 and $26.24, respectively, for the 2 lots. Deducting the 
value of the' manure at $1.50 per ton, the net cost of wintering the cows 
was about $19 per head. 

During the remainder of the year the cows, with the calves at their 
sides, grazed a pasture so rough that it washed badly when in tilled crops. 
Allowing 2 acres of pasture per cow, the average yearly cost of main- 
taining the cows, including labor, was as follows: Cost of wintering, 
$19.02 ; cost of pasturing, $7.36 ; interest on value of cow, $5.40 ; service 
of sire, $2.00 ; total $33.78. "With 80 per ct. of the cows raising calves 
each year, a calf at weaning time would cost $42.22. 

790. Plains rations for wintering cows. — In a 100-day trial at the 
Hays, Kansas, Branch Station, 3 Cochel wintered 4 lots, each of nine- 
teen 905-lb. cows, on the roughages shown in the table with 1 lb. of 
cottonseed meal per head daily in addition : 

Rations for wintering cows in the plains district 

Daily Feed cost 

Average roughage allowance gain per head* 

Lbs. Dollars 

I, Kafir silage, 35.6 lbs. Wheat straw, 14.2 lbs 1 .34 6 .30 

II, Kafir silage, 20.0 lbs. Wheat straw, 17.2 lbs .56 4 .44 

III, Kafir fodder, 27.2 lbs. Wheat straw, 10.3 lbs .50 9 .91 

IV, Kafir stover, 25.6 lbs. Wheat straw, 10.8 lbs .35 5 .61 

* Kafir silage $2.66, kafir fodder $5.00, kafir stover $3.00, wheat straw SO. 50, and cottonseed meal 
$30.00 per ton. 

Lot I, fed 35.6 lbs. kafir silage, 14.2 lbs. wheat straw, and 1.0 lb. 
cottonseed meal per head daily, made the largest gains, but at a greater 
cost than Lot II, where the silage allowance was only 20.0 lbs. Kafir 
silage not only carried the cows thru the winter in better condition than 
kafir fodder, but was also easier to feed. The advantage of ensiling the 
sorghum crop is shown by the fact that Lot II, fed kafir silage, con- 
sumed the crop from only half as large an area of kafir as Lot III, fed 
kafir fodder, and yet made as large gains. That fair results may be 
secured when only low-grade roughages are used with 1 lb. of cotton- 
seed meal per head daily is shown by Lot IV. In another trial Cochel 4 
found that when cows were wintered on a ration of 12.1 lbs. kafir stover, 
14.1 lbs. wheat straw, 5.4 lbs. kafir silage, and 1 lb. of cottonseed cake, 
the cost of feed per cow for 136 days was $5.70 and of labor, $1.94, 
making a total of $7.64, from which should be deducted the value of the 
manure produced. 

791. The beef bull. — On the range the bulls run with the cows, but 
under farm conditions it is best to confine the bull during the summer, 
preferably in a well-fenced pasture lot. It will then be possible to keep 
a record of the date when the cows are due to calve, and the bull so 
handled can serve a larger number of cows a year. The same general 
principles apply to the feed and care of the beef bull as with the dairy 
bull, which have already been discussed. (708) As Mumford writes, 5 

3 Kan. Bui. 198. "Information to the authors. s Beef Production, p. 165. 



RAISING BEEF CATTLE 487 

' ' He should be kept in good, thrifty condition, and if it is found that he 
requires an abnormal amount of feed to maintain this condition, in 
other words, that the bull is a 'hard keeper', he is not well calculated 
to sire cattle, possessing good feeding qualities, and should be replaced. ' ' 



II. Raising Calves for Beep; Veal Production 

792. The beef calf. — Under the simplest method of beef production, 
as on the range, the calves are dropped in the spring and run with their 
dams during the summer. Under farm conditions some prefer to allow 
the calves to suck only at stated intervals, 3 times a day at first, and 
later twice. 

Where the calf remains with the dam her udder should, for a time, 
be stripped night and morning lest neglect bring garget and destroy 
her usefulness. If the calf is getting too much milk, as shown by 
scouring, cut off part, remembering that the last drawn portion is the 
richest in fat, and that richness as well as quantity causes digestive 
troubles. (117) The greatest danger under this system comes at wean- 
ing time, when, if the calf has not been taught to eat solid food, it pines 
and loses weight. To avoid this, before weaning it should be taught to 
eat shelled corn, whole oats, wheat bran, linseed meal, hay, etc. The 
first departure from this simple and primitive method is putting two 
calves with each cow, which is feasible where the cow yields a good 
flow of milk. 

Suckling calves should gain 2 lbs., or over, per head daily if their 
dams give a good flow of milk. At the Pennsylvania Station 6 Hunt 
fed 3 calves whole milk containing 4.6 per ct. of fat for 161 days. They 
gained 1.77 lbs. each daily, requiring 8.8 lbs. of whole milk, and 1 lb. 
of hay and 1 lb. of grain for each pound of growth. Martiny 7 found 
that from 3.5 to 6 lbs. of new milk was sufficient to produce a pound of 
gain, live weight, with calves between the first and fifth weeks, while 
older ones required from 16 to 20 lbs. Linfield of the Utah Station 8 
found that up to 14 weeks of age the calf takes less dry matter than the 
pig for 1 lb. of gain, and after that more, possibly because of the greater 
amount of roughage then used in the ration. Beach of the Connecticut 
(Storrs) Station 9 found that calves required 1.03 lbs., lambs 1.08 lbs., 
and pigs 1.36 lbs. of dry matter in whole milk for each pound of gain 
made. (117) 

"While in some districts it is still best to rear the beef calf on whole 
milk from dam or pail, over large sections of the country it is now more 
profitable to sell the fat of the milk in butter or cream and rear the 
calf on skim milk with proper supplements. This method involves in- 
creased labor, skill, and watchfulness on the part of the feeder, but its 
success has been widely demonstrated. The method to be employed is 

6 Penn. Rpt. 1891. s Utah Bui. 57. 

7 Die Milch. 2, 1871, pp. 9-15. 9 Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904. p. 118. 



488 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

not different from that already detailed for the rearing of the dairy 
calf, (678-94) except that the beef calf should be forced to more rapid 
gains thru more liberal feeding. 

Calves that fail to thrive when sucking the cow or when fed on rich 
milk should have their allowance reduced or should be given part skim 
milk. Lime water or wood ashes may possibly prove correctives in cases 
of trouble from this source. (117) The lime water used in such cases 
is made by dropping a lump of unslaked lime into a jug filled with water 
and keeping the jug corked. A tablespoonful or more of lime water 
should be given with each feed. 

After weaning, growth should be continuous. If the calves are not at 
pasture, they should be fed plenty of good roughage, with sufficient 
concentrates to produce the desired gains. As has been shown in the 
discussion of raising dairy heifers (117), for young beef cattle nothing 
excels good legume hay, rich in protein and bone-building mineral 
matter. Where this is not available nitrogenous concentrates should 
balance the ration. 

The majority of beef producers prefer to have calves dropped in the 
spring, as the cows may then be wintered more cheaply, with less shelter, 
and less care. Mumford 10 points out that fall calves not fattened as 
baby beef must be carried thru 2 winters, while spring calves may be 
sold at the age of 18 to 20 months, after but 1 winter. Some, however, 
prefer fall calving, reasoning that the cow is in better condition to de- 
liver her calf after the summer on pasture and the fall calf is better 
able to handle grass, and endure the heat and flies the following season. 

793. Veal production. — For the highest grade of veal whole milk is the 
sole feed allowed, and growth must be pushed as rapidly as possible, the 
whole process being completed before there is any tendency in the flesh 
to take on the coarser character of beef. Such veal commands a high 
price in some of the European markets, and the butchers are extremely 
expert in judging whether the calf has received any other feed than 
whole milk. Only when whole milk has been used exclusively, is the 
white of the eye of the veal calf free from any yellow tint, and the 
insides of the eyelids, lips, and nose perfectly white. In this country 
veal of this kind can be profitably produced only for a special market. 
A less expensive method of producing veal is to feed a limited amount 
of whole milk supplemented by grain, or skim milk may be gradually 
substituted, as with dairy calves. (687-8) With the latter method, con- 
siderable skill is necessary to feed the calves so they will gain rapidly 
without going off feed. 

794. Dutch veal. — In Holland, where unusually heavy, well-fatted 
calves are a specialty, the following practices are common, according to 
Forssell :" The new-born calf is placed in a stall 6.5 ft. long by 1.6 ft, 
broad and about 5 ft. high, the stall being so narrow that it cannot turn 
around, tho it can lie and stand comfortably. The floor of the stall is 

10 Beef Production, p. 166. "Fodret och Utfodringen, 1893, p. 155. 



RAISING BEEF CATTLE 489 

of slats or perforated boards, and is littered daily so that the animal 
has a perfectly dry berth. The calf barn is kept dark. Two or 3 times 
daily the calves get as much milk as they will drink, and during the first 
14 days only the dam's milk is fed. Eggs or other by-feeds are not 
t given. The calf consumes on the average about 34 lbs. of whole milk daily 
for the whole fattening period of 10 to 12 weeks, at the end of which 
time the veal is considered to be at its best. To prevent the calves from 
eating feed other than milk, they are muzzled if straw or other roughage 
is used for bedding. Finely-ground shells and sand are given to prevent 
scouring. The dressed weight ranges from 187 to 220 lbs., or, according 
to Rost, 12 from 220 to 330 lbs. One lb. of gain is made in the beginning 
from 8 lbs. of milk and toward the close from 12 lbs., the average being 
10 lbs. 13 The fat calf dresses from 55 to 60 per ct. of its live weight. 

795. Scotch veal. — At Strathaven, Scotland, a region noted for the 
excellence of its veal, 14 the youngest calves receive the first drawn milk 
and the older ones the last and richer portion. Thus one calf is often 
fed portions of milk from 2 or 3 cows. After the third week they receive 
as much milk twice a day as they will take. Following feeding they are 
bedded, the stable being kept rather warm and dark. Lumps of chalk 
are placed where the calves have access to them. The fattening period 
continues from 5 to 7 weeks, when a dressed weight of 100 to 120 lbs. is 
secured. 

In the vicinity of London veal calves fed for about 10 weeks in isolated 
pens, as in Holland, ordinarily dress 140 lbs. 



III. Growing Beep Cattle 

796. Slimmer care. — Except where calves are being fattened for baby 
beef (820), growing beef cattle are not ordinarily given any feed in 
addition to good pasture. When necessary to keep the animals growing, 
additional feed should be supplied, such as summer silage, soiling crops, 
or specially grown pasture crops. Considerable fall pasturage is fur- 
nished by aftermath on meadows or by the stubble fields, especially where 
a small amount of rape seed is sown with the spring grain. 

797. Wintering* growing cattle. — The ration needed to carry grow- 
ing cattle thru the winter in good condition will depend on their age, 
and on whether it is desired to have them make substantial gains or 
merely come thru the winter in thrifty condition to make maximum gains 
on pasture the following summer. While yearlings and 2-yr.-olds may 
be wintered on roughage only, for calves 1 to 3 lbs. of concentrates per 
head daily will be needed in addition, for it is important to keep the calf 
growing steadily, enlarging its framework but not laying on fat. Where 
cattle are to be grazed the third summer without fattening, the effort 
should be to grow as large a framework as possible the second winter, 

u Molk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547. 14 Molk. Zeit., 1894, p. 547. 

ir Kraft, Landwirtschaft, 3, p. 163. 



490 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

leaving the animal thin but thrifty. Mumford writes: 15 "The more 
cattle gain on concentrated feeds in winter the less they will gain on 
grass in summer. That is to say, if corn is fed liberally during the 
winter months the cattle will not make as large gains when turned to 
grass as they would were they wintered on roughage, and not the best 
roughage at that. ' ' 

"Where cattle are to be fattened on pasture the summer following the 
second winter, a reasonable storage of fat toward the close of winter 
and in early spring will helpfully shorten the summer feeding period. 
In such cases excellent feeds for the last of winter and early spring are 
legume hay and silage rich in ear corn. These, with a moderate grain 
allowance, will warm the animals up, start fattening, and send them to 
grass in prime condition to make the most of the heavy feeding of grain 
which follows. Calves are not able to utilize such coarse roughages as 
older cattle will consume. 

At the North Platte, Nebraska, Station 10 Snyder conducted 2 trials 
in which lots of 18 and 20 steer calves, respectively, were wintered on 
the roughages shown in the table with 2 lbs. per head daily in addition 
of a mixture of 2 parts corn and 1 part oats. The following and the 
second summers all lots ran on a canyon pasture. The second winter the 
steers were fed roughage alone. 

Average daily gains of steers fed various roughages during winter 

First year Second year 

Hay or fodder fed during winter Winter Summer Winter Summer 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Alfalfa 1.08 1.07 0.72 0.57 

Alfalfa and prairie .99 .93 .70 .55 

Alfalfa and sorghum 1 .05 .94 .87 .49 

Prairie 0.46 1.22 0.20 1.21 

Sorghum 0.41 1.19 0.42 0.92 

In all instances the steers fed prairie hay or sorghum fodder made 
much smaller winter gains than those fed alfalfa hay. When half al- 
falfa hay and half prairie hay or sorghum fodder was fed, the gains were 
about as large as when only alfalfa was fed. The steers that made the 
best winter gains made smaller gains the following summer, but the 
total gains for the entire year were larger for the lots fed some alfalfa. 
Trials by Cochel at the Kansas Station show that calves may be 
wintered satisfactorily on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sorghum, with 
1 lb. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daily in addition. (782) 
The manner in which cheap roughages may be largely utilized even in 
wintering calves, when combined with silage, is shown in a 144-day trial 
by Cochel 17 in which 30 calves fed a ration of 3.3 lbs. wheat straw, 2.3 
lbs. corn stover, 2.9 lbs. foxtail and damaged alfalfa hay, 6.8 lbs. kafir 
silage, and 0.8 lb. of a concentrate mixture, gained 41.8 lbs. each at a 
daily feed cost of 3.3 cents per head. The total gross cost of wintering 

"Beef Production, p. 46. "Information to the authors. 

"Nebr. Buls. 105, 117. 



RAISING BEEF CATTLE 491 

the calves was only $5.72 per bead, from which should be deducted the 
value of the manure. 

798. Wintering yearlings without grain. — At the Missouri Station 18 
during each of 4 winters Waters fed lots of 4 or 5 high-grade yearling 
Hereford and Shorthorn steers each for periods of 49 to 92 days. These 
steers, rather thin in flesh and averaging about 725 lbs. in weight, were 
fed the following roughages of medium quality, without grain, with the 
results shown below: 

Roughages for wintering yearling steers without grain 

Roughage Av. daily 
Average roughage allowance refused gain or loss 

Per ct. Lbs. 

Lot I, Timothy hay, 17.6 lbs.* 16 .3 +0.31 

Lot II, Whole com stover, 31.3 lbs.* 40 .8 -0 .18 

Lot III, Shredded corn stover, 23.6 lbs.f 35 .8 -0 .14 

Lot IV, Ensiled corn stover, 47.4 lbs.f 4.6 +0 .58 

Lot V, Corn stover, 13.6 lbs., clover hay, 13.6 lbs.f 27 .0 +0.44 

* Four trials. t Two trials. 

It is shown that yearling steers in thin condition made only a small 
gain when wintered on timothy hay alone. Those fed whole or shredded 
field-cured corn stover lost in weight, while on ensiled stover, or stover 
and clover hay there were substantial gains. 

Skinner and Cochel 19 in a survey of Indiana cattle feeding found 
that only about one-fourth of the feeders from whom replies were re- 
ceived fed grain in any form to stockers being carried thru the winter, 
and of these the majority fed grain late in the spring just previous to 
turning on grass. 

799. Wintering yearlings with a limited grain allowance. — During 4 
winters Waters 20 compared various roughages when fed without limit 
to yearling steers with a limited allowance of shelled corn. Lots of 
4 steers each, similar to those fed in the preceding trials and averaging 
about 750 lbs. in weight, were fed the rations given in the following 
table for periods of 66 to 120 days : 

Roughages for wintering steers getting a limited grain allowance 

Corn fed Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average roughage allowance per day gain or loss Cirn Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Whole corn stover, 29.3 lbs.* 3.8 -0 .32 

Com stover, 11.0 lbs., clover hay, 10.9 lbs.f 5.3 1.37 400 1,754 

Clover hay, 19.0 lbs.f 6.0 1.97 305 966 

Timothy hay, 16.6 lbs.f 5.3 1.01 552 1,815 

Cowpea hay, 19.0 lbs.f 5.5 1.42 362 1,343 

Alfalfa hay, 17.3 lbs.* 6.0 1 .63 368 1,061 

Millet hav, 13.1 lbs.* 6.0 0.37 1,613 3,516 

Sorghum hay, 25 8 lbs.f 6.0 .91 809 2,921 

* One trial. t Two trials. % Three trials. 

The steers fed whole corn stover with an allowance of 3.8 lbs. of 

shelled corn per day lost 0.32 lb. each daily. Those fed equal parts of 

^Mo. Bui. 75. 19 Ind. Cir. 12. w Mo. Bui. 76. 



492 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

stover and clover hay gained 1.37 lbs. each daily, requiring only 400 lbs. 
of corn and 1,754 lbs. of roughage for 100 lbs. of gain. Waters points 
out that stover serves best when combined with a limited quantity of 
clover or other leguminous hay, a point of great importance. The steers 
fed clover hay made nearly twice as large and far more economical 
gains than those fed timothy hay, another fact of great value to the 
feeder. Alfalfa hay proved about equal to clover hay, and cowpea hay 
of slightly lower value. Millet and sorghum hay made a poor showing 
when fed with shelled corn. 

"Waters concludes : ' ' One ton of timothy hay is worth as much as 3 tons 
of whole corn stover when each is the sole feed. (622) Shredding corn 
stover did not enhance its feeding value, and nearly as great waste 
occurred as with whole corn stover." While the steers fed whole, or 
shredded field-cured corn stover did not maintain their weight, those 
fed silage made from corn cut at the same time and from which all the 
ears had been removed made small daily gains. More dry matter was 
given in the stover, but a large part was left uneaten, while nearly all 
the silage was consumed. 

At the Tennessee Station 21 Willson fed 3 lots each of 5 steers and a 
fourth of 13 steers the rations shown in the following table for 133 days 
during the winter: 

Silage, straw, or cottonseed hulls for wintering stockers 

Average gain per head p ee( j cosfc of 
Average winter ration Winter Summer Total wintering 

Lbs. 

I, Silage, 30.2 lbs -48 

II, Straw, 13.6 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 1 lb 21 

III, Straw, 14.4 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. ... 62 

IV, C'seed hulls, 13.7 lbs. C'seed meal, 3 lbs. . -11 

The steers fed corn silage alone failed to maintain their weight, while 
those fed straw (half oat and half wheat) with 1 to 2 lbs. of cottonseed 
meal per head daily made small gains in weight. In this trial straw 
was superior to cottonseed hulls. 

In another trial steers wintered on silage alone gained only 16.4 lbs. 
each, while others fed 1 lb. cottonseed meal per head daily in addition 
gained 109.6 lbs. Steers fed corn stover and 1 lb. of cottonseed meal 
gained 62.6 lbs. each. Willson concludes that corn stover or straw, with 
1 to 2 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily, makes a satisfactory ration 
for wintering stocker steers that are to be grazed during the following 
summer and finished for the block the next winter. The larger the 
winter gain, the smaller was the summer gain generally, tho where the 
steers made no gains during the winter or lost in weight they made 
smaller total gains during the year than those which had gained 80 to 
100 lbs. during the winter. 

^Information to the authors. 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Dollars 


292 


244 


6.03 


251 


273 


7.06 


237 


299 


9.07 


302 


291 


9.14 



CHAPTER XXIX 

COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 

In an earlier chapter we have learned that the main object of fatten- 
ing is not the accumulation of fatty tissue in the body, but an improve- 
ment in the quality of the lean meat thru the deposition of fat in the 
lean-meat tissues. (121) "When fattening has progressed to this point 
the meat shows the characteristic ' ' marbling ' ' and is of better flavor and 
much more tender and juicy than that from the unfattened animal. 

Fat is concentrated fuel energy stored as surplus in the animal's body 
against the time of need. Impelled by a hearty appetite, under liberal 
feeding the steer at first lays on fat rapidly, storing it everywhere within 
the body — among the fibers of the muscles, within the bones, the body 
cavity, etc. After a few weeks on liberal feed the appetite loses its edge, 
and the steer shows indifference and a daintiness in taking his food not 
at first noticed ; every pound of increase now means the consumption of 
more food than formerly. The fattening process may be likened to 
inflating a collapsed football — the operation, easy and rapid at first, 
grows more and more difficult until the limit is reached. (714) 

The principal indications of a well-fattened animal which the experi- 
enced judge of beef cattle looks for are a fullness at the root of the 
tongue and the base of the tail, a well-filled flank, and a full "twist" 
and "cod," in addition to a smooth, firm covering of fat over the body. 

The increase of the growing animal is largely water, with some protein, 
some fat, and a little mineral matter; the increase of the fattening 
animal on the other hand, is largely fat, with a little water, and a trace 
of protein and ash. It takes far more food for a given increase with the 
fattening than with the growing animal. The laying on of fat calls for 
heavy feeding with rich feed and is always an expensive process. 

800. The ration for fattening. — In the general discussion of the re- 
quirements for fattening, given in Chapter V, we have seen that the 
nutrient requirements of the fattening animal differ materially from the 
requirements for growth. With the mature animal there is compara- 
tively little storage of protein or of mineral matter, as the muscular 
tissues and the skeleton are already grown. The ration may therefore 
have a relatively wide nutritive ratio, but even with a mature animal, 
when the nutritive ratio is wider than 1 : 8 or 1 : 10 the digestibility of 
the ration will be depressed and a waste of feed result. (84) 

In this country most of the beef cattle are now fattened before they 
are full-grown, and the tendency is increasing to shorten still further 
the period before the steer reaches the block. For the fattening of such 

493 



494 FEEDS AND KKMIMNG 

animals sufficient protein must be Furnished to provide for the growth 
in protein I issues which takes place during the fattening period. In 
the preceding chapter it has been pointed out that larger and more 
economical gains wqvq made by 2-yr.-old steers on a ration having a 
nutritive ratio of 1:7.!) than when the ratio was 1:9.0. (776) It has 
further been shown that when the nutritive ratio was 1 -.ru; no Larger 

gains were secured than when i), was 1:7.0. (777) 

Studies made by the authors, of southern feeding trials in which the 
only concentrate used was cottonseed meal, show that exceedingly satis 
factory gains are produced on rations having a nutritive ratio as narrow 

as 1 :3.8 or even narrower. Prom these data, and studies of other trials 

by the authors, it appears that the nutritive ratio of the ration for 
the 2-yr. old fattening steer may range from 1 :3.8 to nearly 1 :8.0 with 
out influencing the results. When the nutritive ratio is L:8.0, slightly 

smaller gains will usually result, than on a narrow ration, hut under 
some conditions a ration having this ratio may be the more economical. 

It is evidenl from this discussion thai the allowance of crude protein 
prescribed in the Wolff Lehmann standard is unnecessarily high, the 

nutritive ratio there advised ranging from 1 :5.4 to 1:6.5. On the other 

hand, at least for the 2-yr.-old steer, which is yet growing, the Kellner 

and Armshy standards prescribe insufficient protein for maximum 
gains. (170, 174) These facts have been taken into consideration in 

the recommendations set forth in the Modified Wolff -Lehmann standards, 
which have already heen discussed. (187-9; Appendix Table V) 

The proportion of concent rales needed in the ration will depend on 
the condition of the cattle when placed on feed, on the rapidity with 
which it is desired to fat ten them, and on the degree of finish which 
the demands Of the market make most profitable. As has heen shown, 

feeders in thin flesh require a Long feeding period, during the first part 
of which the ration may consist Largely of palatable roughage. On the 

other hand, fleshy feeders may he finished in a comparatively short time 

on a more concentrated ration. (716, 779, 780) Hastening the fattening 
naturally means supplying a heavier allowance of concentrates than 

when the period is Lengthened. Where the market does not pay a 

premium for the prime heel' furnished by the highly finished animal, a 

heavy concentrate allowance is not profitable. (768) 

801. Practical rations for fattening cattle. — The reader who wishes to 
I; now the quantity and proportion of the various concentrates and rough- 
ages in well balanced rations tor fattening cattle will find his wants 

adequately me1 in the two preceding chapters, wherein are summarized 

(he principal feeding trials at the different experiment stations, covering 
almost every form of concentrates and roughages. Oul Of the many 
,, resented he should be ahle to find several that approximate his indi 
Vidua! conditions. 

802. Getting cattle on feed. — Mumford 1 recommends that cattle going 

on full \'vcA he given all the clover or alfalfa ha\ they will eat without 
'Beef Production, pp. 49-52. 



COUNSEL IN THE PEED LOT l<j. r > 

waste, in addition, starl with 'i lbs. of corn per steer per day, increasing 
I II). daily until I" lbs. Is Ped. Aiter 3 days increase I lb. daily until 
17 lbs. is fed ; L5 days later let this be increased to 22 lbs. daily. Cattle 
getting from L2 to L5 lbs. <>r corn daily should have about L2 lbs. of 
clover or alfalfa bay per 1,000 lbs. live weight; later only about one 
Pourth of the ration should be roughage. Where the feeding period is 
in cover 6 months, Prom 30 days to <• week:; should elapse before the cattle 

are <»n full Peed, in su<ii cases proportionally re good roughage, 

such as clover or alfalfa, is \'n\. While the animals so managed do not 
make such rapid gains at first, near the close of the Peeding period the 

gains are as large as ever and more ec mneai and satisfactory. As 

shown before (729), Mumford reports success iii using the self-feeder 
in getting steers on full \\'(^\, the grain being mixed with chaffed bay. 
803. Hogs following 1 steers.- The Pollowing is condensed Prom Wafers:'' 
The number of hogs required to utilize the waste per steer will vary 
greatly with the character of the \'rvt\ y the way in which if is prepared, 
ami with fin; size and age of Hie call le being Ped. The range is from 'J to 
.". hogs per steer on snapped corn, L.5 per steer on husked ear corn, about 

1 per steer mi shelled corn, and 1 hog to 2 or '.', sfeers on crushed or 

ground com. 

Whatever Pavors rapid and profitable gains with cattle, other than the 
preparation of the Peed, also favors the gains of the hogs Pollowing. For 
example, hogs make better gains Pollowing corn-fed sfeers getting clover, 

COWpea, Or alfalfa hay Ihan they do when flic rOUghage is timothy, mil 

lei, or sorghum Porage. Likewise Peeding the steers linseed meal benefits 
the hogs that Eollow. M is almost as profitable i<> Peed tankage or linseed 

meal lo hOgS Pollowing cal I le as lo I hose fat lenin;-; din-H I y <>n grain ; I his is 
especially I rue wilh hogS following Cattle Ped Straight COrn vvifh timothy 

or stover for roughage In winter, or with cattle fattening on corn and 
bluegrass or timothy pasture in summer. 

Wafers strongly recommends separate clover or alfalfa, pastures acces 
Bible to hogs Pollowing fattening steers in summer; on these the hogs can 
graze at will after having cleaned up the waste from the cattle, instead 
of Peeding on the steer pasture, lie furl, her recommends providing a 

Held of COWpeaS or soybeans on which Ihe hogS may forage early in fall 

ami so have i his nitrogenous grain together wilh the corn they pick up 
from ihe steers. Any extra grain \'<'<\ should be given to the hogs before 

Ihe cattle are \'t-t\ so fhaf the hogS will not crowd around the I'eed Iroimh:: 
or under the wagon and learn. In the best practice Ihe hogS are fed in a 
nearby pen to keep them from the eat lie while the latter an- Peeding 

Whenever hogs begin to show maturity or fatness they should be sup 
planted by fresh ones, for Pat hogs are unprofitable for Pollowing steers, 
The best hog for Pollowing cattle is of good bone, thin in flesh, weighing 
Prom loo io L50 lbs. If shotes are used they should at least weigh 50 to 

60 lbs. Sows in pig or young pigs Should never be put, in the \'c<-(\ lot,. 

Because of the narrow margin in Pattening cattle, Waters recom 
'Mo, Bui. 76. 



496 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

mends that where it is impossible to provide hogs to follow the steers 
the fattening of the steers be delayed until hogs can follow or be given 
up entirely. This advice does not apply to feeding weanling calves for 
baby beef, because then the grain should be ground and fed with alfalfa, 
clover, cowpea hay, etc., in which case the animals utilize their feed so 
much more closely that hogs are not absolutely necessary. (712, 736) 

804. Frequency of feeding. — According to Mumford, 3 the majority of 
cattle feeders prefer feeding their cattle grain and roughage twice a 
day in winter and grain once a day in summer. Feeding once a day in 
summer is practiced largely as a matter of convenience and not because 
it is believed to be better for the cattle. For the most part the same 
reasons that make it desirable to feed grain twice a day in winter apply 
in summer with equal force. 

805. Water. — Fattening cattle should not only have an abundant 
supply of uncontaminated water at all times, but it should be easily 
accessible. The water for hogs running in the same lot should be separate 
and so set off that the steers cannot have access to it, nor should hogs 
drink from the water troughs of the cattle. While it is best to have 
water before cattle at all times, they readily adapt themselves to tak- 
ing a fill once daily and thrive. The water provision should not be less 
than 10 gallons per day per head for mature cattle. 

Georgeson of the Kansas Station 4 kept a record of the water drunk 
by fattening steers in winter with the following results: 

Water drunk by fattening steers in winter 

Amount of water drunk 

Daily per Per lb. Per lb. 

Feed given steer of gain of feed 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn meal, bran, shorts, oil meal, with hay. . 79 33 2.5 

Lot II, Corn meal, molasses, and corn fodder 73 56 2.4 

Lot III, Oil cake, hay 91 57 3.4 

Lot IV, Ear corn, corn fodder 56 27 1.8 

We note that on the carbohydrate-rich ration of corn and corn fodder 
the steers drank but 1.8 lbs. of water for each pound of feed eaten, 
while on the highly nitrogenous ration of oil cake and hay they drank 
3.4 lbs., or nearly twice as much. (103) 

806. Salt. — Animals fed large quantities of rich nutritious food, such 
as fattening steers receive, show a strong desire for salt, and this crav- 
ing should be reasonably satisfied. Kiihn 5 recommends 1 ounce of salt 
per day for a steer weighing 1,000 lbs. at the beginning of the fattening 
period, 1.3 ounces at the middle, and 1.7 ounces near the close. Whether 
granular or rock salt be supplied is merely a matter of convenience. 
Some give salt once or twice a week, others keep salt before their cattle 
at all times. As in other matters of feeding, habit rules, and a plan once 
adopted should be followed without deviation. 

a Beef Production, pp. 93-4. "Ernahr. d. Rindviehes, 9th ed., p. 325. 

'Kan. Bui. 39. 



COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 



497 



Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Station state that some feeders re- 
port favorably on a mixture of equal parts of salt and wood ashes, 
which the steers eat slowly and with seeming benefit. (101) 

807. Variations in weight. — Fattening steers show surprising varia- 
tions in weight from day to day, and even from week to week. Much 
data could be given on this point, but the following from one of George- 
son's experiments at the Kansas Station 7 will suffice: 

Weekly variations in the weight of steers during fattening 



Date of weekly weighing 



November 30 
December 7 . . 
December 14. 
December 21 
December 28. 

May 2 

May 9 

May 16 

May 23 

May 30 



Weight of 
steer No. 1 



Lbs. 
1,232 
1,269 
1,280 
1,278 
1,325 



Gain or 
loss 



Lbs. 



37 

11 

—2 

47 



Weight of 
steer No. 2 



Lbs. 

1,190 
1,205 
1,213 
1,226 
1,250 



Gain or 
loss 



Lbs. 



15 

8 

13 

24 



Weight of 
steer No. 3 



Lbs. 
1,207 

1,240 
1,236 
1,244 
1,270 



Gain or 
loss 



Lbs. 



38 



26 



1,545 
1,565 
1,597 
1,598 
1,610 



20 

32 

1 

12 



1,583 
1,603 
1,620 
1,643 
1,606 



20 
17 
23 

-37 



1,567 
1,593 
1,619 
1,626 
1,593 



26 

26 

7 

-33 



These variations, which are not extraordinary, show how difficult it 
is to know the true weight of a steer at any given time. Experiment 
stations now quite generally weigh the steer for 3 successive days, 
taking the average as the true weight of the steer on the second day. 
It has been suggested that the variations follow somewhat the amount 
of water drunk from day to day, but this explanation does not always 
seem sufficient. It seems more generally due to the irregular movement 
of the contents of the digestive tract, which movement is influenced by 
changes in the character and quantity of the food consumed, the exercise 
or confinement enforced, and the weather. 

808. Cost of fattening. — Mumford s gives the following in concise form : 
"For the purpose of securing a definite basis from which to work, we 
may assume what has been repeatedly accomplished in practice, that 
one man and team, or their equivalent, can care for and feed 200 cattle 
together with the hogs following. This includes not only feeding the 
grain, but also hauling hay or other roughage to the feed lot from near- 
by stacks or mows, providing bedding, attending to water, and looking 
after the wants of steers affected with injuries, lump-jaw, lice and itch. 
With this assumption as a basis the following statement is possible : 

Man, 6 mo. at $40 .00 (wages $25, board $15) $240 .00 

Team and wagon, 6 mo. at $40 (maintenance $15, feed $25) 240 .00 

Total cost labor, 6 mo $480 .00 

Cost per steer 2 .40" 

•111. Cir. 92. 7 Kan. Bui. 34. s Beef Production, pp. 33-4. 



498 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The returns of hogs following steers fed whole corn will under fa- 
vorable conditions usually offset the labor cost of caring for fattening 
steers and the hogs following them. Another reasonable assumption 
is that when farm-grown crops are charged to the steers at market 
prices, the labor of feeding them to the cattle is no greater than the 
labor of hauling them to market. 

According to Mumford the manure produced by steers during the 
6 months' feeding ranges from 3 to 4 tons, worth, on many farms, from 
$9.00 to $18.00 per steer. These factors should be considered in count- 
ing the cost and returns of fattening steers. 

Cotton and Ward of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
collecting data on 24 Iowa farms where 2,099 cattle were fed in 1909-10 
and 1910-11, found that the total cost to the feeder of the fattened 
steer was distributed percentagely as follows : Purchase price, 57.8 ; feed, 
34.3; interest at 6 per ct., 1.6; labor, 1.7; shipping and selling (not 
including shrinkage), 4.5 per ct. The proportionate cost of the different 
items will vary from year to year, especially the first cost of the cattle 
and the cost of the feed. 

809. Preparing for shipment. — Concerning the preparation of cattle 
for shipment, Clay, 10 than whom there is no better authority, writes: 
"A day or two previous to shipping, feed the cattle in a pen, and feed 
hay only. The secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them 
on the cars full of food but with as little moisture as possible. A steer 
full of water is apt to have loose bowels and show up badly in the 
yards ; properly handled cattle should arrive in the sale pens dry behind 
and ready for a good fill of water; not very thirsty but in good con- 
dition to drink freely. Many shippers think that by salting their cattle 
or feeding them oats they can fool the buyers, but it always goes 
against them to use unnatural amounts. As to feed on the road, nothing 
equals good sweet hay, which excels corn or other grains because it is 
easily digested and does not fever the animal. Of water in mid-summer, 
care must be taken to supply the animal wants, whereas in winter a 
steer can go for many hours without a drink. Cattle should arrive at 
the sale yards at from 5 to 8 A. M., appearing on the scene as near the 
latter hour as possible, since they always look better just after they 
have been fed and watered." 

810. Shrinkage. — Extensive investigations in different sections of the 
United States by Ward of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture 11 show that the shrinkage of range cattle in transit over 70 hours 
during a normal year is from 5 to 6 per et. of their live weight. If they 
are in transit 36 hours or less the shrinkage will usually be 3 to 4 per ct. 
of the live weight. The shrinkage of fed cattle does not differ materially 
from that of range cattle for equal periods of time. Silage-fed cattle 
show a larger gross shrinkage but usually fill so well at market that the 

"U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 588. "II. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25. 

I0 Live Stock Rpt. Chicago, Sept. 28, 1894. 



COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 499 

net shrinkage is even lower than with cattle fed no silage. Pulp-fed 
cattle shrink more than any other class. The difference in shrinkage 
between cows and steers was not as great as is ordinarily supposed, tho 
cows shrank somewhat less than steers of the same weight. 

When the cattle were fed succulent grass, silage, or beet pulp before 
being loaded, the shrinkage was great. Slow, rough runs to market 
naturally increased the shrink. For a long journey the common method 
of unloading for feed, water, and rest was better than the use of "feed 
and water" cars. Where cattle reached the market just before being 
sold, the fill was small, but when they arrived the afternoon of the day 
before, or about daylight of the sale day, they generally took a good 
fill. However, an exceedingly large fill at market is not desirable, be- 
cause buyers then discriminate against such cattle. 

811. Fattening cattle requires business judgment. — In fattening cattle, 
even more than in other lines of animal husbandry good business judg- 
ment must be exercised, or the venture is apt to result in loss. Cotton 
and Ward 12 well summarize some of the important points to be ob- 
served by one entering the cattle feeding business: 

"Before purchasing his feeders the farmer should estimate the quan- 
tity of feeds on hand and their market price, the number and class 
and size of cattle desired, and the time required to consume the feed. 
Then he can estimate from market reports the approximate cost of 
his feeders, and with these various items at hand can figure what they 
must sell for if he is to break even. He is then in position to select 
steers which will suit the given conditions. If the outlook is not 
good, it is usually advisable not to purchase at that time. It is an 
old adage among stockmen that 'cattle bought right are more than 
half sold.' A man may be a skillful feeder and lose money year after 
year because of poor judgment in buying. The beginner should hire 
some experienced cattleman to purchase animals that will best suit 
his needs, or deal with a reliable commission firm that is acquainted 
with his conditions. By following the various market reports the 
feeder can tell approximately when his cattle can be marketed to 
greatest advantage. The steers should be fed so as to be finished at 
that time. When the steers are ready for market, it is usually not 
advisable to hold for better prices unless they continue to gain in 
weight and condition. The extra feed consumed by finished cattle 
will soon more than offset any ordinary increase in price that may 
be obtained. When they are almost finished the owner should watch 
the market reports and communicate with his commission man to 
determine the date of shipment." 

The droppings of the steer are an excellent index of the progress 

of fattening. While they should never be hard, they should still be 

thick enough to "pile up" and have that unctuous appearance which 

indicates a healthy action of the liver. There is an odor from the 

"U. S. Dept. Agr.. Farmers' Bui. 588. 



500 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

droppings of thrifty, well-fed steers known and quickly recognized 
by every good feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour smell 
indicate something wrong in the feed yard. The conduct of the steer 
is a further guide in marking the progress of fattening. The man- 
ner in which he approaches the feed box; his quiet pose while rumi- 
nating and audible breathing when lying down, showing the lungs 
cramped by the well-filled paunch; the quiet eye which stands full 
from the fattening socket; the oily coat, — all are points that awaken 
the interest, admiration, and satisfaction of the successful feeder. 

812. Order and quiet. — On these important points Mumford 13 writes: 
"As soon as the fattening process begins, the cattle should be fed at 
certain hours and in the same way. This cannot be varied 15 minutes 
without some detriment to the cattle. The extent of injury will depend 
upon the frequency and extent of irregularity. . . The even-tempered 
attendant who is quiet in manner and movement invariably proves 
more satisfactory than the erratic, bustling, noisy one. The cattle 
soon learn to have confidence in the former and welcome his coming 
among them, while they are always suspicious of the latter, never 
feeling quite at ease when he is in sight. Under the management of 
the former, the cattle become tame and quiet, even tho more or less 
wild at the outset; while under the latter, wild cattle become wilder 
and tame cattle become timid. The writer has observed a wide difference 
in practice among feeders as to their manner of approaching fattening 
steers. Some are brusque in manner, rushing up to the steers and 
scaring them up quickly, while other (and I am bound to say more 
successful) feeders approach the cattle with the greatest care and 
consideration, getting the cattle up, if at all, as quietly as possible. 
Pastures for cattle in quiet, secluded places are more valuable for fatten- 
ing cattle than are those adjacent to the public roads or adjoining pas- 
tures where horses or breeding cattle run." (112) 

813. The eye of the master. — The ability to fatten cattle rapidly and 
profitably is a gift, to be increased and strengthened by experience and 
study. The ability to carry a steer through a six months' fattening 
period without once getting him "off feed" is possessed by many a stock- 
man ; but how this faculty is attained is something he cannot well impart 
to others. In general, when the steer has reached full feed, all the 
grain he will readily consume should be supplied, but any left in the 
feed box, to be breathed over, is worse than wasted. Many experienced 
feeders follow the rule, "Keep the feed always a little better than the 
cattle." As has been shown (735), this means that the preparation 
of the feed is increased as the fattening progresses. Likewise as the 
animal advances in flesh there is greater benefit from adding a nitro- 
genous concentrate, such as cottonseed or linseed meal to a ration which 
is already fairly well balanced. (732) 

Scouring, the bane of the stock feeder, should be carefully avoided. 

'"Beef Production, pp. 92-3. 



COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 501 

since a single day's laxness will cut off a week's gain. This trouble is 
generally induced by over-feeding, by unwholesome food, or by a faulty 
combination in the ration. Over-feeding comes from a desire of the 
attendant to push his cattle to better gains, or from carelessness and 
irregularity in measuring out the feed supply. The ideal stockman has 
a quick discernment which takes in every animal in the feed lot at a 
glance, and a quiet judgment which guides the hand in dealing out feed 
ample for the wants of all, but not a pound excess. Cattle of the same 
age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed in the 
same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any reason to 
crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be placed where 
they can be supplied in quiet. 



II. Methods of Beep Production 

814. Fattening cattle on pasture. — Whether the feeder should finish 
his cattle during the winter and spring in the dry lot or carry them 
thru the winter to be fattened on pasture in the summer will depend 
first of all on the relative cost of pasturage compared with hay, silage, 
and other roughage. In the grazing regions cattle are commonly sold 
at the close of the pasture season, when if the grass has been good many 
are fat enough to be sold as killers, while the rest will go into feed lots 
to be fattened further. On farms where land is high-priced and there 
is little waste land the tendency is to fatten feeders in the dry lot, since 
under these conditions corn silage may be cheaper than pasturage. 
This is shown in a trial by Bliss and Lee at the Nebraska Station 14 
in which one lot of steers were fed on pasture from June 1 to Sep- 
tember 10 and another lot given corn silage in a dry lot, both getting 
a concentrate mixture of 4 parts corn and 1 part cold-pressed cotton- 
seed cake. The steers fed silage made as large gains as those on pas- 
ture and only one-fourth as much land was needed to produce the silage 
as was required for pasture. Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Sta- 
tion, 15 from extensive inquiries in that state, report that cattlemen esti- 
mate the daily increase per head of steers during the grazing season 
at 1.66 lbs. for yearlings and 1.87 lbs. for 2-yr.-olds. 

Waters of the Missouri Station, 10 gathering statistics from more than 
1,000 successful cattlemen in Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa, found the 
average gains from cattle pastured for the 6-months period, May 1 to 
November 1, to be as follows : 

Average gain of steers for the 6-months season on grass 

By yearlings By 2-yr.-olds 

State Per month Per season Per month Per season 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Missouri 47 282 53 318 

Iowa 48 288 52 312 

Illinois 45 270 52 312 

"Nebr. Rpt. 1913. "111. Cir. 79. w Mo. Cir. 24. 



502 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Assuming a pasture charge for yearlings of 75 cents per month, their 
gains cost approximately $1.60 per 100 lbs., while the 2-yr.-olds at a 
pasture charge of $1 per month would put on gains costing but little 
over $1.90 per 100 lbs. When we reflect that gains made by steers in 
winter cost from $6 to $10 per 100 lbs. the importance of wisely and 
fully utilizing the pastures in summer is apparent. 

Skinner and Coehel of the Indiana Station 17 found thru extensive 
inquiry that in Indiana during summer feeding each grain-fed steer 
grazed over 1.1 acres of land on the average. Where no grain was given, 
each steer grazed over about 2 acres. 

Lloyd of the Mississippi Station 18 reports that 2-yr.-old heifers, fed 
a light ration during the winter, when turned to pasture gained 1.3 
lbs. each daily for 178 clays on pasture alone. Steers of the same age, 
thin in flesh when turned to pasture, made daily gains of 1.4 lbs. for 
178 days, while those full fed the previous winter gained but 0.8 lb. each 
day during 158 days. 

815. Summer vs. winter feeding. — Waters of the Missouri Station 19 
reports the gains in 3 summer and 5 winter feeding trials as follows : 

Summer Winter 

Number of animals 88 105 

Average length of feeding period, days 209 107 

Concentrates per 100 lbs. of gain, lbs 814 999 

Roughage per 100 lbs. of gain, lbs grass 382 

Average daily gain per steer, lbs 2 .37 2 .13 

Because of the longer feeding period the summer-fed cattle were much 
fatter than those fed in winter. Despite this the summer gains were 
made on 18.5 per ct. less grain. 

Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Station, 20 from extensive corre- 
spondence with feeders of their state, conclude that a bushel of corn will 
produce : 

Gain in winter Gain in summer 
feed 1 it on pasture 

With calves 8.9 pounds 10 .0 pounds 

With yearlings 6.5 pounds 7 .6 pounds 

With 2-yr.-olds 5.4 pounds 6 .8 pounds 

Waters 21 sets forth the following advantages of fattening on pasture 
compared with finishing cattle in the dry lot : 

Grass is cheaper than hay. 

Summer gains require less grain than winter gains. 

Steers fatten more quickly and can be made thick and prime on corn and grass with 
greater certainty, more uniformity, and the smaller use of expensive supplements like 
cottonseed meal and linseed meal. 

Hogs following the steers make larger gains, and return more profit, with a lower 

In summer the grain only is drawn; there is no roughage to handle. 

The steers are usually fed but once daily. 

The manure is scattered by the cattle themselves. 

816. Feeding concentrates on pasture. — When cattle are finished on 

pasture no concentrates at all may be fed, a small allowance may be 

,7 Tnd. Cir. 12. ,8 Miss. Rpt. 1903. "Mo. Bui. 76. -"Til. Cir. 88. 21 Mo. Cir. 24, 



COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 



503 



given during the entire pasture period, concentrates may be fed during 
only the last few weeks, or an unlimited allowance of grain may be given 
thruout the entire period. Except under range conditions and in certain 
districts, as in the bluegrass region of Virginia, where the pastures are 
unusually nutritious, it will usually pay to feed some grain in addition to 
pasture. As Waters 22 points out, the cheapness of gains on grass alone 
is offset by the low selling value of the cattle, because they are not 
usually fat enough to market and must be sold as feeders with sufficient 
margin for the buyer to profitably fit them for market. 

817. Feeding supplements with corn on bluegrass pasture. — During 5 
years Mumford conducted extensive trials at the Missouri Station 23 with 
high-grade beef steers of various ages to study the economy of feeding 
a nitrogenous supplement to animals full fed on corn and running on 
a good bluegrass pasture. In these trials a total of 126 yearlings, 55 
two-yr.-olds, and 51 three-yr.-olds were fattened. Each year the steers 
were turned to pasture May 1, and fed for 7 months, by which time the 
2-yr.-olds and 3-yr.-olds were finished while the yearlings in every 
instance required feeding for 40 to 60 days longer. The results secured 
in these trials are summarized in the following table : 

Feeding supplements with corn to steers on bluegrass pasture 



Corn 
alone 



Corn and 

linseed 

meal 



Corn and 

cottonseed 

meal 



Corn and 

gluten 

feed 



Yearlings, av. of 5 years 
Av. daily concentrate allowance, lbs. 

Av. daily gain, lbs 

Concentrates per pound gain, lbs . . . 
Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* 



Two-yr.-olds, av. of 2 years 
Av. daily concentrate allowance, lbs. 

Av. daily gain, lbs 

Concentrates per pound gain, lbs . . . 
Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* 



Three-yr.-olds, av. of 2 years 
Av. daily concentrate allowance, lbs . 

Av. daily gain, lbs 

Concentrates per pound gain, lbs . . . 
Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* 



15.8 
2.0 

7.78 
$6.55 

20.1 
2.5 

7.98 
$6.71 

23.1 

2.3 

10.13 

$8.38 



17.2 
2.2 
7.76 

$7.21 

20.4 

2.7 

7.64 

$7.09 

24.9 

2.8 

8.77 
$7.96 



16.5 
2.2 

7.67 
$7.09 

21.0 
2.6 

7.97 

$7.14 

23.7 
2.5 

9.85 

$8.39 



16.5 
2.2 

7.64 
$6.98 



*Shelled corn, 40 cents per bu. ; linseed meal, S28; cottonseed meal, $24; and gluten feed, S22 per ton; 
pasture — yearlings, 60 cents, and older cattle, 75 cents per month. 

Since immature grass, such as is usually eaten by grazing animals, is 
much richer in protein than grass at the stage when cut for hay, corn 
and bluegrass pasture alone make a fairly well-balanced ration for the 
fattening steer. (800) Adding a nitrogenous concentrate, however, in- 
creased both the consumption of feed and the rate of gain with all the 
ages. "With the exception of the 3-yr.-old steers, fed corn and linseed 
meal, the lots receiving the supplements required about as much feed 
per pound gain as those fed corn alone, and with feed at the prices given 

-Mo. Bui. 76. "Mo. Bui. 90. 



504 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

made more expensive gains. With the yearlings and 2-yr.-olds the 
greater feed-cost of the gains when a supplement was fed was, however, 
offset to a greater or less extent by the fact that the steers fed the 
supplements showed better finish at the close of the trial and would 
therefore sell for a higher price. The difference in gains between the 
steers fed corn alone and those receiving a supplement was greatest 
toward the close of the trial and with steers which were in the best flesh. 
Mumford concludes, "The results of our experiments for many years 
and with various rations and kinds of cattle clearly indicate the value 
of supplements in maintaining the appetite and in securing satisfactory 
gains during the last stages of the feeding period. The value of supple- 
ments during the first part of the feeding period has in many experi- 
ments been of doubtful economic value." Obviously the higher the 
price of corn compared with the cost of the supplements, the greater 
the advantage from their use. "While cottonseed meal gave slightly 
better returns with the yearlings than did linseed meal, the results were 
reversed with the older cattle. 

818. Hints on fattening cattle on pasture. — Care should always be taken 
in changing cattle from dry lot to pasture, especially where they are in 
good flesh, else they may not continue to gain or may even shrink 
severely. As young pasture grass is laxative, if silage or roots have 
been fed during the winter the allowance should be reduced or entirely 
withdrawn as soon as the cattle are turned to pasture. Dry roughage 
which is palatable should be fed during the change, for otherwise the 
cattle may refuse the dry feed, preferring the grass. When the cattle 
are turned to pasture early in the season and there is no dry grass 
standing over from the preceding fall, it is wise to leave them on pasture 
for only a short time the first day and increase the period gradually, 
else severe scouring may result. If grain has been fed during the winter 
it should be continued until the cattle are accustomed to grass. Where 
cattle are nearly finished by the time the pasture season opens they had 
best be finished in the dry lot, for if turned to pasture they will usually 
make much poorer gains. Shaw 24 recommends that cattle be kept from 
pasture unless they are to be fed at least 2 months before being 
marketed. 

When the corn crop matures before the cattle are finished for market 
they may be turned into the standing corn, hogs following to get the 
corn not eaten by the steers. Where this practice is followed the cattle 
should be accustomed to new corn by being fed gradually increasing 
amounts of new snapped, or ear corn, or corn fodder before being 
turned into the corn field. 

819. Baby beef. — The most intensive method of beef production is 
the fattening of calves as baby beef. Under this system beef calves are 
fattened as they grow, reaching a good finish when 16 to 18 months old 
and weighing about 1,100 lbs. or less. In the production of baby beef. 

14 The Management and Feeding of Cattle, p. 174. 



COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 505 

first of all, blocky calves of good beef type and conformation must be 
selected, for scrub or dairy-bred calves will not usually reach the desired 
maturity and finish at this early age. As Mumford 25 writes, profitable 
baby beef production requires experience, judgment, and skill of the 
highest order in the feeder. It is a mistake for the inexperienced to dip 
heavily into this art. To fatten young animals profitably, they must be 
good, they must be fed for a considerable time, and they must be made 
fat; this means that "tops" must be bought or bred. The most suc- 
cessful operators try to retain the ' ' calf fat ' ' or bloom of the young calf. 
The calf should be in good condition when fattening begins and should 
be induced to consume considerable roughage of high quality, such as 
clover or alfalfa hay and silage, during winter and rich pasture grasses 
in summer. Shelled, crushed, or ground corn should be fed together with 
linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or other protein-rich concentrates. If 
the corn is given whole, hogs may profitably follow. Oats are one of 
the best of feeds with which to start the calf on its way to fattening. 
The tendency of the calf and yearling is toward growth rather than 
fattening. In baby beef production the young things must fatten as 
they grow; this can only be accomplished by the most liberal and ju- 
dicious feeding, since it is extremely difficult to get calves and yearlings 
sufficiently fat for the market requirements. Heifer calves mature more 
quickly and may be marketed earlier than steers. It is seldom possible 
or profitable to get spring calves ready for the baby beef market before 
July of the following year ; more frequently they are not marketed until 
October, November, or December when approximately 18 months old. 

This system of beef production is best suited to corn-belt farms where 
pasture is relatively expensive, while corn is cheaper in price than in 
other sections of the country. (711-2) 

820. Economy of gains of calves fed for baby beef. — At the Kansas 
Station 26 Cottrell, Haney, and Elling placed 130 calves, just weaned, 
in the feed lot during the latter part of October. Sixty were grade 
Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus range heifers. The rest were pur- 
chased locally or raised at the college farm. All were fed twice daily, 
getting all the grain and roughage they would clean up within 3 hours 
after feeding. They were sheltered by a common board shed open to 
the south and were fed for 7 months with the results shown below : 

Feed and 7 -months' gain of calves fed for baby beef 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Av. gain Concen- Rough- 
Feed given per head trates age 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Alfalfa hay and corn 407 470 544 

Lot II, Alfalfa hay and kafir 379 524 626 

Lot III, Prairie hay, corn %, and soy beans H- ■ ■ 378 520 486 

Lot IV, Prairie hay, kafir %, and soy beans Yz-- • 342 594 539 

Lot V, Skim-milk calves — alfalfa hay and corn . . 440 439 436 

Lot VI, Whole-milk calves— alfalfa hay and corn. 404 470 420 

Average 392 503 509 

^Beef Production, pp. 76-82. ^Kan. Bui. 113. 



50b FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The surprisingly small amount of feed for 100 lbs. of gain will be 
noted. By the end of the following May, when from 12 to 14 months 
old, the entire lot averaged 800 lbs. in the college feed lot, and on ship- 
ping to Kansas City shrank 3 per ct. 

821. Fattening yearlings. — Less extreme than the feeding of calves 
for baby beef is finishing steers as yearlings, i.e., before they are 2 years 
old. Spring calves may be carried thru the first winter on roughage 
with but a small allowance of concentrates. However, the ration must be 
such as to keep them growing steadily. The second summer good pasture 
alone will be sufficient to put them into condition for the feed lot in 
the fall. 

Calves to be fattened as yearlings should be taught to eat grain before 
being weaned so that there may be no loss of condition at this time. 
Yearlings can hardly be finished in a 6-months winter feeding period, 
but require fattening for 8 to 10 months even if of good beef type. 
Skinner and Cochel conclude from 3 years' trials at the Indiana Station 27 
that it is ordinarily more profitable to complete the fattening in the feed 
lot, rather than turn the half-finished cattle out to grass in the spring, 
for larger and cheaper gains are thus made. (711-2) 

822. Fattening cattle 2 years old or older. — Where pasturage is cheap, 
cattle are usually not marketed until 2 years old or older. They may 
be carried thru the first winter chiefly on roughage, or even entirely, 
if fed legume hay and other roughage of good quality. (799) On good 
pasture they will make good growth the following summer. If they are 
to be finished on grass early the third summer they will need a moder- 
ate allowance of concentrates the second winter. If to be sold in the 
fall or after finishing in the feed lot, little or no grain will be required 
provided good quality roughage is fed. 

According to Cochel, 28 the system of beef production usually most 
profitable in western Kansas is to raise the calves on pasture the first 
summer, winter them on kafir, milo, or sorghum silage, alfalfa hay and 
straw or stover from the sorghums, with perhaps some cottonseed meal 
in addition, pasture the yearlings the second summer without feeding- 
grain, carry them thru the second winter as before, and market the third 
summer from grass. "With good pasture such cattle should reach a 
weight of about 1,050 lbs. and be fat enough to sell as fleshy feeders or 
fair killers. In other sections of the western grazing district a still 
more extensive system is yet followed, the steers not being sold until 
3 years of age. However, the tendency is ever toward hurrying the steer 
to the block, and while 4- and 5-yr.-old steers were once common on the 
range, but few now reach this age. 

- : Tnd. Bui. 142. ^Information to the authors. 



CHAPTER XXX 

GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 

The sheep is the plant-scavenger of the farm. Because of its dainty 
manner of nibbling herbage we might suppose that its likes were few 
and dislikes many, yet nearly every plant at some period of its growth 
seems palatable and is freely eaten. No domestic or wild animal is 
capable of subsisting on more kinds of food. Grasses, shrubs, roots, 
the cereal grains, leaves, bark, and in times of scarcity fish and meat, 
all furnish subsistence to this wonderfully adaptive animal. In the 
great pine forests of Norway and Sweden 1 they will exist thru a hard 
winter by eating the pungent resinous evergreens. Among the Lap- 
landers, when other foods fail, they eat dried fish, the half-rotten flesh 
of the walrus, or even the very wool off each others' backs. Low 2 reports 
that the sheep of the Shetland Islands feed upon the salty seaweed dur- 
ing winter, knowing by instinct the first ebbing of the tide, and that 
they are fed dried fish when normal foods are scarce. 

McDonald 3 writes of the Iceland sheep : ' ' The only kindness which 
these animals receive from their keepers in the winter is being fed on 
fish-bones and frozen offal, when their natural food is buried too deep 
even for their ingenuity and patience." 

While sheep may exist under such conditions, we can expect good 
returns only when they are given proper feed and care. 

823. Place of sheep on the farm. — The organs of mastication and di- 
gestion indicate that plants in some form constitute the natural food 
of sheep. The cutting teeth in the lower jaw fit against the cartilag- 
inous pad above in such manner that, when feeding, the herbage is torn 
off rather than cut. While horses and cattle eat only about hall the 
plants considered weeds, less than one-tenth are refused by sheep. They 
even prefer some weeds, when yet succulent, to the common grasses. 
Sheep graze more closely than other stock, and if many are confined to 
one field every green thing is at length consumed. When closely pas- 
tured on cut-over timber lands where the growth is not too rank they 
derive much nourishment from the leaves, bark, and twigs, destroying 
the brush nearly as effectively as goats. (3) The feces of the sheep show 
the finest grinding of any of the farm animals, and as they relish most 
weed seeds this further fits them as weed destroyers. As sheep graze, 
their droppings are distributed more uniformly than with other stock. 
At nightfall they instinctively seek the higher, usually poorer, land and 

'Sheep Husbandry, Killebrew, p. 6. 3 Cattle. Sheep and Deer. 

'Domestic Animals of the British Islands. 

507 



508 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

thus leave their droppings on areas where most needed. Thru increas- 
ing the fertility of the pastures it grazes, the sheep has won the title of 
"The Golden Hoof." 

Only a relatively small investment is necessary to start in sheep hus- 
bandry, since the foundation animals cost but little and the flock in- 
creases rapidly. Sheep require neither expensive barns nor implements 
and only the minimum of care and attention during the busy summer 
season. In wool and in the flesh of her off-spring, the ewe gives double 
returns each year. With fair prices, the wool pays for her maintenance, 
leaving as profit all income from the lamb or lambs, after deducting the 
small cost of the additional feed and care they require. Returns come 
quickly, as lambs may be marketed 8 or 9 months after the ewes are bred. 
While surpassed by the pig in economy of meat production, the lamb 
requires less feed per pound of product than the steer. Because sheep 
readily consume food which would otherwise be wasted a flock will prove 
profitable on many farms where most of the revenue is derived from other 
sources. On rough or hilly land that cannot be economically tilled sheep 
may often be the main live stock of the farm. Tho the cost of mainte- 
nance is lowered thru their utilization of otherwise waste feed, one must 
not expect profitable production from such feed alone. 

824. Mutton breeds and Merinos compared. — The Merino sheep is pe- 
culiarly a wool-bearer, and nearly all lines descended from the Spanish 
stock have been selected for that single purpose. The story of the Spanish 
Merino in its home country forms one of the most interesting chapters 
in the history of live stock. 4 In their pilgrimage from South to Central 
Spain each spring and their return in the fall the great Spanish flocks 
made annual journeys covering over a thousand miles. Only the strong- 
est and most rugged survived the long, fatiguing, perilous marches. The 
ability to exist in enormous flocks, to range over a vast territory, and 
to subsist upon scant food are the leading of the many remarkable quali- 
ties wrought by stern Fate into the very constitution of the Merino sheep. 

Almost opposite in several characteristics are the English mutton 
breeds, which have been reared in small flocks confined to limited pas- 
tures, the best specimens being saved and nurtured each year with in- 
telligent attention to all their wants. They have been sheltered from 
storms and liberally fed with rich roughage and grain in the sheepfold 
whenever the fields were scant of herbage or the weather severe. In 
general the life of the English mutton sheep has been one of quiet con- 
tentment and plenty almpst to surfeit. In this country we cannot hope 
to attain the wonderful success reached by British flockmasters unless 
we closely follow or improve upon their methods. 

825. Size of the flock. — The sheep is distinctly gregarious. The im- 
proved American Merino still shows the result of inheritance in its 
ability to exist in great flocks and thrive under the most ordinary con- 
ditions of care and keep. With reasonable oversight thousands of Mer- 
kow. Domestic Animals of the British Islands, Vol II. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 



509 



ino sheep can be held in single bands where the range is ample, and for 
the brief period of fattening tens of thousands may be successfully fed 
together, as is still done with range sheep, carrying Merino blood, which 
are brought to feeding points in the western states and in the Missis- 
sippi valley. 

In the humid regions, two hundred sheep of the mutton breeds are 
as many as can usually be successfully managed in one flock, and to 
secure the best returns from even this number one should have had pre- 
vious experience. The novice would better begin with a # flock of 25, 
increasing the number as experience grows. When the farm is heavily 
stocked with sheep, increased vigilance is needed to prevent infestation 
with internal parasites and other troubles which are sure to threaten. 

826. A breed test. — Wilson and Curtiss 5 at the Iowa Station fattened 
wethers of different breeds on the same rations in 2 trials, lasting 90 
and 105 days, respectively, with the results averaged in the table. In 
the first trial there were ten 12-months-old wethers in each lot and in 
the second 9, averaging 9 months of age. National Delaine Merinos were 
used in the first trial and Rambouillets in the second. 

Comparison of breeds for mutton and wool production 





Av. 
wt. 


Av. 
daily 
gain 


Av. 

total 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Per cent 
dressed 
carcass 


Av. wt. 

of 

fleece 


Value 

of 
fleece 




Grain 


Hay 


Roots 


Southdown 

Shropshire 

Dorset 

Suffolk 

Oxford 


Lbs. 
78 

95 
92 

105 
107 
109 
102 
108 
78 


Lbs. 
0.40 
0.41 
0.45 
0.47 
0.46 
0.48 
0.55 
0.50 
0.32 


Lbs. 
39.2 
40.6 

44.8 
46.3 
45.2 
47.2 
54.5 
49.7 
32.4 


Lbs. 
483 
500 
4S5 
492 
499 
465 
418 
457 
573 


Lbs. 

451 
476 
494 
493 
500 
462 
411 
451 
509 


Lbs. 
279 
306 
286 
280 
311 
293 
249 
270 
345 


Lbs. 

55.3 
54.6 
53.4 
53.1 
52.6 
54.8 
54.2 
53.4 
50.7 


Lbs. 

5.7 

8.3 

6.4 

6.4 

9.5 

10.3 

11.3 

11.7 

8.2 


Dollars 

0.70 
1.04 
0.80 
0.81 
1 30 


Leicester 

Cotswold 

Lincoln 

Merino 


1.54 
1.56 
1.67 
0.87 



The large breeds — Leicester, Cotswold, and Lincoln — made somewhat 
the largest daily gains, the Merinos ranking lowest and consuming the 
most feed for 100 lbs. of gain. 

827. Breeds for crossing on western ewes. — To learn the value of the 
various crosses on western ewes, Wilson 6 of the South Dakota Station 
divided 60 Montana-bred yearling ewes into 6 lots, breeding each lot to 
an average-quality ram of one of the breeds shown in the table. The 
experiment ran 6 years, each lot being bred in successive years to a ram 
of each of the 6 'breeds. The lambs were grazed on bluegrass and rape 
pastures until freezing weather in the fall, and then fattened on a grain 
mixture of 100 lbs. shelled corn, 100 lbs. oats, and 25 lbs. linseed meal, 
with all the upland prairie hay they would eat. They were shorn before 
marketing in the spring. During the course of the experiment, some of 
the ewes in each lot were lost from various causes. 

B Iowa Buls. 33, 35. 6 S. D. Bui. 127. 



510 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Value of rams of various breeds for crossing on western ewes 



Breed of ram 

Cotswold 

Oxford 

Hampshire.... 
Shropshire. . . . 
Southdown. . . 
Rambouillet . . . 
♦Average of 3 years. 



No. of 
lambs fed 

55 
53 
55 
57 
53 
53 



Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 

77 
82 
80 
73 

72 
72 





Concentrates Value 




Daily 


for 100 lbs. of wool 


Dressed 


gain 
Lbs. 


gain per head 


carcass* 


Lbs. Dollars 


Per ct. 


.36 


524 1 .63 


52.4 


.34 


543 1 .36 


52.9 


.31 


587 1 .37 


53.4 


.31 


575 1 .36 


53.2 


.25 


564 1.11 


53.1 


.31 


563 1 .24 


54.2 



The Cotswold lambs made the largest and most economical gains and 
led in value of fleece. In percentage of dressed carcass the Cotswolds 
were the lowest and the Rambouillets the highest. The general criti- 
cisms before slaughter were that the Cotswolds were too leggy and heavy, 
the Hampshires and Oxfords too heavy, and the Rambouillets not smooth 
enough. The Southdowns and Shropshires best met the demands of the 
market. 

Faville, 7 at the "Wyoming Station, mated 29 fine-wooled western ewes 
with a good Cotswold ram and another lot with a Southdown ram, and 
fattened the resulting lambs. The Cotswold grades made slightly larger 
and more economical gains, but the Southdowns gave a higher percentage 
of dressed carcass, worth more per pound. Carlyle and Iddings, 8 on 
fattening a lot of 139 Lincoln-Merino lambs and 161 Shropshire-Merinos 
at the Idaho Station, found that the latter made slightly larger gains, 
while the feed consumed per 100 lbs. gain was practically the same for 
both lots. 

828. Feeding grain before and after weaning. — At the "Wisconsin Sta- 
tion, 9 Craig studied the profitableness of feeding grain to lambs before 
and after weaning when on good pasture. In 4 trials high-grade Shrop- 
shire lambs, early induced to eat various grains, were given all they 
would consume in a trough placed in a lamb-creep. (894) The following 
table summarizes the results secured before weaning, in periods averag- 
ing 10 weeks: 

Feeding various grains to lambs before weaning 

Average daily grain allowance 

Lot I, Corn meal, 0.4 lb.* 

Lot II, Whole oats, 0.4 lb 

Lot III, Wheat bran, 0.3 lb 

Lot IV, Cracked peas, 0.4 lb 

'Average of 5 trials. 

The large daily gain of over one-half pound made by these unweaned 
lambs and the small concentrate requirement in addition to the dam's 
milk forcefully illustrate the great general principle that young, grow- 
ing animals give the best returns for feed consumed. All the different 
concentrates fed were found satisfactory- Corn fed alone gave good 

7 Wyo. Bui. 95. s Idaho Bui. 77. "Wis. Rpts. 1896, 1903. 



Initial 


Dailv 


Total 


Concentrates for 


weight 


gain 


gain 


100 lbs. gain 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


39 


0.51 


35.8 


74 


44 


0.53 


37.0 


78 


43 


0.48 


33.6 


71 


37 


0.53 


37.0 


81 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 511 

returns, especially when cost was considered, the dam's milk supplement- 
ing this highly carbonaceous grain. From these and other careful 
studies, Craig reached the following conclusions: 

' ' The continuous grain feeding from birth until the lambs we're about 
10 months old did not produce any noticeable difference in the carcasses 
in respect to the mixture of fat and lean, but materially influenced the 
early maturity of the lambs. The lambs so fed attained a given weight 
from 4 to 7 weeks sooner than those fed no grain before weaning and 
required about the same amount of grain for the same increase in weight. 
When lambs are fed grain continuously from birth they are fit for the 
market at any time, so that advantage may be taken of any favorable 
fluctuation that may occur in prices. When the lambs are to be sold at 
weaning time in July at the age of 3 or 4 months, or in November when 
about 7 months old, it will pay to feed them grain." 

The unlimited feeding of grain after weaning led the lambs to eat 
less pasture. One-half pound of grain per head daily is the greatest 
amount that was found profitable to feed at this time. 

829. Soiling ewes and lambs. — Because of their daintiness and the 
large variety of plants they crop if opportunity offers, it is usually 
undesirable to maintain sheep on soilage. However, desiring to ascer- 
tain, regardless of cost, the amount of food required by sheep for growth 
in summer, the senior author 10 conducted the following trial at the Wis- 
consin Station. Ten large Merino ewes were chosen, each with a vigor- 
ous lamb at foot 1 month old when the trial began, June 3. With pa- 
tience and laborious attention to details the shepherd fed the lot success- 
fully, obtaining the results given in the table : 

Feed required for 100 lbs. gain when soiling ewes and lambs 

Green Green corn Total dry 

clover fodder Hay Oats matter 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Ewes and lambs before weaning, 

106 days 1,806 1,366 ... 45 850 

Lambs after weaning, 28 days 915 292 413 806 

When we remember that the ewes and lambs would have preferred to 
do their own foraging the amount of dry matter required per 100 lbs. 
gain was most reasonable. When we further consider that, if allowed 
to graze, they would have eaten weeds and weed seeds as well as the 
better forage, we must conclude that the sheep is one of the most eco- 
nomical meat producers on the farm. 

830. Shearing lambs before fattening. — From trials covering 4 years 
at the Wisconsin Station 11 Craig found that fall shearing, not later than 
October, was beneficial from the standpoint of size and economy of gains, 
when lambs that were 6 months old were to be prepared for the early 
winter market. With lambs fattened during a 3 or 4 month winter per- 
iod no advantage resulted. Tho more wool was obtained by shearing in 

10 Wis. Rpt. 1890. " Wis. Rpt. 1904. 



512 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the fall and again in the spring, the market value of the 2 clippings was 
no greater than the single clip with its longer fibers. 

In a 13-week trial by F. B. Mumford at the Michigan Station, 12 a lot 
of 10 lambs was shorn in November while another was left unshorn, both 
being fattened on a ration of clover hay and equal parts of corn and 
wheat. Both lots were kept in a barn, the window in the pen contain- 
ing the unshorn lambs being left open, while that in the pen of the shorn 
lambs was kept closed. Despite this care, the shorn lambs suffered from 
the cold. The shorn lambs ate 0.1 lb. more grain and 0.2 lb. more hay 
per head daily, yet made 30 per ct. less gain than those not shorn. Had 
the shorn lambs still warmer quarters, there undoubtedly would have 
been less difference in the returns. 

On account of the prevalence of the practice of shearing lambs before 
fattening when they are to be fed late in the spring, Skinner and King 
fed 166 lambs for 60 days, beginning March 14, at the Indiana Sta- 
tion. 13 Half were shorn when they had been on feed 10 days while the 
others carried their wool till 10 days before the close of the trial. The 
early-shorn lambs made neither larger nor more economical gains than 
the others. Undoubtedly if the weather grows very warm in the spring 
before lambs are finished, it will pay to remove their fleeces. 

831. Fattening sheep of different ages. — At the Montana Station 14 
Shaw compared the fattening qualities of average western range lambs, 
1- and 2-yr.-old wethers, and aged ewes. Each lot of about 50 was fed 
whole barley and clover hay for 88 days with the following results : 

Fattening range sheep of different ages 

Average ration Av. wt. Av. Av. Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Clover at be- daily total Clover 

Age when fed Barley hey ginning gain gain Barley hay 

Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lambs 0.7 2.1 63 0.27 23.7 253 763 

One-year-old wethers.... 0.7 3.8 95 0.27 23.5 256 1,413 

Two-year-old wethers. . . 0.7 4.1 116 0.28 24.3 248 1,469 

Aged ewes 0.7 2.3 92 0.18 15.6 387 1,320 

It will be observed that all lots, except the aged ewes, made practically 
the same daily and total gains. All were fed the same amount of grain, 
but the lambs ate only about half as much hay as the yearlings or 2-yr.- 
olds. Hence the gains of the lambs were much more economical. In 
other trials at the same Station, 15 lambs made not only more economical 
but also more rapid gains than yearling wethers. It is generally unwise 
to feed yearlings for the block, since they are shedding teeth and there- 
fore not in condition to give the best returns for feed and care. Unless 
prices for wool rule high the stockman cannot afford to carry wethers 
past the period when they may be fed off as lambs. Culls can be pre- 
pared for the butcher at any time by the use of a little grain. In the 
vicinity of cities profitable sales can be made of fat culls at times when 
regular feeders have failed to supply the market. 

,2 Mich. Bui. 128. '"Ind. Bui. 168. "Mont. Bui. 35. '"Mont. Buls. 47, 59. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 513 

The demand for well-fattened lambs grows, the tender, juicy, high- 
flavored meat finding increasing favor among Americans. Not only do 
prices for fat lambs rule high as compared with mature sheep and farm 
animals generally, but there are other advantages in feeding off lambs 
before they reach maturity. A given weight of feed goes further with 
lambs than with mature sheep ; the money invested is sooner turned, and 
there is less risk from death and accident. Thus the tendency is toward 
marketing the lambs as rapidly as they can be satisfactorily sold. If 
lambs raised on farms are not sufficiently fat in late summer or early fall 
to meet the reasonable demands of the market, it shows a lack of feed 
and care, or that parasites have destroyed profits. Owing to their ten- 
dency to grow, lambs require a longer period to fatten than do mature 
wethers. Since they are not only making fat but also lean meat, the 
ration should be somewhat narrower, that is, contain more protein, than 
is needed for fattening mature sheep. However, a ration which is too 
narrow will unduly stimulate growth, and not give the requisite finish. 

832. Shelter for sheep. — Above every other animal on the farm the 
sheep should be kept dry as to both coat and feet. Inattention to either 
of these essentials will result disastrously. With dry winter quarters 
sheep will stand a great degree of cold without injury. Their shelter 
should not be warm, compared with that of other farm animals, for sheep 
sweat badly in winter when confined in quarters sufficiently warm for 
dairy cows. One thickness of matched boards will make the barn or 
shed where sheep are confined sufficiently warm in the northern states 
except for winter lambs. Ample ventilation is of great importance, but 
drafts must be avoided. On the western plains, it is even more necessary 
to protect sheep from cold winds than from rain. Sunshine, good drain- 
age, and conveniences for feeding are the other requisites of a good sheep 
barn. When succulent feeds, such as wet beet pulp or silage, are fed 
the quarters must be especially well drained and the barn or shed well 
bedded. Stone basements are unsatisfactory for sheep on account of 
dampness, and if used good ventilation is especially necessary. Damp 
walls are a sure indication of lack of ventilation and impending trouble. 

In late spring and early summer when cold rains begin, the flock 
should be sheltered if possible, for exposure is dangerous, especially to 
young lambs. In the heat of summer if there is no natural shade in the 
pastures the flock should have access to a darkened but well ventilated 
shed. A fringed curtain thru which the sheep force their entrance will 
keep back the flies from this retreat. (881) 

833. Winter quarters for fattening sheep. — At the Minnesota Station 16 
Shaw fed eight 78-lb. lambs for 117 days in a yard sheltered from the 
wind by a low building at one side. A second lot was confined in a yard 
with an open shed for shelter, while a third was kept in a compartment 
of a barn ventilated by means of a large window facing the east. All 
lots were fed the same ration with the following results : 

"Minn. Bui. 44. 



514 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Effect of various methods of confinement on fattening lambs 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average Wheat 

Whore fed daily gain screenings Oil meal Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, out of doors .28 804 90 316 

Lot II, in yard with shed .32 668 74 251 

Lot III, in stable .28 722 80 283 

Lot II, kept in a yard with an open shed, made the largest and the 
most economical gains, while Lot I, kept out of doors, made as good gains 
as those confined in the barn, but required slightly more feed for 100 
lbs. of gain. 

Skinner and King found at the Indiana Station 17 that lambs fattened 
during the winter in an open shed and adjacent yard made 0.01 lb. less 
daily gains and required slightly more feed for 100 lbs. gain than others 
kept in a well-ventilated barn. But the lambs in the open shed were 
better finished, and sold for enough more to overbalance the slightly 
higher cost of gains. In a later trial the lambs fed in the open shed 
consumed less feed per 100 lbs. gain and again sold for a higher price 
than those fed in the barn. 

That shelter from rain is needed even in a moderate climate is shown 
in a trial by Mumford, Trowbridge, and Hackedorn at the Missouri Sta- 
tion 18 in which yearling wethers fed in an open yard made smaller gains 
and required over 19 per ct. more feed per 100 lbs. gain than others 
which had access to a barn. In the northern states a dry, littered yard, 
having a sunny exposure, and provided with a well-bedded, comfortable 
shed opening to the east or south, extending along the windward side to 
break the cold winds and driving storms, is ideal for fattening sheep. In 
such quarters the air is bracing, the sunshine invigorating. Here the 
animals, heavy coated and filled with rich grain and roughage, are both 
warm and comfortable, and comfort is essential to the highest gains. 
In the arid regions, protection from driving winds and sandstorms is 
all that is essential. 

834. Exercise. — For the breeding flock abundant exercise thruout the 
year is essential. (Ill) That fattening sheep make better gains if allowed 
but limited exercise is shown by trials at the Wisconsin Station 10 in 
which during 3 consecutive winters Humphrey and Kleinheinz kept one 
lot of 12 wether lambs in a dry, airy, well-lighted pen during fattening 
while another was turned out daily for exercise when the weather per- 
mitted. The results are averaged in the following table : 

Exercise vs. confinement for fattening wether lambs 

Average ration Av. daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Grain Hay Roots gain Grain Hay Roots 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Exercised 1.1 1.9 1.4 0.15 708 1,297 1,068 

Not exercised 1.1 1.9 1.4 0.17 618 1,113 899 

l7 Ind. Bui. 168; information to the authors. 
,fe Mo. Bui. 115. ,0 Wis, RptS. 1904-05. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 



515 



In no case did these lambs make large or economical gains, for they 
were in better condition at the beginning than average feeder lambs and 
were not forced for the largest gains. The lambs given exercise made 
slightly smaller gains and required over 16 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. 
gain than those more closely confined. 

835. Grinding grain; cutting or grinding hay. — Of all farm animals the 
sheep is best able to do its own grinding, and with few exceptions whole 
grain only should be furnished. (423) The common saying of feeders, 
"a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding," is a 
truthful one. Valuable breeding sheep with poor teeth may be contin- 
ued in usefulness by being fed ground grain. In certain cases grinding 
may prove advantageous. At the Colorado Station 20 Cooke, when feed- 
ing western sheep on wheat, observed that much of the grain passed 
thru the animals unbroken. As shown in the next chapter, it is well to 
grind such hard seeds as bald barley, millet, and screenings containing 
small weed seeds. 

From 4 trials testing the value of cutting and grinding alfalfa hay for 
fattening lambs, Morton of the Colorado Station 21 concludes that when 
good quality long alfalfa hay is fed not enough is refused to warrant 
such preparation. When poor quality hay is used, cutting into three- 
fourth inch lengths may be profitable thru inducing closer consumption, 
provided the cost is not more than $1 per ton. Reducing such hay to 
meal may be warranted, if the cost is not more than $3 to $4 per ton. 

836. Self feeders; feed racks. — To save time and labor some feeders 
place quantities of grain sufficient for a week or more in a self feeder, 
a box so arranged that the grain passes down into the feed trough as 
rapidly as the sheep consume the supply below. Trials with self feeders 
by F. B. Mumford at the Michigan Station 22 with ten 80-lb. lambs in 
each lot, fed for 105 days, and by Shaw at the Minnesota Station 23 with 
eight 80-lb. lambs in each lot, fed for 117 days, are summarized in the 
table : 

Trials with self feeders for fattening lambs 





Average ration 


Av. 

daily 
gain 


Av. 
total 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Method of feeding 


Grain 


Hay 


Grain 


Hay 


Michigan 
Self-fed 


Corn, 1 .4 lbs 


Lbs. 

0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 

0.5 
0.8 


Lbs. 
0.23 
0.31 
0.22 
0.25 

0.35 
0.32 


Lba. 
24.8 

32.8 
23.7 
26.7 

41.6 
37.5 


Lbs. 
607 
481 

776 
638 

908 

742 


Lbs. 

387 


Ordinary .... 
Self-fed 
Ordinary .... 
Minnesota 
Self-fed 
Ordinary .... 


Corn, 1.5 lbs 


334 


Corn and bran, 1.8 lbs 

Corn and bran, 1.6 lbs 

Wheat screenings, 3.2 lbs.. . 
Wheat screenings, 2.4 lbs.. . 


405 
421 

130 
251 



=°Colo. Bui. 32. 
21 Colo. Buls. 151. 187. 



22 Mich. Bui. 113. 
23 Minn. Bui. 44. 



516 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In each trial the self feeder increased the feed consumed for 100 lbs. 
of gain. Mumford 24 concludes from tests covering 3 years, "Fattening 
lambs by means of a self feeder is an expensive practice, and economy of 
production requires more attention to the variation in the appetites of 
the animals than can be given by this method. ' ' After a later trial with 
yearling wethers at the Missouri Station 25 Mumford writes,- "The ad- 
vantage of a self feeder even at a low price of corn is small, as it will 
be found necessary to feed by hand the first 5 or 6 weeks of the feeding 
period in order to accustom the sheep to a full feed of grain before them 
all the time. ' ' Numerous observations show that the death rate is higher 
when self feeders are used. The more concentrated the grain, the greater 
the danger in feeding it thru the self feeder. Bulky wheat screenings 
have been satisfactorily fed in self feeders. 

From trials during 2 years Morton 26 reports that under Colorado con- 
ditions, with lambs fattened in the open, self-feed hay racks, costing 
$1 per running foot and accommodating 4 lambs per foot, 2 on a side, 
saved sufficient hay, compared with feeding it on the ground outside the 
pens, to pay their cost in 3 seasons. It is well to construct hay racks so 
that chaff and seeds will not fall upon the necks of the sheep, since such 
material will work down into the wool, injuring its quality. 

Grain and roughage should be fed separately to sheep. If sheep are 
fed in close quarters the hay should be supplied daily, since they dislike 
provender that has been ' ' blown on, ' ' as shepherds say. In feeding sheep 
in open lots, as is done thruout the West, racks sufficiently large to hold 
roughage for several days are often used. Grain troughs should have 
a wide, flat bottom, forcing the sheep to consume the grain slowly. Fif- 
teen inches of linear trough space should be provided for each animal. 

837. Water. — Opinions as to the amount of water necessary for sheep 
vary more than with any other domestic animal. In countries with heavy 
dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where roots are largely 
used in winter, water may possibly be denied sheep, but ordinarily it 
is a necessity. Because of the danger of infestation with internal para- 
sites, drinking from stagnant pools must be avoided. On the arid ranges 
of the Southwest, when grazing on certain succulent plants, like singed 
cacti, sheep sometimes go 60 days without water. 27 The wise shepherd will 
under all usual conditions see that his sheep are supplied with water daily. 

A sheep needs from 1 to 6 quarts of water daily, according to feed, 
temperature, and weather. Ewes suckling lambs, and sheep that are 
being fattened require more water than those being simply carried thru 
the winter. The following table presents data gathered at the Michi- 
gan 28 and Colorado 29 Stations on the amount of water consumed by 
fattening lambs, averaging about 80 lbs. at the beginning of the trials : 

24 Mich. Bui. 128. ^Mich. Buls. 113, 128, 136. 

"Mo. Bui. 115. 29 Colo. Bui. 75. 

28 Colo. Bui. 187. 

"Wilcox and Smith, Farmers' Cyclopedia of Live Stock, p. 590. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 517 

Water drunk by lambs on various rations during fattening 

Water Water 

Av. daily drunk drunk per No. of 

Rations gain daily 100 lbs. gain trials 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Michigan 

Grain and clover hay, open-yard feeding 0.22 1.4 599 1 

Grain and clover hay 0.28 2.8 979 8 

Grain, roots, and clover hay 0.36 1 .9 540 3 

Clover hay and sugar beets 0.13 0.3 314 1 

Colorado 

Grain and alfalfa hay (cold water) ... . 0.36 5.1 1,423 2 

Grain and alfalfa hay (warm water) ... 0.36 5.3 1,514 2 

Adding roots to the ration greatly decreased the water requirement, 
the lambs fed clover hay and unlimited sugar beets drinking only 0.3 
lb. each daily. Lambs fed in an open yard required less water than those 
in confinement, due probably to the lower temperature outside. Supply- 
ing lambs fattening on alfalfa hay and grain with warm instead of cold 
water made no difference either in the quantity of water drunk or in the 
rate and economy of the gains produced. 

Gray and Ridgeway of the Alabama Station 30 found that in late sum- 
mer ewes in confinement drank 2.5 lbs. of water each while living on 
green sorghum forage, and 6.1 lbs. when on cottonseed meal and hulls. 
(103) 

838. Salt. — Sheep require salt, which should be available at all times, 
for an irregular supply induces scouring. In winter it may be given in 
a trough used only for this purpose. In summer salt may be rendered 
doubly useful by scattering it on sprouts growing about stumps, on brush 
patches, or over noxious weeds. Some western sheep raisers never salt 
their sheep but allow them to eat alkali, which is safe when it contains 
80 per ct. salt. 31 It is believed that salted sheep are less liable to become 
locoed. 

In an experiment in France 32 in which 3 lots of sheep were fed the 
same ration of hay, straw, potatoes, and beans, those receiving a daily 
allowance of 0.5 oz. of salt with their feed gained 4.5 lbs. more per head 
than those fed no salt, and 1.25 lbs. more than those fed 0.75 oz. per 
head daily. This indicates that sheep may be given too much as well 
as too little salt. The fleeces of the salt-fed sheep were better and heavier 
than those fed no salt. (101) 

839. Weight and gains of fattened wethers. — By far the most compre- 
hensive data on the weights and gains of fattened wethers of different 
ages and from the various breeds are furnished by the records of the ani- 
mals winning prizes at the Smithfield Club Show, London, England. 
Below are presented these data for the years 1895 to 1912, inclusive. 33 
As given in these records the daily gain includes the weight of the ani- 
mal at birth. 

80 Ala. Bui. 148. 

31 Wilcox and Smith, Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, p. 590. 

^Abs. in Agr. Jour, and Min. Rec. 5 (1902), p. 361. 

^Lond. Live Stock Jour., Vols. 42-76. 



518 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Weight of 


prize-winning wethers at Smithfield 








Wether lambs 


Yearling wethers 


Breed 


Number 


Av. 
age 


Av. 

wt. 


Av. 
daily 
gain 


Number 


Av. 
age 


Av. 

wt. 


Av. 
daily 
gain 


Middle-wool 

Cheviot 


35 
49 
94 
36 
56 
57 
99 
76 

25 
42 
73 
54 

48 


Days 
238 
331 
309 
232 
298 
266 
286 
287 

276 

276 
250 
247 
290 


Lbs. 
141 
200 
208 
132 
196 
159 
150 
201 

188 
188 
160 
157 

209 


Lbs. 
0.59 
0.60 
0.67 
0.56 
0.66 
0.58 
0.52 
0.70 

0.68 
0.68 
0.64 
0.64 
0.72 


53 
23 
78 
60 
53 
58 
105 
56 

15 

28 
65 
59 
55 


Days 
592 
679 
661 
591 
649 
636 
637 
648 

624 
625 
606 
607 
639 


Lbs. 
224 
261 
282 
197 
285 
253 
202 
291 

292 
268 
267 
273 
334 


Lbs. 

0.37 


Dorset 


0.38 


Hampshire 


0.42 


Mountain 


0.33 


Oxford 


0.44 


Shropshire 


0.39 


Southdown 


0.31 


Suffolk 


0.44 


Long-wool 

Cotswold 

Devon 


0.46 

0.42 


Kent 


0.44 


Leicester 

Lincoln 


0.45 
0.52 



The greater economy of the gains made by lambs is shown by the fact 
that the lambs made daily gains ranging from 0.52 lb. to 0.72 lb., while 
those of the yearlings were considerably lower, ranging from 0.31 to 0.52 
lb. per head daily. 

840. Weight of fattened sheep. — The weights of fat sheep of the sev- 
eral breeds competing for prizes at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chi- 
cago, during the years 1878 to 1884, inclusive, 34 were as follows : 

Weights of fat sheep of various breeds — American Fat-Stock Show 





Wethers 


Ewes 


Breed 


Under 
1 year 


1 year and 
under 
2 years 


2 years 
or over 


Under 
1 year 


1 year and 
under 
2 years 


2 years 
or over 


Cotswold 

Other long wools 

Southdown 

Other middle wools 

American Merino 

Grades or crosses 


Lbs. 

142 
151 
119 
117 

79 
118 


Lbs. 
199 
239 
172 
181 
112 
188 


Lbs. 
258 
263 
205 
223 
137 
221 


Lbs. 

127 

112 

97 

87 

52 

122 


Lbs. 

235 
204 
130 
20S 
73 
165 


Lbs. 

273 
238 
169 
211 
101 
213 



In most instances the ewes of a given breed and age were somewhat 
lighter in weight than the wethers. 

841. Slaughter tests; dressing percentage. — The records of the slaugh- 
ter competitions at the Smithfield Club Show 35 also furnish the most 
extensive data available on the dressing percentage, and weight of in- 
ternal fat, pluck (heart, liver, and lungs), and skin for wethers of the 
different breeds. In the following table are averaged the results of these 
"block" tests for 20 years, 1895-1914 inclusive. 

M Trans. Dept. Agr., 111., 1884, p. 228. 
a5 Lond. Live Stock Jour., Vols. 42-80. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 



519 



Smithficld slaughter tests 



Breed and age 



Blackfaced, lambs. . . 
Blackfaced, 1-2 years 

Cheviot, lambs 

Cheviot, 1-2 years. . . 
Hampshire, lambs . . . 
Hampshire, 1-2 years 

Kent, lambs 

Kent, 1-2 years 

Shropshire, 1-2 years . 
Southdown, lambs. . . 
Southdown, 1-2 years 

Suffolk, lambs 

Suffolk, 1-2 years 

Welsh, 1-2 years. . . . 
Cross-bred, lambs. . . 
Cross-bred, 1-2 years. 



Av. live 

wt. at 

slaughter 



Lbs. 

116 
171 
113 
147 
163 
209 
141 
242 
259 
123 
142 
152 
188 
121 
129 
161 



Av. wt. of 
dressed 



Lbs. 

71 
110 

67 

94 

102 

135 

85 

155 

175 

76 

92 

95 

121 

74 

79 

102 



Av. per ct. 
of dressed 



61 
64 
59 
64 
63 
65 
60 
64 
68 
62 
65 
62 
64 
61 
61 
63 



Av. wt. 
of fat 



Lbs. 

6.6 
9.0 
5.8 
6.9 
5.2 
6.8 
5.2 
5.5 
6.2 
4.3 
6.2 
7.0 
10.6 
8.8 
5.9 
8.3 



Av. wt. 

of 
pluck 



Lbs. 

3.7 



5.1 
6.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
3.9 
4.1 
5.0 
5.7 
3.4 
4.2 
5.0 



Av. wt. 
of skin 



Lbs. 

14.6 

18.6 

12.6 

14.3 

15.0 

15.8 

19.4 

27.0 

25.2 

10.8 

12.0 

13.6 

14.3 

11.0 

13.2 

14.8 



No. of 
animals 



7 

16 

54 

68 

54 

30 

5 

2 

4 

54 

45 

104 

43 

14 

106 

101 



It will be noted that the yearlings yielded a slightly higher percent- 
age of dressed carcass than the lambs. These wethers were thoroly fin- 
ished, and thus their dressing percentage is higher than with sheep as 
usually fattened for the market. A survey of the experiments at the 
various stations in which slaughter tests have been conducted with the 
animals fattened shows that the usual dressing percentage of lambs or 
yearlings ranges from 48 to 57 per ct., depending on how completely the 
animals were fattened. 

842. Shrinkage in shipping. — During 4 winters Linfield of the Mon- 
tana Station 30 fattened average range lambs and 2-yr.-old wethers on 
clover hay and grain, shipping them from Bozeman to Chicago, a distance 
of about 1,440 miles. Lambs, averaging 87.5 lbs. when shipped, shrank 
7.6 per ct. on the average, the range being 4.6 to 8.7 per ct. The 2-yr.-old 
wethers shrank somewhat less, averaging 6.8 per ct., with a range of 
5.1 to 8.6 per ct. The older sheep yielded 2.2 per ct. more dressed carcass. 

Shaw 37 states that fattened lambs weighing under 100 lbs., when 4 
days in transit, will shrink 7 to 8 lbs. ; l-yr.-old wethers weighing about 
120 lbs., approximately 10 lbs. ; and aged wethers and ewes about 12 
lbs. On shipping lambs fattened in 4 trials on corn and either clover 
hay, alfalfa hay, corn stover, soybean straw, or timothy hay, with and 
without the addition of a nitrogenous supplement, Carmichael and Ham- 
mond of the Ohio Station 38 found no variation in shrinkage attributable 
to the ration. Lambs shipped 135 to 149 miles shrank 1.3 to 6.8 per ct. 

When sheep are marketed off pasture, especially rape, excessive shrink- 
age from scouring may be prevented by giving dry feed for a day or 
more prior to shipping. The grain ration should be decreased previous 

36 Mont. Buls. 47, 59. M Ohio Buls. 187, 245. 

31 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 365. 



520 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to shipping for the same reason. Shaw 39 regards oats as the safest con- 
centrate to feed sheep when in transit. 

843. Wool production. — A general discussion of the nutrients required 
for wool production has been given in an earlier chapter. (151-2) Soil 
and climate produce marked effects on the characteristics of sheep, as 
shown by Brown 40 in his study of the evolution of the various English 
breeds. The rich lowlands of England with their abundant, nutritious 
grasses produced the heavy-bodied, plethoric Long-wools, the next higher 
lands with less abundant herbage furnished the Downs and Middle-wools, 
while the mountains with scanty herbage produced the active, still lighter 
breeds. Coleman 41 states that the peculiar luster of the Lincoln wool 
diminishes when these sheep pass to a less congenial soil, and that wool 
in certain districts of Yorkshire brings a higher price than that of other 
localities, due to the favorable influence of soil and climate. He further 
states that limestone soils, otherwise peculiarly suited to sheep, tend to 
harshness in wool which renders it less valuable than that from sheep 
living on clays or gravels. 

To prevent injury to the wool, feeding racks should be so constructed 
that seeds and chaff will not lodge on the neck and shoulders of the sheep, 
and the feed lot or barn must be well bedded so that the wool will not 
become soiled. 

Weiske and Dehmel 42 found that sheep shorn 6 times a year produced 
less unwashed wool, but nearly 25 per ct. more pure wool fiber than those 
shorn annually, but such short wool is of low value. 

39 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 361. 
■""British Sheep Farming. 
41 Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Britain. 
"Futterungslehre, 1872, p. 511. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

FEEDS FOR SHEEP 

I. Concentrates for Sheep 

In the following articles, which discuss the value of various feeding 
stuffs for sheep, especially for fattening animals, it will be noted that 
nearly all the trials reviewed were with lambs. This is due to the facts, 
already pointed out, that lambs make better use of their feed and that 
their flesh is in greater demand. (831) In all trials where the weight 
of the lambs and duration of the fattening period are not stated, it may 
be assumed that either western lambs weighing about 65 lbs. or eastern 
lambs of about 80 lbs. were used, and that the feeding period covered 
from 12 to 15 weeks. 

844. Indian corn. — Corn, the best single grain for fattening sheep, is 
the cereal most commonly used over the United States as far west as 
Colorado, beyond which wheat and barley are more generally fed. Leg- 
ume hay, rich in protein, admirably supplements this carbonaceous 
grain. Hence, the combination of corn and legume hay has become a 
standard ration for fattening sheep over a large extent of our country. 
In this chapter, so far as possible, other rations are compared with this 
successful combination. To show the possibilities of this ration, below 
are averaged the results from 8 stations with 26 lots, including 527 lambs, 
which were fed an unlimited allowance of shelled corn and either clover 
or alfalfa hay, for periods averaging 90 days. The results are also given 
from 4 stations at which 17 lots, including 1,180 lambs, were fed a 
limited allowance of shelled corn (from 0.7 to 1.1 lbs. per head daily), 
with the same roughages, in trials averaging 92 days. 

Corn and legume hay for fattening lambs 





Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


weight 


gain 


Corn 


Hay 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Corn allowance unlimited 










Shelled corn, 1.3 lbs. 










Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 4 lbs. . . 


67 


0.32 


400 


436 


Corn allowance limited 










Shelled corn, 0.9 1b. 












60 


0.32 


288 


655 



The lambs given a full feed of corn consumed an average ration of 
1.3 lbs. shelled corn and 1.4 lbs. clover or alfalfa hay and gained 0.32 
lb. per head daily, requiring 400 lbs. shelled corn and 436 lbs. hay per 
100 lbs. gain. Due probably to the superior quality of the hay fed, the 
lambs getting the limited corn allowance made as good gains as those 

521 



522 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



on a full feed of corn. These lambs required 655 lbs. of hay and only 
288 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. From these averages, the feeder 
may readily calculate the cost and possible profits of fattening lambs 
under reasonably favorable conditions, and when the fattening period 
is not too extended. (201-7) 

845. Corn requires supplement. — Owing to its carbonaceous character 
corn should be supplemented with some variety of legume hay, or if 
this is not available then with some protein-rich concentrate, even when 
fed to fattening sheep or lambs. (201) 

This is shown in the following table, in the first division of which are 
summarized the results of 7 trials, averaging 81 days, in each of which 
corn was fed with clover or alfalfa hay to one lot of lambs and with tim- 
othy or prairie hay to another lot. In the second division are given 
the results of 4 trials, averaging 80 days, in which the effect of adding 
linseed or cottonseed meal to a ration of corn and timothy hay was 
studied. Thus, the first division shows the value of supplementing corn 
with legume hay, and the second, of adding a nitrogenous concentrate 
to a ration of corn and carbonaceous hay. 



Corn requires supplement for fattening lambs 





Initial 
weight 


Daily 

gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


Concen- 
trates 


Hay 


Legume hay as .supplement to com* 
Unbalanced ration, 16'4 lambs 
Corn, 0.9 lb. 

Carbonaceous hay, 1 .0 lb 


Lbs. 
59 

59 

64 
64 


Lbs. 

0.19 
0.32 

0.23 

0.30 


Lbs. 
497 

340 
520 
463 


Lbs. 

547 


Balanced ration, 172 lambs 
Corn, 1 . 1 lbs. 


475 


Nitrogenous concentrate as supplement to comf 
Unbalanced ration, 90 lambs 
Corn, 1.2 lbs. 

Timothy hay, 1 .0 lb 


448 


Balanced ration, 90 lambs 
Corn, 1.2 lbs. 
Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb. 

Timothy hay, 1 .0 lb 


334 



♦Average of 1 trial by Burnett (Nebr. Bui. 66), 1 by Emery (Wyo. Bui. 51), 1 by Faville (Wyo. Bui. 85), 
I by Morton (W V o. Bui. T.i), and 3 by Skinner and King (Ind. Bui. 162). 

tAverage of 1 trial by Carmichael and Hammond (Ohio Bui. 245), 1 by Hays (Minn. Bui. 31), and 2 
by Skinner and King (Ind. Bui. 162). 

While the lambs fed corn with carbonaceous timothy or prairie hay 
gained only 0.19 lb. per head daily, those fed corn with legume hay, 
either clover or alfalfa gained 0.32 lb. The lambs on the unbalanced 
ration required 46 per ct. more grain and 15 per ct. more hay than those 
on legume hay. 

Supplementing the carbonaceous ration of corn and timothy hay with 
0.18 lb. of protein-rich cotton- or linseed meal per head daily, increased 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 523 

the gains and lowered the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain. 
Lambs will go off feed more readily when corn is fed without being 
properly supplemented by some protein-rich feed. On the other hand, 
in these trials the lambs fed corn and legume hay or corn, carbonaceous 
hay, and a nitrogenous supplement had good appetites at all times. 

846. Corn alone and in combination. — Altho corn and legume hay alone 
have given excellent results in numerous experiments and in extensive 
commercial feeding, many maintain that the animals have better appe- 
tites and are less subject to digestive disorders when a variety of grains 
is used, especially toward the close of the fattening period, or when 
lambs are being forced on heavy grain allowances. Without question, 
mixing a more bulky concentrate, such as oats or wheat bran, with corn 
is advisable to prevent digestive trouble in starting animals on feed. 
Whether there is any benefit in adding other feeds to corn for the sake 
of variety when the lambs are on full feed seems to be an unsettled ques- 
tion, for in trials reviewed later (851), the Indiana Station secured just 
as good results with corn as the sole concentrate, when fed with clover 
hay and corn silage, as with a combination of corn and oats. Much of 
the trouble experienced in feeding corn as the sole concentrate is due 
to its improper use with carbonaceous roughage without any nitrogenous 
supplement. 

At the Wisconsin Station Craig 1 fed lambs grazing on bluegrass pasture 
corn meal alone, corn meal and oats, or corn meal and peas for 8 weeks be- 
fore weaning and for the same period after weaning. The lambs fed corn 
meal alone made the largest and most economical gains before weaning, 
and as large and economical gains as the other lots after weaning. In 
this case, the needed protein came from the dam's milk and the pasture 
grass. 

847. Feeding corn in various forms. — To determine the relative efficiency 
of different methods of preparing corn for fattening lambs, Evvard 2 at 
the Iowa Station fed 6 lots, of 40 range lambs each, averaging 52 lbs., 
corn in various forms, as shown in the table, all lots getting 0.6 lb. al- 
falfa hay, 0.7 lb. corn silage, and 0.15 lb. linseed meal per head daily in 
addition. 

Various methods of preparing corn for fattening lambs 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Cost of 

Daily Concen- 100 lbs. 

Average daily corn allowance gain trates Hay Silage gain* 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I, Whole ear corn, 1 .3 lbs 0.33 438 181 225 5.95 

Lbt II, Broken ear corn, 1 .3 lbs 0.33 425 177 220 5.86 

Lot III, Shelled corn, 1 .3 lbs .34 416 175 217 5 81 

Lot IV, Ground corn, 1 .2 lbs .33 425 184 228 6 .18 

Lot V, Whole, broken and ground 

corn, 1.3 lbs 0.35 399 167 208 5.51 

Lot VI, Corn-and-cob meal, 1.2 lbs.. 0.34 415 172 214 5.77 

•Corn, per bushel, on basis of 56 lbs. grain— whole ear 54 cts., broken ear 55 cts., shelled 56 cts., 
ground 59 cts., and corn-and-cob meal 60 cts.; oil meal, S30; silage, 83.50; and alfalfa hay $12 per ton. 

'Wis. Rpt. 1897. "Information to the authors. 



524 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

In the table the equivalent amount of shelled corn is given for each 
lot; e. g., each lamb in Lot I received daily ear corn equivalent to 1.3 
lbs. of shelled corn. The whole ear corn, fed Lot I, made practically 
as large and economical gains as broken ear corn or shelled corn, tho 
shelling the corn decreased the feed required for 100 lbs. gain enough 
to slightly more than pay the expense. Wing 3 declares that no ration will 
make better or more marketable lambs than a combination of ear corn, 
corn silage, and alfalfa hay. Lot IV, fed ground corn, made the lowest 
gains in the trial. From previous trials Evvard concluded that the best 
results may be secured by starting the lambs on ear corn, changing to 
broken ear corn as the feeding period progresses, and finishing on ground 
corn and broken ear corn ; i. e., increasing the preparation of the grain 
fed as the lambs fatten. Lot V, fed in this manner, made slightly the 
largest and most economical gains. Corn-and-cob meal ranked second in 
amount of gains and economy of production. To study the most econom- 
ical method of preparing corn for lambs fed clover hay Coffey fed 5 lots, 
each of 16 western lambs averaging 65 lbs. in weight, clover hay and corn 
in various forms for 98 days in a trial at the Illinois Station 4 with the 
results shown in the table : 

Methods of preparing corn for fattening lambs 

Daily 
Average ration gain 

Lbs. 

Lot I, Ear corn, 1 .6 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs .293 

Lot II, Shelled corn, 1 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs.. . . .295 
Lot III, Ground corn, 1 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs. . . .264 
Lot IV, Corn-and-cob meal, 1 .5 lbs. C. hay, 1 .2 lbs. .264 
Lot V, Shelled corn, .06 lb. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. 

Shock corn, 2.7 lbs.... 0.247 

*Reduced to shelled corn basis. 

tShock corn, containing 53 per ct. of ears. 

The lambs in Lot II, fed shelled corn, made the largest and most eco- 
nomical gains. Both ground corn and corn-and-cob meal produced 
smaller and more expensive gains than did shelled corn. Ear corn, 
fed Lot I, produced about as large and economical gains as shelled 
corn. Lot V was fed a small amount of shelled corn until they had 
learned to husk shock corn, and thereafter were given corn only in the 
form of shock corn. These lambs made somewhat lower gains than the 
other lots, and, including the corn in the shock corn, required 522 lbs. 
of corn for 100 lbs. gain. Coffey points out that both ear corn and shock 
corn are better suited for feeding on a thick sod than in a dry lot or 
barn, for they may be scattered on the sod so that each lamb will have 
an equal chance to feed and little will be wasted. In the lot or barn 
lambs are apt to drop the ears on the ground where they become soiled 
or bunch them up in the trough so that each lamb does not get its share. 

From these trials we may conclude that it will rarely pay to grind 
corn for fattening lambs, except perhaps where they are fairly fat and 

3 Sheep Farming in America, p. 285. "Information to the authors. 



Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Corn 


Roughage 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


439* 


453 


432 


449 


483 


505 


489* 


475 


23 j 


406 
l,lllt 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



525 



it is desired to continue feeding them for some time. (423, 835) When 
ground corn is to be fed, it should be cracked or ground coarsely, for 
Carlvle 5 found in repeated trials that lambs ate corn ground coarsely 
much more readily than that which was fine and powdery. 

848. Barley. — Thruout the western range district, where but little 
corn is grown, barley is extensively used for fattening sheep and lambs. 
In the following table are summarized the results of 6 trials, averaging 
96 days, in which brewing or Scotch barley was compared with shelled 
corn for fattening lambs when fed with alfalfa hay. The table also 
summarizes 4 trials, averaging 98 days, in which barley was compared 
with shelled corn when fed with carbonaceous roughage — prairie, timothy, 
or mixed prairie and brome hay. 



Barley vs. corn for fattening 


lambs 








Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


Grain 


Hay 


With alfalfa hay* 
Lot I, total of 355 lambs 
Whole barley, 0.9 lb. 

Alfalfa hav, 2 4 lbs 


Lbs. 

62 
60 

71 
71 


Lbs. 
0.31 

0.32 

0.21 
0.23 


Lbs. 

296 

283 

580 
528 


Lbs. 

777 


Lot II, total of 355 lambs 
Shelled corn, 0.9 lb. 

Alfalfa hay, 2 3 lbs 


708 


With carbonaceous hay] 
Lot I, total of 57 lambs 
Whole barlev, 1 .2 lbs. 

Hay, 1.3 lbs 


598 


Lot II, total of 57 lambs 
Shelled corn, 1 .2 lbs. 

Hay, 1.3 lbs 


586 



♦Average of 3 trials bv Faville (Wyo. Buls. 81, 85, 103), 1 by Buffum and Griffin (Colo. Bui .75), and 
2 bv Morton (Colo. Bui. 1S7). 

t Average of 1 trial each by Havs (Minn. Bui. 31), Morton (Wyo. Bui. 73), Faville (Wyo. Bui. 89), and 
Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Bui. 86). 

With alfalfa hay for roughage, the lambs fed whole barley made only 
slightly smaller gains than those fed corn, the former consuming 5 per ct. 
more grain and 10 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain. In trials by Mor- 
ton with 450 lambs, Scotch barley proved fully equal to shelled corn in 
the amount and economy of gains. With carbonaceous hay, the barley- 
fed lambs required 10 per ct. more grain and only 2 per ct. more hay 
for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn. These trials show that good brew- 
ing or Scotch barley nearly equals corn for fattening lambs. California 
feed barley was found by Morton to have slightly lower value than the 
heavier Scotch barley, lambs given feed barley requiring 11 per ct. more 
grain and 4 per ct. more alfalfa hay than those fed Scotch barley. Altho 
somewhat richer in protein than corn, barley is decidedly a carbonaceous 
grain and hence gives the best results when fed with legume hay, as the 

3 Wis. Rpt. 1899, p. 45. 



526 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



table shows. When fed with carbonaceous hay, the ration should be sup- 
plemented with a protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or cottonseed 
meal. (226) 

At the Wyoming Station Faville found that soaking, cracking, or 
grinding western Scotch barley, which is harder than eastern brewing 
barley, did not increase its value for lambs. It will probably pay to roll 
or crack the hard bald or hulless barley, as Faville 7 found that lambs 
passed more of it undigested than of Scotch barley. Cooke 8 at the Colo- 
rado Station found that, when ground, bald barley formed a sticky mass 
in the lambs' mouths and they would not consume more than 1 lb. per 
head daily. (835) 

849. Wheat. — Rarely will wheat be fed to sheep unless off grade or 
low in price. To show its value compared with shelled corn, the fol- 
lowing table presents the results of 3 trials, averaging 104 days, in which 
good quality common wheat was compared with corn in lamb-feeding 
trials. In the table are also summarized the results of 3 trials, aver- 
aging 101 days, in which wheat and barley were compared. 

Wheat vs. corn or barley for fattening lambs 



Average ration 



Wheat vs. corn* 

Lot I, total of 29 lambs 
Wheat. 1.4 lbs. 

Hay, 1 .5 lbs 

Lot II, total of 29 lambs 

Shelled corn, 1.4 lbs. 

Hay, 1.5 lbs 



Wheat vs. barley^ 
Lot I, total of 56 lambs 
Wheat, 1 .0 lb. 

Hay, 1.7 lbs 

Lot II, total of 56 lambs 
Barley, 1.6 lb. 

Hay, 1.8 lbs 



Initial 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


weight 


Grain 


Hay 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


78 


0.30 


524 


482 


79 


0.30 


515 


472 


66 


0.25 


382 


686 


69 


0.25 


400 


712 



*Average of 2 trials by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Buls. 80, 86) and 1 by F. B. Mumford (Mich. 
Bui. 128). 

fAverage of 2 trials by Linfield (Mont. Buls. 47, 59) and 1 by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Bui. 86). 



The lambs fed wheat made the same gains as those fed corn, and re- 
quired only 2 per ct. more grain and hay for 100 lbs. gain. Those fed 
wheat and barley also made the same average daily gains, but the barley- 
fed lots required 5 per ct. more grain and 3 per ct. more hay for 100 
lbs. gain. Carlyle and Iddings 9 likewise found wheat slightly superior 
to barley in a trial with 505 lambs at the Idaho Station in which 0.8 
lb. of either wheat or barley was fed with a basal ration of 0.3 lb. oats 
and 2.4 lbs. alfalfa hay. These experiments, confirmed by British tri- 

°Wyo. Bui. 10S. 7 Wyo. Bui. 89. s Colo. Bui. 40. !l Tdaho Bui. 77. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 527 

als, 10 show that good quality wheat is slightly superior to barley and 
nearly equal to corn for fattening sheep. Since wheat is a carbonaceous 
grain, the best results are secured when it is fed with legume hay. 

In 2 trials at the South Dakota Station Wilson and Skinner 11 found 
durum, or macaroni, wheat practically equal to common wheat for fat- 
tening lambs. Frosted wheat, in a trial by Foster and Merrill 12 at the 
Utah Station, produced as large and more economical gains than market- 
able wheat. (215) 

850. Wheat screenings. — The value of wheat screenings from the ele- 
vators and mills depends on their quality, the light, chaffy grades being 
more like a roughage than a concentrate. Successful feeders wisely util- 
ize screenings of low grade in getting the lambs on feed, and as fatten- 
ing advances change to the heavier screenings. Hundreds of thousands 
of Montana sheep and lambs were annually fed during the nineties on 
wheat screenings in feed lots near St. Paul, Minnesota. The screenings 
were fed in sheds and usually from self feeders, as the bits of chaff and 
straw in the feed render it so bulky that there is less danger of founder- 
ing than when corn is fed in self feeders. With the bulky class of screen- 
ings which were used, little or no hay was required. During the season 
of 1902 about 330,000 sheep and lambs were fattened in these feed lots. 13 
Two years later the number fell below 200,000, and at the present time, 
because of prohibitory prices for screenings and their poor quality, this 
district has ceased to be a factor of importance in the winter mutton 
suppty. Screenings are still employed more or less extensively in other 
sections of the country for sheep feeding. (222) 

The relative value of heavy wheat screenings and good wheat for fat- 
tening lambs is shown in the following table summarizing 3 trials, from 
90 to 97 days in length, where either clover or alfalfa hay was fed for 
roughage to lambs averaging 58 lbs. in weight. 

Wheat screenings vs. good-quality wheat for lambs 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Grain Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Lot I, 68 lambs* 

Wheat screenings, 0.8 lb. Legume hay, 1 .8 lbs .26 307 695 

Lot II, 70 lambs* 

Wheat, 0.8 lb. Legume hay, 1 .7 lbs .22 347 744 

♦Average of 2 trials by Linfield (Mont. Buls. 47, 59) and 1 by Foster and Merrill (Utah Bui. 78). 

The table shows that when fed with legume hay heavy-weight screen- 
ings produced larger and more economical gains than good wheat. Fos- 
ter and Merrill found that it required 35 per ct. more light-weight, chaffy 
screenings than those of heavy weight for 100 lbs. of gain. Screenings 
should be fed close to the mills or elevators, thereby avoiding large 

10 Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1910. 
11 S. D. Bui. 86. 12 Utah Bui. 78. 
,3 Breeder's Gazette. 46. 1904, p. 1000. 



528 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



freight bills. As with wheat, the best returns come thru feeding in com- 
bination with legume hay. 

Lambs fed by Hays 14 at the Minnesota Station on unground screen- 
ings containing 90 per ct. of either small wheat, wild buckwheat, 
or pigeon-grass seed, made as large gains as others receiving cracked 
corn, but required 42 per ct. more grain per 100 lbs. gain, in the case 
of those fed small wheat, and 67 per ct. more with those fed pigeon- 
grass seed. To prevent the spread of weeds, screenings should be ground. 

851. Oats. — This grain, so well liked by sheep, is especially useful and 
safe in getting them on feed and is excellent for the breeding flock. 
(883) Owing to their usual high price and the fact that they induce 
growth rather than fattening, oats are rarely economical ■ as the sole 
grain for fattening sheep. When used, the proportion of oats to other 
concentrates should be decreased as the fattening period progresses. 
At the South Dakota Station Wilson and H. G. Skinner 15 compared 
the value of oats and shelled corn as the sole grain for lambs fed mixed 
prairie and brome hay for roughage in trials averaging 111 days, with 
the results shown in the following table. In the second division of the 
table are given the results secured by J. H. Skinner and King 10 at the 
Indiana Station in three 90-day trials, in which a mixture of oats and 
corn was compared with shelled corn alone, clover hay and corn silage 
forming the roughage. 

Value of oats for fattening lambs 





Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


Grain 


Hay 


Silage 


Oats vs. corn 
Lot I, 10 lambs 
Oats, 1.6 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 1 .3 lbs 


Lbs. 

70 
71 

60 
60 


Lbs. 

0.25 

0.28 

0.32 
0.33 


Lbs. 

650 
561 

365 
349 


Lbs. 

535 

485 

329 
323 


Lbs. 


Lot II, 10 lambs 

Shelled corn, 1 .5 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 1 3 lbs 




Oats and corn vs. corn 
Lot I, total of 75 lambs 
Oats, 0.5 lb. 
Corn, 0.7 1b. 
Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. 
Corn silage, 1 4 lbs 


453 


Lot II, total of 75 lambs 
Corn, 1 .2 lbs. 
Clover hay, 1 . 1 lbs. 
Corn silage, 1 4 lbs 


428 









Both in the South Dakota trial where oats was fed as the sole grain 
and in the Indiana trials where a mixture of oats and shelled corn was 
used, the lambs getting either oats or oats and corn, required more feed 

"Minn. Bui. 31. 1= S. D. Bui. 86. 

,0 Ind. Buls. 168, 179; information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



529 



for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn only. The Indiana trials show that 
in a ration properly balanced with legume roughage corn alone is as satis- 
factory for fattening lambs as a mixture of corn and oats. 

In the South Dakota trial the lambs fed corn made larger and more 
economical gains than those fed oats. In the Indiana trials the lambs 
fed corn as the sole grain made slightly larger gains than those fed a 
mixture of oats and corn, and required less feed per 100 lbs. gain. In 
starting Lot II on feed, some oats was mixed with the corn during the 
first few days. These trials indicate that when lambs are on full feed. 
corn as the sole grain is as satisfactory as a mixture of corn and oats, 
when fed with legume hay. (846) 

In 2 trials at the Montana Station by Linneld 17 lambs fed clover hay 
for roughage made nearly as large gains on oats as those fed barley, but 
required 6 per ct. more grain and 5 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain. 
(223) 

852. Emmer. — Owing to greatly increased production, emmer (wrongly 
called spelt) has become an important concentrate for sheep and lambs 
in the northern plains states. The value of emmer compared with shelled 
corn is shown in the following table, in which the results are summarized 
for 3 trials, averaging 91 days, where alfalfa hay was fed, and 2 trials, 
averaging 110 days, in which the roughage was prairie and brome hay : 



Emmer vs. com for fattening 


lambs 








Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


Grain 


Hay 


With alfalfa hay, 3 trials* 
Lot I, total of 81 lambs 
Emmer, 0.9 lb. 

Alfalfa hay, 2 4 lbs 


Lbs. 

59 
59 

75 
76 


Lbs. 

0.28 
0.31 

0.29 
0.32 


Lbs. 

324 
276 

660 
513 


Lbs. 

875 


Lot II, total of 81 lambs 
Shelled corn, 0.9 1b. 

Alfalfa hay, 2.2 lbs 

With mixed hay, 2 trials] 
Lot I, total of 18 lambs 
Emmer, 1 .8 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 1 4 lbs 


673 
511 


Lot II, total of 19 lambs 
Shelled corn, 1 .6 lbs. 

Mixed hay, 1 .4 lbs 


462 



♦Average of 2 trials by Faville (Wyo. Bub. 81, 85) and 1 by Buffum and Griffin (Colo. Bui. 75). 
fAverage of 2 trials by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Buls. 80, 86). 

Both with alfalfa and with prairie and brome hay as the roughage, 
emmer produced 0.03 lb. less daily gain per lamb, altho the lambs fed 
emmer ate as much or more grain. With alfalfa hay, the corn-fed lambs 
required only 85 per ct. as much grain and 77 per ct. as much hay for 
100 lbs. gain as those fed emmer. "With prairie and brome hay, 78 per 

"Mont. Buls. 47, 59. 



530 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

ct. as much grain and 90 per ct. as much hay was required by the corn- 
fed lambs as by those receiving emmer. Considering the larger amount 
of both grain and hay required per 100 lbs. gain by the lambs fed emmer, 
we may conclude the value of emmer to be about 80 per ct. that of shelled 
corn. In the South Dakota trials emmer had a somewhat higher value 
when fed with barley or corn, than when used as the sole concentrate. 
(233) 

853. Kafir; milo. — Cochel of the Kansas Station 18 compared kafir and 
shelled corn in a 60-day trial with 3 lots, each of fifty 56-lb. lambs, fed 
1.4 lbs. alfalfa hay and 1.1 lbs. sweet-sorghum silage per head daily for 
roughage. 

Kafir vs. com for fattening lambs 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average concentrate allowance gain Grain Hay Silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Whole kafir, 0.9 1b. Cottonseed meal, 0.19 lb. 0.35 308 385 309 
Ground kafir, 0.9 lb. Cottonseed meal, 0.19 lb. 0.36 303 378 303 
Shelled com, 0.9 lb. Cottonseed meal, 0.19 lb. 0.40 269 335 271 

In this, as in 2 previous trials at the same Station, 19 lambs fed kafir 
made satisfactory, tho slightly smaller gains than those fed corn. The 
lambs fed kafir in this test required about 15 per ct. more feed for 100 
lbs. gain than those receiving corn. Grinding kafir did not increase its 
value for sheep. This trial is valuable and important in showing the 
excellent returns possible from feeds so well adapted to the southern 
plains states — sorghum silage, alfalfa hay, kafir, and cottonseed meal. 
Tho the stations have reported no tests with milo for fattening sheep, 
it should have substantially the same value as kafir. (236-40, 810) 

854. Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Dried beet pulp pro- 
duced as large and as economical gains as corn in a trial by Shaw at 
the Michigan Station 20 in which mixtures of either 4 parts dried beet 
pulp or 4 of corn, together with 2 parts wheat bran and 1 part linseed 
meal, were fed with clover hay to western lambs. Humphrey and Klein- 
heinz of the Wisconsin Station 21 found dried beet pulp equal to corn 
for producing growth in ewe lambs when oats were fed with both. (275) 

Molasses-beet pulp showed no marked superiority over ordinary dried 
beet pulp in the trial by Shaw when 3 parts of either was fed with 1 
part of linseed meal, clover hay forming the roughage. (277) 

Beet molasses is now in some instances being fed to sheep in the vi- 
cinity of beet sugar factories in the West. Morton of the Colorado Sta- 
tion 22 states that it is used chiefly with the cheaper grades of sheep, 
such as old ewes. To avoid "smearing" the wool, the molasses is pref- 
erably mixed thoroly with cut hay or straw. In some cases no other 
concentrate is fed, and in others wet beet pulp and a little cottonseed 
cake are added to the ration. (276) 

15 Information to the authors. a Wis. Rpt. 1906. 

'"Breeder's Gaz., 51, 1907, p. 960. - Information to the authors. 

20 Mich. Bui. 220. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



531 



Millet seed, coarsely ground, was found by Wilson and H. G. Skinner 23 
practically equal to corn for fattening lambs when fed with, mixed prai- 
rie and brome hay. Sheep fed whole millet voided a large percentage 
of the seed undigested. (243) 

855. Linseed and cottonseed meal or cake. — The value of these nitrog- 
enous concentrates, the supplements most commonly used with sheep 
in balancing rations deficient in protein, has already been pointed out. 
(845) The relative value of linseed and cottonseed meal is shown in 2 
trials presented in the following table, the first by Carmichael at the 
Ohio Station 24 and the second by Mumford, Trowbridge, and Hackedorn 
at the Missouri Station. 25 



Linseed vs. cottonseed meal for fattening sheep 






Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Average ration 


Concen- 
trates 


Hay 


Ohio Station, 112-day trial 
Lot I, 40 lambs 

Linseed meal, .2 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1 .0 lb. 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs 


Lba. 

65 

67 

79 

78 


Lbs. 

0.30 
0.31 

0.25 
0.24 


Lbs. 

397 
388 

491 
511 


Lbs. 
497 


Lot II, 40 lambs 

Cottonseed meal, .2 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1.0 1b. 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 . 5 lbs 


486 


Missouri Station, 9S-day trial 

Lot I, 20 yearling wethers 

Linseed meal, 0.2 lb. 

Shelled corn, 1 . 1 lbs. 

Clover hay, 1 .8 lbs 


703 


Lot II, 20 yearling wethers 
Cottonseed meal, .2 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1 . 1 lbs. 

Clover hay, 1 .8 lbs. . . 


748 



These trials show that cotton- and linseed meal have substantially the 
same value for balancing the rations of fattening sheep and lambs. 
(250, 254) 

Undecorticated cottonseed cake, which is similar to the cold-pressed 
cake sold in this country (248), was found by Bruce 20 at the Edinburgh 
Agricultural College to produce 0.06 lb. less gain per head daily with 
yearling wethers than linseed cake, when both were fed as the sole 
concentrate with hay and turnips. Wethers fed undecorticated cotton- 
seed cake required 20 per ct. more cake and 29 per ct. more roots than 
those fed linseed cake. Lambs should not receive more than half a pound 
of linseed or cottonseed meal per head daily, and one-eighth or one- 
fourth pound, in combination with other concentrates, will usually pro- 

23 S. D. Bui. 86. :s Mo. Bui. 115. 

- 4 Ohio Bui. 179. ^Edinburgh and East of Scot. Col. Agr., Bui. 10. 



532 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

vide a well-balanced ration. Linseed cake of pea size is better relished 
by sheep than the finely ground meal. (883) 

856. Minor protein-rich concentrates. — Field peas and soybeans are 
usually too expensive to form the entire concentrate allowance for fat- 
tening lambs, but may be used with corn or other grains. Of several 
concentrate mixtures tested for fitting yearling wethers for show, the 
best results were secured with a mixture of peas, oats, and bran. Hum- 
phrey and Kleinheinz of the Wisconsin Station 27 show that peas produce 
firm flesh and, combined with other grains, are especially helpful in 
securing high quality mutton. (261, 863, 883) 

Richards and Kleinheinz 28 fed one lot of 10 ewe lambs equal parts of 
soybeans and shelled corn and another equal parts of oats and corn, 
all receiving a daily roughage allowance of 0.8 lb. hay and 0.6 lb. corn 
stover per head. The results of the trial, which lasted 84 days, are shown 
below : 

Soybeans vs. oats for ewe lambs 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average grain allowance gain Grain Roughage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Soybeans and corn, 1 .2 lbs . 19 611 711 

Lot II, Oats and corn, 1 .2 lbs . 16 728 862 

With these lambs, lightby fed, since they were intended for the breed- 
ing flock, soybeans and corn produced larger and more economical gains 
than oats and corn. (256) 

Wheat bran should form no large part of the concentrate allowance 
for fattening sheep, for, like oats, it induces growth rather than fatten- 
ing and is too bulky. When lambs are being started on feed, bran is 
useful for mixing with corn and other heavy concentrates to forestall 
digestive troubles. Bran is a most valuable feed for breeding ewes. 
(218, 883) 

Dried distillers' and brewers' grams, rarely fed to sheep in this coun- 
try, have given good results in Europe. 29 Aitken 30 of Scotland found that 
dried distillers' grains fed with roots, or with roots and hay, to fatten- 
ing sheep produced as large gains as linseed meal. (282, 228) 

Gluten feed, tho not relished by sheep, in a trial by Gilchrist 31 at 
Durham College, England, produced larger gains than split peas or equal 
parts of barley meal and undecorticated cottonseed meal, when fed as 
the sole concentrate with hay and rutabagas. (210) 

Flesh meal, according to Schenke, 32 was readily consumed by sheep 
when it was fed with better-liked feed and formed not more than 5 to 

"Wis. Rpt. 1905 and Bui. 232. 

^Wis. Rpt. 1904. 

29 Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 241. 

30 Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1900, 1901. 

"Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1910, p. 253. 

33 Landw. vers. Stat., 58, 1903, pp. 26, 27. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 533 

10 per ct. of the ration. Flesh meal produced larger but less economical 
gains than grain alone, and evidently increased the wool production. 

Dried blood, fed to young lambs in place of milk, at the rate of about 
0.5 lb. daily for each 100 lbs. live weight, gave excellent results in a 
trial by Regnard. 33 (271) 

Tankage was found by Morrison and Kleinheinz 34 at the Wisconsin 
Station to be readily eaten by lambs when mixed with 9 parts coarsely 
ground corn. "When fed with corn and poor-quality, over-ripe blue- 
grass hay, both feeds low in protein, 10 per ct. tankage was as effective 
as 18 per ct. linseed meal in balancing the ration. (270) 

II. Roughages for Sheep 

857. Legume hay. — The legumes are the prime source of roughage for 
sheep — in the East clover and alfalfa, thruout the "West alfalfa with 
clover and field peas in certain sections, and in the South the cowpea, 
beggarweed, and other plants. It is more important for sheep than for 
cattle that the hay be fine-stemmed and leafy. 

The superiority of legume over carbonaceous hay for sheep is shown 
in the following summary of 5 trials, averaging 99 days, in which rations 
of clover or alfalfa hay with corn as the sole concentrate, have been com- 
pared with rations of timothy or prairie hay with corn and cotton- or 
linseed meal, which were equally well balanced so far as the amount of 
protein was concerned : 

Legume hay vs. carbonaceous hay for fattening lambs 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Legume hay, 71 lambs* 

Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs. 

Corn, 1 .3 lbs 63 .32 388 455 

Carbonaceous hay, 63 lambs* . 
Timothy or prairie hay, 1 .0 lb. 
Corn, 1 .0 lb. 
Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb : 63 0.24 505 422 

♦Average of 1 trial by Burnett (Nebr. Bui. 66), 1 by McDonald and Malone (Okla. Bui. 78), 1 by 
Morton (Colo. Bui. 73), and 2 by Skinner and King (Ind. Bui. 162). 

Tho the lambs fed timothy or prairie hay received a well-balanced 
ration, those on clover or alfalfa made much larger gains and required 
less feed per 100 lbs. gain. So long as there is an ample supply of good 
legume hay of any kind, sheep show little desire for other roughage. 
(Chapter XIV) 

858. Nitrogenous supplement with corn and legume hay. — The ad- 
vantage of adding a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn and 
legume hay for fattening lambs has been studied by several stations. 
The following table summarizes 10 trials in which a ration of clover or 
alfalfa hay with corn alone was compared with the legume hay and corn 
plus cotton- or linseed meal. 

88 Pott. Handb. Ernahr. u. Putter.. Ill, 1909, p. 515. 3< Unpublished data. 



534 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Adding a supplement to a ration of corn and legume hay 

Average ration 



Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


weight 


gain 
Lbs. 


Concentrates Hay 


Lba. 


Lbs. Lbs. 



Lot I, 193 lambs* 
Corn, 1 .3 lbs. 
Legume hay, 1 .4 lbs 63 .32 402 424 

Lot II, 193 lambs* 
Corn, 1.1 lbs. 
Cotton- or linseed meal, .2 lb. 

Legume hay, 1 .4 lbs 63 0.33 402 428 

♦Average of 5 trials by Carmichael and Hammond (Ohio Buls. 187, 245), 1 by Coffey (111. Station, 
information to the authors), 1 by F. B. Mumford (Mich. Bui. 113), and 3 by Skinner and King (Ind. 
Buls. 162, 168). 

In 7 of the trials the lambs fed the nitrogenous supplement made 
slightly larger gains and in 3, smaller gains than those on corn and 
legume hay alone. On the average, replacing 0.2 lb. of corn in the 
ration by the same weight of cotton- or linseed meal increased the daily 
gain 0.1 lb. but did not decrease the amount of concentrates or hay 
consumed for 100 lbs. gain. With normal prices for corn and nitrog- 
enous concentrates, the only advantage from adding a nitrogenous sup- 
plement to an already well-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is 
evidently the fact that the gains are usually somewhat more rapid, en- 
abling the feeder to put the lambs in condition for the market in a 
shorter time. 

859. Legume hays compared. — Red clover, one of the best roughages 
for sheep, should be cut early to secure the leaves and heads, which are 
the portions most desired. (347) The relative values of alfalfa and clo- 
ver hay for sheep is a disputed point. In trials covering 3 years at the 
Ohio Station, 35 Carmichael and Hammond found that lambs fed good 
quality alfalfa hay and shelled corn gained 0.2 lb. more per day on the 
average than those fed clover hay of the same quality, tho consuming 
16 lbs. less grain and 9 lbs. less hay per 100 lbs. gain. Humphrey and 
Kleinheinz, when fitting yearling wethers for exhibition during 3 years 
at the Wisconsin Station, 30 found that clover hay produced slightly 
larger -and more economical gains, but the carcasses from the alfalfa- 
fed wethers were superior. Skinner and King 37 in a 90-day test found 
good clover slightly superior to good alfalfa hay for fattening lambs 
when fed with shelled corn. From these data we may conclude that there 
is no material difference in the value of clover and alfalfa hays for sheep. 
(338) R. S. Shaw found alsike clover hay slightly superior to alfalfa 
or red clover in a trial at the Montana Station 38 where lambs were fed 
grain, hay, and roots. (350) Cowpea hay proved equal to alfalfa hay 
in a trial by McDonald and Malone at the Oklahoma Station, 39 while at 
the Kansas Station lambs fed cowpea hay by Cochel 40 required 14 per 

■^Ohio Bui. 245. :;, Mont. Bui. 21. 

:m Information to the authors. !9 0kla. Bui. 78. 

"Ind. Bui. 179. "'Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 535 

et. more grain and silage and 29 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain than 
others fed alfalfa hay. (357) In a trial at the South Dakota Station" 
Wilson found sweet clover hay a palatable and satisfactory roughage, 
tho somewhat inferior to alfalfa. Lambs fed equal parts of shelled corn 
and oats with sweet clover hay, gained 0.43 lb. per head daily during a 
67-day trial, requiring 442 lbs. grain and 319 lbs. hay for 100 lbs. gain. 
(352) In the same trial field pea hay, while relished by the lambs, pro- 
duced lower gains than either alfalfa or sweet clover hay. (355) 

Field bean straw proved a good substitute for clover hay in a trial by 
II. W. Mumford at the Michigan Station, 42 lambs fed a ration of 1.5 
lbs. bean straw, 1.4 lbs. shelled corn and 1.2 lbs. rutabagas gaining 0.30 
lb. daily, in comparison with 0.33 lb. for lambs fed clover hay. With 
bean straw, 9 per ct. more grain and 35 per ct. more dry fodder was re- 
quired per 100 lbs. gain than with clover hay. Lambs fed a ration of 
1.2 lbs. soybean straiv, 1.2 lbs. shelled corn and 0.2 lb. linseed meal by 
Carmichael and Hammond at the Ohio Station 43 made daily gains of 
0.28 lb. per head and required 499 lbs. concentrates and 420 lbs. soy- 
bean straw per 100 lbs. gain — a fair gain, tho 19 per ct. less than was 
made by lambs fed corn with alfalfa or clover hay. (329) 

860. Field peas. — The fattening of lambs by grazing on field peas is 
an important industry in certain sections of the West, especially in the 
San Luis valley, Colorado. 44 Mexican peas, similar to the common Ca- 
nadian field peas, are sown at the rate of 30 to 50 lbs. per acre, with a 
small quantity of oats or barley to support the vines and furnish ad- 
ditional feed. About November 1, as soon as most of the peas have 
matured, lambs or sheep are turned into the field, and without other 
feed are fattened in from 70 to 120 days. An acre of such peas will 
fatten from 8 to 15 lambs, each making a gain of from 6 to 8 lbs. per 
month. One acre of peas produces about $15 worth of lamb mutton at 
no expense for harvesting the crop. Confining the lambs to small areas 
by hurdles gives better results than allowing them to roam over the en- 
tire field. Sometimes the peas are cut, stacked, and fed to the lambs in 
yards. (355) 

At the Wyoming Station 45 lambs grazed on field peas made larger 
gains and reached market in better condition than others fed alfalfa 
and corn. In a second trial Morton 46 found that altho the gains of al- 
falfa and corn fed lambs were 50 per ct. greater than those grazed on 
field peas, due to the low cost of producing the peas the net returns 
were the same. In this trial the lambs consumed 0.6 acre of peas for 
each 100 lbs. gain. 

861. Timothy and other carbonaceous hay. — Timothy hay is unsatis- 
factory for sheep, being both unpalatable and constipating. The dry 
heads of this grass work into the wool, irritating the skin, lowering the 
quality of the wool and making shearing difficult. As has been shown 

"S. D. Bui. 143. "Ohio Bui. 245. <6 Wyo. Bui. 64. 

"Mich. Bui. 136. "Breeder's Gaz., 49, 1906, p. 244. w Wyo. Bui. 73. 



536 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

before (857), even when a nitrogenous supplement is added to timothy 
hay and corn, the ration is still inferior to one of legume hay and corn. 
Marsh hay is too coarse and woody for sheep. Bluegrass hay and bright 
oat straiv are preferable to either of these hays. (311, 328) Millet hay 
in a trial at the Michigan Station 47 by H. W. Mumford proved poorer 
than corn stover or oat straw. More care was necessary in feeding this 
hay than any other coarse fodder, as- it induced scours unless fed in 
limited quantity. (317) 

Western prairie hay, tho more palatable than timothy hay, is much 
inferior to alfalfa hay. (857) When prairie hay is fed with carbona- 
ceous grains, as corn, larger gains will be secured by the addition of 
some nitrogenous supplement to the ration. This is shown by the fol- 
lowing table, giving the average results of 2 trials at the Wyoming 48 
and 1 at the Nebraska Station : 49 



Value of . 

Average ration 

Lot I , total of 45 lambs 
Prairie hay, 1 .2 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 0.9 lb 


mppleme 


nt with prairie 

Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 

64 


hay and corn 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
gain Concentrates Hay 
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

. 19 485 628 



Lot II, total of 45 lambs 
Prairie hay, 1 .3 lbs. 
Shelled corn, 0.8 1b. 
■ Oil cake or meal, .2 lb 64 .23 451 547 

Lot II, fed oil meal in addition to prairie hay and corn, made larger 
gains than Lot I, receiving the unbalanced ration, and required 34 lbs. 
less grain and 81 lbs. less hay for 100 lbs. gain. When corn or other 
carbonaceous grains are very low in price compared with all nitrogenous 
concentrates, the unbalanced ration may prove more profitable for the 
feeder, even tho the lambs make less rapid gains. 

Sorghum hay ranks with corn stover, its value depending to a large 
extent upon its fineness. Burnett of the Nebraska Station 50 has shown 
that some nitrogenous supplement, such as linseed meal, should be added 
to a ration of corn and sorghum hay for the best results. (308) 

862. Corn stover and corn fodder; straw. — Next in value to hay from 
the legumes come the dry leaves of the corn plant. For sheep feeding, 
corn should be cut early and cured in well-made shocks. The sheep 
will eat a little more of the stalks if shredded, but cutting will not in- 
duce them to eat any of the coarser parts. (294-5) That neither corn 
stover nor straw should form the sole roughage for sheep is shown in 
the following table, which gives the average results secured by Car- 
michael and Hammond 51 at the Ohio Station in 2 trials, lasting 93 and 
83 days, and presents the data obtained by McDonald and Malone in 
a 140-day test with lambs at the Oklahoma Station : 52 

"Mich. Bui. 136. "Nebr. Bui. 66. "Ohio Bui. 245. 

'"Wye Buls. 73, 89. ™Nebr. Bui. 71. "Okla. Bui. 78. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



5.37 



Corn stover and oat straw for fattening lambs 





Concentrates fed daily 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Daily roughago allowance 




Cotton- or 


Concen- 


Dry 




Corn 


linseed meal 




trates 


fodder 


Ohio trials 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lot I, Clover hay, 1 .2 lbs 


1.3 




0.32 


389 


383 


Lot II, Corn stover, 1 .4 lbs 


1.1 


6 .21 


0.28 


453 


485 


Lot III, Oat straw, 1 . 1 lbs 


1.1 


0.21 


0.24 


527 


447 


Oklahoma trial 












Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs 


1.6 




0.36 


454 


411 


Lot II, Corn stover, .8 lb 












Alfalfa hav, 0.7 1b 


1.2 


0.40 


0.34 


479 


426 



While making fair gains and showing fair finish, the Ohio lambs fed 
stover consumed 16 per ct., and those fed oat straw 35 per ct., more con- 
centrates for 100 lbs. gain than Lot I, fed clover hay. Carmichael and 
Hammond conclude that at the prevailing prices for feeds and lambs, 
it is unprofitable to feed either corn stover or oat straw as the sole rough- 
age. In the Oklahoma trial, tho fed for an unusually long period, both 
lots of lambs made exceedingly good gains. Lot II, fed corn stover and 
alfalfa hay, made practically as large gains as Lot I, receiving twice 
as much alfalfa hay. The amount of concentrates required by this lot 
for 100 lbs. gain was also but little more than with Lot I. 

Coffey 53 of the Illinois Station states that experienced Michigan sheep 
feeders give oat straw at one feed and alfalfa hay at the next, claim- 
ing that the lambs so fed gain as well as tho alfalfa formed the sole 
roughage. With yearling wethers Coffey 54 secured daily gains of 0.26 
lb. per head on a ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw, and 
0.25 lb. on shelled corn, silage, and corn stover, in comparison with 0.29 
lb. on corn, alfalfa hay, and silage, and only 0.15 lb. on corn and oat 
straw alone. This trial shows clearly that for the best results straw 
should be fed with other more palatable roughage, especially succulent 
feed. Such good gains with rations as low in protein would have been 
impossible with lambs, which are growing as well as fattening. These 
trials show that, judiciously fed, such cheap roughages as corn stover 
and oat straw may lower the cost of mutton production. (296, 328) 
Shaw 55 advises that when both legume hay and some other less palat- 
able roughage are fed, the legume hay be given for the evening meal. 

Shock corn may be fed to sheep with satisfactory results, as is shown 
in a trial by Coffey 56 at the Illinois Station, which has been previously 
reviewed. (847) Whether it will be more profitable to feed shock corn or 
to husk and shell the corn before feeding will depend on the price of 
feeds and labor. 

"Breeder's Gaz., 66, 1914, p. 85. 

"Information to the authors. 

55 Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 212. 

58 Information to the authors. 



538 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



III. Succulent Feeds 

863. Value of succulent feeds. — One of the advantages of succulent 
feeds, so keenly relished by sheep, is their tonic and regulating effect. 
Roots are universally fed in large amounts to sheep in Great Britain, 
and to this fact may be attributed much of the reputation of the British 
shepherd for producing mutton of the highest quality. As is shown in 
the following articles, experiments in this country have proved that roots 
can be successfully replaced by corn silage, which is produced at lower 
cost in most sections of the United States. (109) 

864. Roots. — The value of roots for fattening lambs is shown in the 
following summary of 5 trials, averaging 113 days, in each of which 1 
lot was fed roots in addition to an already excellent ration of grain 
(chiefly corn) and either alfalfa, clover, or mixed clover and timothy hay. 

Value of roots for fattening lambs 



Average ration 

Roots, total of 1^1 lambs* 
Roots, 3 .7 lbs. 
Hay, 1.4 lbs. 

Grain, 1 .4 lbs 

No roots, total of 41 lambs' 1 
Hay, 1.7 lbs. 

Grain, 1 .5 lbs 



Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

weight gain Grain Rjots Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



81 0.39 374 940 358 

82 0.32 456 ... 525 



*Average of 3 trials by Kennedy, Robbins, and Kildee (Iowa Bui. 110), 1 by Smith and Mumford 
(Mich. Bui. 113), and 1 by Arkell (N. H. Bui. 152). 

In these trials the allowance of roots — mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, 
or turnips — ranged from 1.9 to 5.0 lbs. per head daily, the average being 
3.7 lbs. The lambs fed roots ate 0.1 lb. less grain and 0.3 lb. less hay per 
day but made 0.07 lb. larger daily gain. It is noteworthy that in each 
of the 5 trials the root-fed lambs made the larger gains. In these trials 
100 lbs. of roots replaced 8.8 lbs. of grain and 17.7 lbs. of hay. 

In trials at the Iowa Station by Kennedy, Robbins, and Kildee 57 sugar 
beets ranked first in amount and economy of gain, with mangels second, 
and turnips third. Since mangels and sugar beets when fed to sheep tend 
to produce calculi, or stones, in the kidneys or bladder, which are dan- 
gerous in the case of rams and wethers, these roots should not be fed 
to males for long periods. In the Iowa trials rams died after being 
fed on rations containing 4.4 lbs. of sugar beets or mangels for 5 to 6 
months. Ewes are not so affected. (365-74) 

865. Lessons from Great Britain. — The value of succulent feed in the 
form of roots for sheep fattening is well shown in the compilation made 
by Ingle of the results of sheep-feeding trials reported in G-reat Bri- 
tain 58 from 1844 to 1905, numbering 194. From his extended report 
the following typical examples show the use British farmers make of 
roots in fattening sheep and lambs: 

"Iowa Bui. 110. GS Trans. Highl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1910. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



539 



Rations used by British farmers in fattening sheep and lambs 

Initial Daily Total gain 
Average ration weight gain per head 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Oxford-Hampshire lambs, fed 87 days 

Roots, 5.7 lbs. 

Kohlrabi, 11.2 lbs. 

Clover hay, .38 lb. Linseed cake, .7 lb "117 .48 43 

Leicester-Blackfaced lambs, fed 105 days 

Swedes, 15.3 lbs. 

Hay, .7 lb. No concentrates 80 .21 22 

Oxford lambs, fed 102 days 

Swedes, 22 .9 lbs. Linseed cake, .3 lb. 

Hay, 0.4 1b. Barley, 0.3 1b 107 0.43 42 

Cotswold yearlings, fed 121 days 

Roots, 15 lbs. 

Hay, 1.0 1b. Cottonseed cake, 1 .6 lbs Ill 0.33 41 

Leicester-Blackfaced lambs, fed 6S days 

Swedes, 19.3 lbs. Dried dist. grains, 0.5 lb 72 0.39 25 

Leicester-Blackfaced lambs, fed 105 days 

Swedes, 12 .8 lbs. Linseed cake, .7 lb 81 .36 37 



Not only is the large allowance of roots noteworthy, but also the 
almost universal use of oil cake — linseed or cottonseed. The gains re- 
ported in the first trial are surprising, considering that the only con- 
centrate fed was 0.7 lb. linseed cake per head daily. In the second trial 
fair gains were secured on swedes and hay alone. In the last 2 trials 
the lambs fed no dry roughage, but only roots and dried distillers ' grains 
or linseed cake, made excellent daily gains. 

Altho these British trials show that large amounts of roots may be 
safely fed to sheep, it is not ordinarily profitable in this country to 
feed over 4 to 5 lbs. per head daily, and even half this allowance, pref- 
erably pulped or sliced, will furnish the needed succulence in the ration. 

866. Corn silage vs. roots. — Owing to the low cost of producing corn 
silage, the possible substitution of this succulence for roots is a question 
of prime importance. The following table summarizes the results of 7 
trials, averaging 116 days, in which corn silage and roots (sugar beets, 
mangels, rutabagas, or turnips) were compared, when fed with concen- 
trates and legume or mixed hay : 

Com silage vs. roots for fattening lambs 



Average ration 

Silage, total of 72 lambs* 
Corn silage, 3 .0 lbs. 
Hay, 1 .3 lbs. 

Concentrates, 1 .2 lbs. 
Roots, total of 90 lambs* 
Roots, 4.6 lbs. 
Hay, 1 .5 lbs. 
Concentrates, 1 .2 lbs. 



Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

weight gain Concentrates Hay Succulence 
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



89 0.30 396 439 1,040 



89 0.32 380 471 1,507 



♦Average of 3 trials bv Grisdale (Ottawa E^pt. Farms Rpts. 1910, 1911, 1912), 2 by Kennedy, Robbins, 
and Kildee (Iowa Bui. 110), and 2 by F. B. Mumford (Mich. Buls. 84, 107). 



540 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The lambs fed silage made the same gains in 2 of the trials, larger 
gains in 1, and somewhat smaller gains in the other 4 trials. On the 
average there was only 0.02 lb. difference in the daily gains of the lambs 
fed silage and roots. The silage-fed lambs required 16 lbs. more grain, but 
32 lbs. less hay for 100 lbs. gain than those fed roots, the larger require- 
ment of grain by the silage-fed lambs being offset by the larger con- 
sumption of hay by those fed roots. Thus, based on the feed required 
per 100 lbs. gain, 1,040 lbs. of silage replaced 1,507 lbs. of roots, due 
to the more watery nature of the roots. (366) 

867. Corn silage. — Only in recent years has the value of corn silage 
for cheapening the cost of fattening sheep been appreciated. The fol- 
lowing average of 7 trials, lasting from 70 to 105 days, in which a ration 
of clover hay and shelled corn was compared with one of corn silage, 
clover hay, and shelled corn for fattening lambs shows the benefits from 
adding silage to an already excellent ration : 

Value of corn silage when added to well-balanced ration 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Corn Hay Silage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, total of 147 lambs* 
Corn silage, 1 .4 lbs. 
Clover hay, 0.9 1b. 

Shelled corn, 1 .2 lbs 62 .326 360 284 425 

Lo> II, total of 147 lambs* 
Clover hay, 1 .5 lbs. 

Shelled corn, 1 .3 lbs 62 .323 394 471 

*Ave-age of 5 trials by Skinner and King (Ind. Buls. 162, 1G8, 179; and information to the authors), 
and 2 by Coffey of the 111. Station (Information to the authors). 

On the average, the lambs fed silage ate 0.6 lb. less hay and 0.1 lb. 
less corn daily yet gained slightly more than those fed clover hay and 
shelled corn. Adding silage to a ration of clover hay and corn does not, 
however, always result in increased gain, for in 4 of these trials the lambs 
fed no silage made the larger gains. The great advantage in feeding silage 
lies in the saving of corn and hay required for 100 lbs. of gain. In 
these trials 100 lbs. of corn silage saved 8.0 lbs. of corn and 44.0 lbs. of 
clover hay. With corn at a cent a pound and clover hay at $10 per 
ton, the silage fed had a value of $6.00 per ton, or nearly twice the cost 
of production on most farms. (410) Besides cheapening the gains in 
these trials the addition of silage to the ration usually resulted in higher 
finish and consequently in a greater selling price. (300, 411) 

Corn silage of good quality is as valuable for the breeding flock as 
for sheep being fattened for market. (884) The numerous instances 
in which sheep of all classes have died from eating moldy or decayed 
silage show that greater care is necessary in administering this feed 
to sheep than to cattle. As sour silage is apt to cause colic and scour- 
ing, silage for sheep should be made from well-matured corn. 

868. Supplements to silage, corn and legume hay. — It has already been 
shown that adding a nitrogenous concentrate such as cotton- or linseed 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



541 



meal to an already well-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is not 
ordinarily profitable. (858) When corn silage is added to a ration of 
corn and legume hay, all being fed in unlimited allowance, the lambs 
will eat less of the protein-rich hay, the nutritive ratio thereby being 
widened to a marked degree. Skinner and King 59 conducted trials dur- 
ing 5 successive years at the Indiana Station with 60-lb. lambs to deter- 
mine whether it would be profitable to add a nitrogenous concentrate 
(cottonseed meal) to such a ration. In 3 of the trials, as is shown in 
the table, they also determined whether it was more profitable to feed 
1 part of cottonseed meal to 7 or to 4 parts of shelled corn : 

Adding a supplement to a ration of corn, corn silage, and clover hay 





Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Nutritive 
ratio 


Average ration 


Concen- 
trates 


Hay 


Silage 


Supplement vs. no supplement, 5 trials 
Lot I, total of 115 lambs 
Cottonseed meal, 0.16 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1 . 1 lbs. 
Corn silage, 1 .3 lbs. 
Clover hay, 1.0 lb.. . 


Lbs. 

0.355 
0.331 

0.355 
0.358 


Lbs. 

348 
360 

337 
336 


Lbs. 

2S7 
299 

312 
307 


Lbs. 

368 
379 

428 
422 


16 8 


Lot II, total of 115 lambs 
Shelled corn, 1.2 lbs. 
Corn silage, 1 .2 lbs. 
Clover hay, 1 lb 


rs 8 


Amount of supplement, 3 trials 
Lot I, total of 75 lambs 
Cottonseed meal, . 15 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1 .0 lb. 
Corn silage, 1 .5 lbs. 
Clover hay, 1 . 1 lbs 


1:6.8 


Lot II, total of 75 lambs 
Cottonseed meal, 0.24 lb. 
Shelled corn, 1 .0 lb. 

Corn silage, 1 .5 lbs. 

Clover hav, 1 . 1 lbs 


1:6.1 



The first comparison shows that feeding 1 part of cottonseed meal 
with 7 parts of shelled corn increased the gains and slightly decreased 
the amount of feed for 100 lbs. of gain. This shows that the ration of 
shelled corn, corn silage, and clover hay, having a nutritive ratio of 
1 : 8.8, was too wide for the maximum gains with fattening lambs. It 
does not imply, however, that the most profitable gains are necessarily 
produced when a nitrogenous supplement is added, for the economy of 
the gains will depend on the relative price of corn and the supplement. 
In 2 of these trials cheaper gains were produced without cottonseed 
meal. On the average the lambs fed cottonseed meal reached slightly 
higher finish and sold for 5 cts. more per 100 lbs. In 3 trials the prof- 
it was greater and in the other 2 less when cottonseed meal was fed. 
Whether or not to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of shelled 

"Ind. Buls. 162, 168, 179; information to the authors. 



542 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



corn, corn silage, and legume hay must be determined by each feeder 
for himself, after taking into consideration the prices of feeds, the value 
of the manure, and the time the animals should be ready for the market. 

The second part of the table shows that the gains were not appreciably 
larger when 1 part of cottonseed meal was fed to 4 parts of corn than 
when the smaller allowance was used. In 2 of the 3 trials the gains 
were cheaper on the smaller allowance of cottonseed meal. These trials 
indicate that a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.8 is about as satis- 
factory for fattening lambs as the narrower ratio of 1 : 6.1. 

869. Amount of silage to feed. — That corn silage should not ordinarily 
form the sole roughage for fattening lambs is shown by the following 
summary of 2 trials, averaging 95 days, conducted by Skinner and King 
at the Indiana Station. 00 The table further gives the results for 3 trials, 
averaging 94 days, 1 by Skinner and King 61 and 2 by Coffey, 62 in which 
the relative value of large and small allowances of corn silage were com- 
pared when fed with clover hay and shelled corn. 



Amount of corn silage to feed fattening lambs 









Feed for 100 lbs. 


gain 




Initial 


Daily 








Average ration 


weight 


gain 


Concen- 
trates 


Hay 


Silage 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Silage vs. silage and hay, 2 trials 












Silage alone, 50 lambs 












Corn silage, 2 .2 lbs. 












Shelled corn, 1 .0 lb. 












Cottonseed meal, . 14 lb 


61 


0.26 


431 




856 


Silage and clover hay, 50 lambs 












Clover hay, 1 . 1 lbs. 












Corn silage, 1 .6 lbs. 












Shelled corn, 1 . 1 lbs. 












Cottonseed meal, . 16 lb 


61 


0.36 


344 


301 


436 


Large vs. small silage allowance, 3 trials 












Silage in small amount, 57 lambs 












Corn silage, 1 . 1 lbs. 












Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. 












Shelled corn, 1 2 lbs 


66 


0.31 


379 


332 


360 


Silage in large amount, 57 lambs 




Corn silage, 1 .7 lbs. 












Clover hay, 0.8 1b. 












Shelled corn, 1.2 lbs 


65 


0.32 


361 


268 


526 



In each of 2 trials averaged in the first portion of the table the lambs 
fed corn silage only for roughage made much smaller gains, had poorer 
appetites, and required more care to prevent going ' ' off feed. ' ' Tho in 
the first trial silage alone produced cheaper gains, the poorer finish of 
the lambs resulted in a sufficiently lower selling price to more than off- 
set the cheaper gains. In the other trials gains were cheaper and profit 
greater when hay was fed in addition to silage. Contrary to their find- 

C0 Ind. Buls. 168, 179. 01 Ind. Bui. 168. "Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 543 

ings with steers (778), Skinner and King report that the appetite of 
lambs for dry roughage was not satisfied by supplying oat straw in ad- 
dition to silage. They therefore conclude that for the best results legume 
hay should be fed with corn silage. 

The second part of the table shows that the largest allowance of si- 
lage produced the most rapid, and, with feeds at the usual prices, the 
cheapest gains. Similar results were secured by Skinner and King 03 in 
2 trials in which large or small allowances of silage were compared when 
fed with clover hay, shelled corn, and cottonseed meal. In each trial 
as good or better finish was produced by the heavy silage feeding. 

Skinner and King conclude that it is best to allow the lambs all the 
silage they will clean up both morning and evening, with free access to 
legume hay. It is interesting to note that the lambs given all the silage 
they would eat still consumed more than half as much hay as they did 
silage, while on similar feeds steers eat 5 to 7 times as much silage as 
hay. (776) 

870. Silage other than corn. — Sorghum silage from plants sufficiently 
matured to produce silage low in acidity is satisfactory for sheep. This 
is shown by the results already reported (853), secured by Cochel 64 in 
trials at the Kansas Station in fattening lambs on sweet sorghum silage, 
alfalfa hay, cottonseed meal, and corn or kafir grain. In a 119-day trial 
by Jones of the Texas Station 65 a lot of 250 western lambs were fed a 
ration of 0.23 lb. cottonseed meal and 3.8 lbs. of feterita and sorghum 
silage during the first 59 days, during which time the average daily 
gain was 0.28 lb. Ground feterita was then added, the average ration 
during the remainder of the trial consisting of 0.35 lb. cottonseed meal, 
1.0 lb. feterita, and 3.5 lbs. silage. During the last 60 days the lambs 
gained 0.29 lb. per head daily, requiring 121 lbs. cottonseed meal, 341 
lbs. feterita, and 1,196 lbs. silage for 100 lbs. gain. While these lambs, 
fed silage as the sole roughage, made satisfactory gains, Jones states 
that it is advisable to supply some dry roughage, as otherwise the lambs 
are apt to go off feed. 

In districts where the field pea flourishes, the whole plant may be 
profitably ensiled for sheep fattening. (355) In the vicinity of pea 
canneries fattening sheep and lambs on ensiled pea vines and pods 
is an important industry, especially in Wisconsin. (356) Some dry 
roughage, such as corn stover or hay, is supplied in addition to the 
silage, and grain or screenings fed, especially during the latter part of 
the fattening period. Tormey 66 of the Wisconsin Station reports that 
one winter a large feeder fed about 6,000 59-lb. lambs for an average 
of 94 days on a ration of 1.6 lbs. of grain, chiefly corn and screenings, 
3.5 lbs. pea vine silage, and a small allowance of hay. The lambs gained 
0.30 lb. per head daily on the average, requiring 541 lbs. grain and 
1,147 lbs. silage for 100 lbs. gain. 

"Ind. Bui. 162. c5 Information to the authors. 

" 4 Information to the authors. m Country Gentleman, 79, p. 808. 



544 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

871. Wet beet pulp. — Wet beet pulp has been extensively fed to fat- 
tening sheep in the vicinity of beet sugar factories in the western states, 
and has proved an excellent feed. The value of an unlimited allowance 
of pulp and alfalfa hay, fed with and without grain, was tested by Lin- 
field at the Utah Station 67 in a 78-day trial with the following results : 

Wet beet pulp with and without grain for fattening lambs 



Average ration 




Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 


Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 


Feed for 100 lbs. 
Concentrates Pulp 
Lbs. Lbs. 


gain 
Hav 
Lbs. 


Lot I, 17 lambs 












Wet beet pulp, 3 .3 lbs. 
Alfalfa hay, 1 .4 lbs. 
Screenings and bran, 


0.5 lb 


54 


0.33 


156 1,014 


423 


Lot II, 17 lambs 












Wet beet pulp, 3.7 lbs. 
Alfalfa hay, 1 .6 lbs. . . . 




61 


0.21 


1,786 


797 



Lot I, fed a half-pound of concentrates with an unlimited allowance 
of pulp and alfalfa hay, made over 50 per ct. larger gains than Lot II, 
fed pulp and hay only. The feeding of 156 lbs. of grain effected a sav- 
ing of 772 lbs. of wet beet pulp and 374 lbs. of alfalfa hay for each 
100 lbs. of gain. In another trial 68 practically as large and decidedly 
more economical gains were produced with an average daily grain allow- 
ance of 0.4 lb. per head as when 0.9 lb. was fed. The Colorado Sta- 
tion 69 found 1 ton of wet beet pulp equal to 200 lbs. of corn for fatten- 
ing lambs, tho when fed without grain it produced soft flesh and the 
lambs shrank excessively when shipped. Alfalfa hay contains an abun- 
dance of protein and mineral matter, in which both corn and beet pulp 
are deficient, and is therefore an admirable roughage to use with the 
pulp. Pulp is especially suitable for fattening aged ewes with poor teeth. 
When feeding heavily with pulp, the yards should be kept dry by proper 
drainage and the use of bedding. Morton 70 of the Colorado Station states 
that in Colorado pulp is generally fed to old ewes and wethers, rather 
than lambs, the pulp seeming to be too bulky to give the best results with 
the younger animals. Owing to its cheapness the pulp is usually fed in 
unlimited allowance thruout the whole fattening period. (274) 

872. Pastures. — As sheep relish weeds and browse with avidity on 
sprouts and brush refused by other stock, they are helpful in cleaning 
up the farm, especially such by-places as lanes and fence corners. Of 
the permanent pastures, bluegrass is the most common in the upper Mis- 
sissippi valley and eastward. (311) Farther south red top is prominent, 
and in the southern states Bermuda grass. (314, 320) In the West the 
native grasses, especially the grama species, furnish much of the graz- 
ing on the ranges, tho on mountain ranges in Idaho, Beattie of the Wash- 
ington Station 71 found the food mostly herbs, and the leaves and twigs 
of shrubs. 

07 Utah Bui. 78. M Colo. Bui. 76. "Wash. Bui. 113. 

08 Utah Bui. 90. 70 Information to the authors. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 545 

The clovers furnish valuable pasture, but great care is necessary to 
prevent bloat when sheep are grazed on them. (340, 348) Alfalfa is 
especially liable to cause bloat and can be recommended as a pasture 
plant for but few sections, altho some skillful flockmasters suffer little 
loss. In some sections of the West alfalfa is utilized for winter grazing 
as it is then so lacking in succulence that danger from bloat is practically 
absent. In the humid regions care is always necessary to prevent in- 
festation with stomach worms when permanent pastures are used. 

873. Annual pastures. — Grazing sheep chiefly on annual pastures spe- 
cially sown for them was first practiced in America at the Minnesota 
Station in 1895 by Shaw. 72 This system enables the flockmaster to main- 
tain more animals on a given area than otherwise, favors rapid, contin- 
uous gains by providing succulent pasture from spring to fall, destroys 
nearly all kinds of weeds, and uniformly fertilizes the land. In one trial 
Shaw grazed 2 lots, each of ten 80-lb. yearling wethers, for 112 days by 
means of hurdles on the following succession of pastures: Winter rye, 
peas and oats, barley and oats, rape, kale, peas and oats. Lot II re- 
ceived 0.5 lb. of oats per head daily in addition to pasture, as is shown 
below : 

Grazing yearling wethers on special crops with and without grain 

Average ration Daily gain Gain per head 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Pasture . 15 16 .8 

Lot II, Pasture and .5 lb. oats .24 26 .9 

While the gains were not large with either lot, they were all that could 
be expected during warm weather. Lot II gained 60 per ct. more than 
Lot I, which received no grain, and was in better condition at the close 
of the trial. The increase in gain was worth more than the grain fed. 
In this system grass pasture should be available during wet seasons, es- 
pecially on heavy soils. 

Craig 73 reports that on British farms heavily stocked with sheep, a 
rotation of grazing crops carries the ewes and lambs from the first of 
the season until weaning, after which the ewes go on old grass land and 
the lambs to freshly seeded land or other green crops. Lands newly 
seeded to grass and clover can be successfully pastured by sheep pro- 
vided they are withdrawn therefrom when the ground is soft from rain 
and if they are not allowed to crop the young plants too closely. 

874. Supplementary grazing crops. — More common than keeping sheep 
primarily on annual pastures is the growing practice of using various 
annual crops to supplement permanent pastures. The earliest grazing 
is usually furnished by the cereals, the best of which, according to 
Shaw, 74 is winter rye. Rye is also grown for fall grazing and in sec- 
tions with moderate winters, winter wheat furnishes feed during the 
colder months. (318) The sorghums are useful in the plains region, 

r: MInn. Bui. 78. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 171. 

re Sheep Farming, p. 206. 



546 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

altho not especially relished by sheep. Where they flourish field peas, 
vetches, cowpeas, and crimson and Japan clover all furnish excellent 
grazing. (355, 359, 357, 353, 360) Rape is the most widely useful member 
of the mustard family, which furnishes several other grazing crops. (381) 
In the mild climate of the Pacific coast where it endures the winter, kale 
provides excellent spring feed. (382) In the fall kohlrabi and cabbage 
may be useful. (379-80) Both rutabagas and turnips are widely grown 
in Britain for grazing. Shaw suggests that these crops should be profit- 
able for winter grazing in the southern states. (370-1) 

Caution should be used in putting sheep onto clover or rape pasture, 
as both often cause bloat, which may prove fatal. When beginning to 
pasture these forages, the sheep should be allowed to graze but a short 
time the first day, and the period gradually increased till after a week 
they may remain continuously on the pasture. It is well to allow sheep to 
satisfy their hunger largely on other pasture or with hay or grain, be- 
fore turning them on these crops. Even when care is taken, animals 
occasionally bloat, especially on sultry days following a rain. Immediate 
attention is then necessary to save the afflicted ones. Kleinheinz 75 of the 
Wisconsin Station recommends a drench of a pint to a quart of milk 
warm from the cow. Others place a stick in the animal's mouth, tied 
back of the head with a string, or resort to the trocar or knife. 

875. Rape. — To determine the value of rape for lambs Shaw 70 at the 
Ontario Agricultural College confined 3 lots of 71-lb. lambs each to a 
measured acre of rape by means of hurdles. Lot II was fed oats in ad- 
dition and Lot III had the run of an adjoining grass pasture. Each 
acre of rape lasted 15 lambs grazing thereon 58 days, during which time 
the gains were as indicated : 

Returns from rape grazed by fattening lambs 

Daily gain Gain per acre 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Rape only .39 344 

Lot II, Rape and 0.5 lb. oats per head daily .40 348 

Lot III, Rape and grass pasture adjoining 0.47 420 

The addition of oats did not prove economical, while the value and 
importance of grass pasture in supplementing rape is strongly brought, 
out by the larger gains of Lot III. From 344 to 420 lbs. of gain was 
made per acre of rape by these lambs. Shaw 77 concludes that feeding 
grain to lambs grazing on rape will not pay when bluegrass pasture is 
available. The economy of feeding grain when no pasture is available 
will turn on the relative abundance of rape and the cost of grain, as the 
feeding of grain should decrease the amount of rape eaten. 

876. Rape vs. bluegrass. — At the Wisconsin Station Craig 78 grazed 
one lot of 48 lambs on a bluegrass pasture and another on rape for 4 
weeks, feeding in addition 0.7 lb. daily per head of a mixture of equal 

"Sheep Management, p. 121. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 197. 
70 Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1891. ,8 Wis. Rpt. 1897. 



FEEDS FOR SHEEP 



547 



parts of peas and corn. During this period the first lot consumed the 
rape on 0.64 acre. Both lots were then placed in pens and fed an un- 
limited allowance of hay and an increased grain allowance, as shown in 
the table : 



Relative value of rape and bluegrass pasture for lambs 



Pasture period of 4 weeks 


Pen period of 12 weeks 


Average ration 


Daily 
gain 


Average ration 


Daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 
lbs. gain 


Grain 


Hay 


/, Rape; grain, .7 lb 


Lbs. 

0.37 
0.24 


Grain, 1 lb.; hay, 0.6 lb. . 
Grain, 1 lb.; hay, 0.7 1b.. 


Lbs. 

0.24 

0.22 


Lbs. 

429 
476 


Lbs. 
261 


//, Bluegrass; grain, .7 lb 


315 



The table shows that the lambs pastured on rape did much better than 
those on bluegrass, both while on pasture and later when confined to 
feeding pens. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS— FATTENING— HOT- 
HOUSE LAMBS— GOATS 

I. The Breeding Flock 

Order, regularity, and quiet are paramount in the management of 
sheep. The flock should always be cared for by the same attendant, who 
moves among them quietly, giving notice of his approach by speaking 
in a low voice and closing doors and gates gently. Dogs and strangers 
should be kept from the pens at all times. Cleanliness is essential, for 
the sheep is the most dainty and particular of all farm animals. The 
successful shepherd is therefore gentle, patient, punctual, and cleanly 
at all times in the care of his flock. 

877. The ewe flock. — Autumn is the time when the beginner in sheep 
husbandry usually makes his start, and when preparations for the suc- 
ceeding lamb crop are made in flocks already established. Before the 
breeding season opens in the fall, all non-breeding ewes, poor milkers, 
those with "broken" mouths or spoiled udders, and others which are too 
old or otherwise past usefulness should be discarded. The reserve ewes 
should not be selected by looks alone, for the thinnest ones may have 
been brought to this condition by a heavy milk flow. As a rule a good 
ewe should be retained as long as she will breed. The ewes disposed of 
should be replaced by the yearlings picked as most promising the pre- 
ceding fall while still lambs. 

878. Date of lambing; gestation period. — The lamb dropped in late 
winter or early spring is far more valuable than one coming later. Under 
good management the early-yeaned lamb comes into the world with com- 
fortable surroundings and a kind master to give attentions conducive to 
comfort and growth. With the coming of spring the young thing is of 
sufficient size and vigor to pass out with its dam and make the most of 
the fresh grass and genial sunshine. The early lamb is less susceptible 
to stomach worms and many of the evils which attack the later-dropped 
lambs. Early farm-raised lambs may be fattened and sold before the 
market is flooded with western range lambs from the feed lots. Where 
there are poor accommodations or cold quarters lambs should not be 
dropped in northern latitudes earlier than May, and not until the dams 
are on pasture. 

The most extensive data on the gestation period of the ewe are those 
compiled by Humphrey and Kleinheinz 1 from the records of the flock 
at the Wisconsin Station, consisting mainly of ewes of the English 

information to the authors. 

548 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 549 

breeds. The gestation period for 1,142 ewes ranged from 140 to 156 
days, the average being 147 days. The greatest number (19 per ct.) 
dropped their lambs on the 146th day, followed by the 147th and 145th. 
Over half the entire number yeaned on these 3 days. Tessier of France 2 
reports that the average gestation period of 912 ewes, doubtless of the 
Merino breed, was 152 days, over 75 per ct. lambing between the 150th 
and 154th days. This accords with the Wisconsin records, which show 
that the Merino and Cheviot ewes carried their lambs longer than those 
of the English breeds. It was further found that the gestation period 
for Shropshires and Southdowns was shorter than for the larger English 
breeds. 

879. Flushing the ewes. — Altho the ewe with lamb at foot may have 
had good care and pasture during the summer, if she has had a large 
milk flow she will be somewhat run down by fall. With the farm flock 
it is often advisable to "flush" the ewes after their lambs are weaned 
and before breeding, a common practice with English flockmasters. This 
consists in giving an extra allowance of nutritious, highly palatable food 
for 2 or 3 weeks before the desired date of breeding, so that the ewes 
will then be rapidly gaining in flesh. Several advantages result from this 
practice. Not only is the ewe which is bred in a thrifty condition more 
certain to produce a vigorous lamb, but she is a more reliable breeder and 
more likely to drop twins. The flock will all breed within a briefer time 
if flushed, thus shortening the lambing period with its anxious hours. 
Craig 3 found that ewes suckling twins lost no more flesh than those with 
one lamb, and that twins made as rapid gains as singles; hence the ad- 
vantage of twins under favorable farm conditions. On the western 
ranges, where but little attention can be given to the individual ewe, 
single lambs have given the best results. 

880. The ram. — A well-built, vigorous ram should be chosen and then 
be so fed and cared for that he will remain virile. He needs no grain 
while on good pasture during summer, but beginning at least a month 
before breeding time some concentrate should be fed. During the breed- 
ing season he should be kept in good condition on such muscle-forming 
foods as bran, oats, peas, and oil meal, and not be allowed to run down 
thru insufficient feed or over use. On the other hand, he should never 
become fat. In purchasing, avoid a ram that has been fitted for shows, 
for such high living tends to impotence. 

During the breeding season the ram should run with the ewes but a 
short time daily, or at night only. Where "hand coupling" is not prac- 
ticed, to determine whether a ewe has been bred and at what time, the 
ram should be painted on the brisket with some compound which will 
leave a mark on the wool of the ewe. 

In the winter the ram may be kept in thrifty condition on a daily al- 
lowance of 0.5 to 1.0 lb. of concentrates, with good roughage. Some suc- 
culent food is desirable but mangels and sugar beets should be avoided. 
2 Coleman, Sheep of Great Britain. 3 Wis. Rpt. 1899. 



550 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

(864) Ram lambs need liberal rations of muscle-building foods, but 
should be given little fat-forming food. Lack of exercise injures the 
ram's procreative powers. Except during mating time the ram should 
be kept away from the ewe flock, so that he cannot annoy them. 

881. The flock in winter. — Before going into winter quarters the flock 
should be divided into groups of the same age, sex, strength, and gen- 
eral characteristics. To give the highest returns a division of mutton 
sheep should not contain over 50 members. Aged breeding ewes should 
constitute one band, shearling ewes another, the ewe lambs a third, and 
the wether lambs a fourth. These bands should be again divided if there 
is a marked difference between their strongest and weakest members. 
Each member will then have an equal chance with its fellows at the feed 
trough and in enjoying comforts and attentions from the shepherd's 
hand, and the ration may then be adapted to the special needs of each 
group. 

The quarters for the flock in winter should be dry, well- ventilated, and 
sunny. Drafts must be avoided, or trouble is sure to result. Warm quar- 
ters are not only unnecessary, but inadvisable. (832) From 10 to 15 
square feet of ground space should be provided for each ewe. There 
should be wide doorways, lest the animals suffer injury when all attempt 
to rush thru at once, in true sheep fashion. Conveniently placed feed 
racks should furnish 15 to 24 inches of space per head. 

To insure a crop of strong, healthy lambs exercise for the ewes is 
essential. Breeding sheep housed in winter should have access to a dry, 
sunny yard, well protected from wind and storm. To force the ewes 
to exercise on all fair days roughage may be scattered in small bunches 
over a nearby field. When the snow is deep, paths should be broken 
out with snow plow or stone boat. On stormy days the sheep should 
remain indoors, for wet fleeces dry but slowly in winter. 

882. Wintering the breeding ewes. — When pasturage is deficient in 
the fall or the grass soft and washy, it is well to provide supplemental 
feed before the ewes are taken off pasture. This may be hay, grain, or 
better, such grazing crops as rape or fall rye. For the greatest economy 
the winter feed of the ewes should consist largely of roughages, hay 
from the legumes easily leading. (857) Indeed, when good legume hay 
is given along with an allowance of roots or silage no grain is needed 
until about a month before lambing time. The aim should be to bring 
the ewes to lambing in medium flesh and vigorous condition, thus in- 
suring a good milk flow for the new-born lambs. The trained shepherd 
knows that the only safe way to determine the condition of a sheep 
is by "handling" its back. If he finds that the ewes are not thriving, 
he will add concentrates to their ration. With an ample supply of good 
roughage not over 0.5 lb. per head daily of concentrates is needed. While 
breeding ewes should not be fat, they should carry more flesh than most 
American farmers think proper. To winter them on only straw, or straw 
and hay is to perpetuate a flock that will gradually but surely deteriorate. 

Both ram and ewe lambs intended for the breeding flock should receive 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 551 

liberal rations of muscle-building foods during the first winter to insure 
steady growth, but they should never receive a fattening ration. Craig 4 
writes : ' ' The growth and development of the lamb the first year of its 
life determines very largely the size and weight of the fleece and the 
vigor and power the animal will attain." 

883. Concentrates for ewes. — Such feeds as oats, bran, and peas are 
especially suitable for breeding ewes, since they contain ample protein 
and mineral matter and do not tend to fatten. When legume hay is 
fed, carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley, and kafir, may be used. 
but should preferably form but a part of the grain allowance for they 
are too fattening. Linseed meal and wheat bran ward off constipation, 
which is responsible for many of the winter troubles of the breeding 
flock. For this purpose 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of linseed meal a day 
should suffice. (855-6) 

The value of various concentrates for wintering breeding ewes was 
studied at the Wisconsin Station by Carlyle and Kleinheinz 5 with uni- 
form lots, each of 12 ewes, chiefly of the mutton breeds and ranging from 
138 to 157 lbs. Each ewe was fed 2 lbs. of mixed hay and 2.5 lbs. corn 
silage, with 0.5 lb. of concentrates, as shown in the table : 

Comparison of concentrates for -wintering or ceding ewes 

Average concentrate allowance Daily gain 

Lbs. 

Lot I, Whole oats, .5 lb .23 

Lot II, Wheat bran, .5 lb .20 

Lot III, Shelled corn, .5 lb .23 

Lot IV, Dried brewers' grains, .5 lb .24 

All rations proved satisfactory, these large ewes gaining steadily on 
the 0.5 lb. of concentrates. When the milk flow of the ewe after lambing 
was considered, dried brewers' grains ranked first. A fifth lot fed 0.7 
lb. of a mixture of equal parts of corn, bran, and oats made no larger 
gains, tho consuming slightly more hay and silage. From these data 
and those following, the cost of feed required to winter breeding ewes 
may readily be computed. 

884. Roughages and succulence. — Ewes should have an abundant sup- 
ply of roughage, the legume hays — alfalfa, red and alsike clover, cow- 
pea, and vetch — being the best. (857-9) Other useful roughages supply- 
ing less protein are corn fodder or corn stover, cut while the leaves are 
still green, prairie hay, oat hay, pea straw, oat straw, barley straw, etc. 
These serve best when fed with good legume hay. (861-2) Alsike clover 
is highly satisfactory. Timothy hay is unsatisfactory for it may cause 
serious constipation. Succulent feeds promote thrift and keep the di- 
gestive organs in condition. Chopped roots are an excellent succulence, 
tho corn silage, free from mold and low in acid, is equally satisfactory 
and usually less expensive. (864-6) It is not wise to supply too much 
succulent feed to pregnant ewes, for shepherds declare that it produces 
soft, flabby lambs. Tho larger allowances are sometimes successfully fed 

1 Wis. Rpt. 1897. 5 Wis. Rpt. 1903. 



552 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

when silage of excellent quality, high in dry matter, is available, Klein- 
heinz 6 of the Wisconsin Station recommends no more than 2 lbs. per 
head daily of roots or silage for ewes in lamb. At the Missouri Station 
during each of 2 winters Hackedorn 7 compared various roughages for 
ewes, when fed with and without a concentrate mixture of 6 parts shelled 
corn, 3 of wheat bran, and 1 of pea-size linseed cake by weight. Lots of 9 
to 17 western ewes, averaging 86 lbs., were fed the rations shown in the 
table : 

Comparison of roughages for wintering breeding ewes 

Total gain 
Daily grain or loss 
Average daily roughage allowance allowance per head 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Clover hay, 3 .0 lbs .44 +4.9 

Lot II, Corn silage, 2 . 1 lbs. Clover hay, 2 . 1 lbs .45 +4.3 

Lot III, Com silage, 3 .4 lbs 0.43 +1 .2 

Lot IV, Corn stover, 2 .4 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .9 lbs .40 —0.3 

Lot V, Com stover, 6 .2 lbs .50 —0.8 

Lot VI, Corn silage, 2 .4 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .9 lbs —2.6 

Lot VII, Corn stover, 2 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 2 .3 lbs —2.1 

Lot VIII, Clover hay, 3 .3 lbs. (One trial) —3.2 

Clover hay and grain, fed Lot I, and corn silage, clover hay, and 
grain, fed Lot II, proved the most satisfactory rations. The ewes in 
Lot IV, fed corn stover, clover hay, and 0.40 lb. grain daily, nearly main- 
tained their weights and produced strong, thrifty lambs. A compar- 
ison of Lots II and IV, with III and V, shows that the ewes fed silage 
maintained their weight, while those fed stover lost a trifle. (867) The 
rations fed Lots VI, VII, and VIII, containing no grain, were quite 
satisfactory up to lambing, nearly maintaining the weights of the ewes. 
After lambing, however, it was necessary to add grain to the ration to 
produce a milk flow sufficient for the lambs. 

At the Alabama Station Gray and Ridgeway 8 found that breeding 
ewes gained 1.6 lbs. per head during 106 days on a ration of 1.9 lbs. 
soybean hay, maintaining their weight practically as well as others fed 
0.5 lb. cottonseed meal and 1.3 lbs. cottonseed hulls. 

Carlyle and Kleinheinz 9 studied the value of corn forage (corn fodder 
and corn stover), corn silage, and roots for wintering breeding ewes 
during each of 2 winters at the Wisconsin Station. Lots of 12 ewes, 
averaging 148 lbs. and mostly of the mutton breeds, were fed 0.5 lb. of 
a mixture of equal parts corn, oats, and wheat bran per head daily, with 
the roughages shown in the table : 

Corn forage, com silage, and roots for wintering breeding ewes 

Average roughage allowance Av. daily gain 

Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn silage, 2.9 lbs. Mixed hay, 2.1 lbs 0.16 

Lot II, Roots, 2 .9 lbs. Mixed hay, 2.6 lbs . 18 

Lot III, Corn silage, 3 .0 lbs. Corn forage, 1 .8 lbs .09 

Lot IV, Com forage, 3 .3 lbs. . 19 

"Sheep Management, p. 35. s Ala. Bui. 148. 

7 Mo. Bui. 120. "Wis. Rpts. 1900, 1901. 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 553 

The ewes were satisfactorily maintained in all cases. A significant 
finding was that Lot I, fed corn silage, mixed hay, and grain, made prac- 
tically as large gains as Lot II, getting roots in place of silage, and re- 
quired 0.5 lb. less hay per head daily. 

Tomhave and Severson of the Pennsylvania Station 10 report that breed- 
ing ewes were maintained satisfactorily on alfalfa hay and corn silage 
with 0.25 to 0.50 lb. of a mixture of 15 parts of shelled corn, 3 of oats, 
2 of wheat bran, and 1 of linseed meal. "When silage was fed as the 
sole roughage the cost of feed was reduced but a large loss of lambs 
resulted. 

Trials by Skinner and Smith 11 at the Indiana Station and Eward 12 
at the Iowa Station likewise show the value of corn silage for breeding 
ewes. Corn silage and clover hay proved a more economical roughage 
allowance than clover hay alone. 

885. Lambing time.— As lambing time approaches, the shepherd should 
take quarters in the sheep barn or close by, and remain in attendance 
until the season is over. It is wise to provide lambing pens for the 
ewes and their newly born lambs. Where lambs come early, the pens 
should be kept warmer than the quarters for the rest of the flock. Here 
each ewe and her new-born young remain for a couple of days until they 
are well wonted to each other and the lambs strong enough to look out 
for themselves among the flock. Then they may pass back to the flock 
or to quarters especially set apart for the ewes and lambs. 

As they enter the world lambs of the mutton breeds often need quick, 
intelligent attention, which is always given by the true shepherd. The 
mucus should be cleaned from the nostrils and mouth of any weakling. 
With the first fill of milk from the dam the new-born lamb becomes 
comfortable, and is usually able thereafter to care for itself. The new- 
born unable to draw milk within a few minutes after birth should have 
patient, intelligent assistance ; to this end the ewe must be held, and the 
lamb aided, all being accomplished by that kindly, sympathetic skill so 
characteristic of the good shepherd, but impossible of description. A 
chilled, new-born lamb is best warmed by immersion in water as hot as 
the hand can bear. When well warmed it should be wiped dry, taken 
to its mother, and held until supplied with her milk. Some advise 13 
wrapping it in thick woolen cloths that have been w T armed on a stove, 
and renewing these as often as they become cool. A lamb born almost 
lifeless may often be restored by alternately blowing gently into the 
mouth to start breathing, and laying it on its belly and slapping the 
body smartly on each side of the heart. 14 One twin is usually weaker 
than the other, and frequently the mother cares only for the stronger 
one. Here the shepherd 's tact serves well in promptly helping the weak- 
ling to its full share of food. 

A ewe that refuses her lamb will usually accept it if they are placed 

10 Information to the authors. "Craig, Sheep Farming, p. 193. 

"Ind. Bui. 147. 1 -Iowa Cir. 6. u Kleinheinz, Sheep Management, p. 47. 



554 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



together in a small pen out of sight of the other sheep and the lamb 
helped to suckle a few times. The stubborn ewe may be confined in 
stanchions so that she cannot prevent the lamb sucking. In case a ewe 
loses her lamb, she may often be induced to adopt a twin by first sprink- 
ling some of her own milk over it. Still more effective is tying the skin 
from the dead lamb upon the back of the one to be adopted. 

886. Breeding studies; weight of lambs. — The following table gives the 
average birth weight and percentage of increase (the annual number of 
lambs per 100 ewes) of lambs from ewes of different breeds, as recorded 
during 24 years by Kleinheinz 15 with the flock at the Wisconsin Station. 

Annual increase from ewes and birth weight of lambs 





No. of 




Av. 


birth wt. of lambs 








Breed 


ewes 


Increase 


Singles 


Twins 
(each) 


Triplets 
(each) 






Per ct. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Southdown 


181 


154 


9.15 


7.70 


5.50 


Shropshire 


448 


167 


9.51 


7.67 


6.49 


Hampshire 


96 


156 


10.61 


8.23 


7.10 


Cheviot 


81 


147 


9.45 


7.67 


8.20 


Dorset 


30 


163 


10.20 


8.46 


7.50 


Oxford 


12 


183 


10.42 


8. IS 


7.12 



Tho the table shows a considerable range of increase for the several 
breeds, data from many flocks covering a much larger number of ani- 
mals, would be necessary to show definitely any real difference in this 
regard. These data are of interest in showing the actual increase ob- 
tained with good feed and excellent care. The single lambs averaged 
somewhat heavier than the twins, and the twins larger than the trip- 
lets, tho the difference is not great. 

The percentage of increase was highest with ewes 4 to 6 years old, 
due somewhat to discarding the poorer breeders as 3-yr.-olds. After 
the 6th year the fecundity of the ewes lessened. The larger the ewe of 
a given breed the greater was the percentage of increase and the larger 
the lambs. To a less degree the size of the ram had the same influence. 

The gestation period tended to be slightly longer with large lambs. 
The average birth weight of the ram lambs was about 0.5 lb. greater 
than of ewe lambs. Of 1,804 lambs yeaned, 900 were ewes and 904 rams. 
As the records grow, the more nearly do the sexes balance. 

887. After lambing. — Soon after lambing the ewe should be given 
water with the chill removed. For 2 or 3 days but little grain should 
be fed, to avoid udder troubles, but she may have all the dry roughage 
she wishes. Close attention must be given for a few days to see that 
the lamb is taking milk from both sides of the udder. All surplus milk 
should be drawn, or better, a needy lamb helped to an extra meal. Caked 
ndders and sore teats should receive prompt treatment. 

"Wis. Rpts. 1902, 1907, and information to the authors. 



GENERAL CARE OP SHEEP AND LAMBS 555 

With the demand for more milk by the lamb, the ewe's ration should 
be increased, for sucklings make the most economical gains. (114) If 
there is not sufficient roughage of high quality for the entire winter the 
most palatable and nutritious portion should be reserved until after the 
lambing period. Legume hay and succulent feeds are essential at this 
time, and more succulence can be safely fed than before lambing. The 
amount and character of the concentrates fed depend on the roughage, 
but seldom is over 2 lbs. per ewe daily necessary. 

888. Ewe's milk. — In America the milk of sheep is seldom used by 
man, but abroad, and especially in the mountain regions of continental 
Europe, it is extensively employed, both for direct consumption and for 
the manufacture of cheese. The average composition of ewe's milk com- 
pared with that of cow's milk, is shown in the following table: 

Composition of ewe's and cow's milk 

No. of Casein and 

analyses Water albumin Fat Sugar Ash 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Ewe's milk (Sartori 16 ) 2,700 78.70 6.30 8.94 5.06 1.02 
Cow's milk (Konig 17 ) 705 87.27 3.39 3.68 4.94 0.72 

The table shows that ewe's milk is much richer in protein (casein and 
albumin) and fat, and higher in ash than cow's milk. (265) Ewe's milk 
has a peculiar, somewhat unpleasant odor and taste, is thicker, and sours 
more slowly than cow's milk. ' The fat content is extremely variable, 
ranging from 2 to 12 per ct. ls The butter is pale yellow, less firm than 
cow's butter, and becomes rancid much quicker. 

The yield of milk by sheep will vary greatly according to breed and 
feed. Sieglin 19 states that the East Priesian milk sheep in Germany 
at 2 to 3 years of age yield from 3 to 4 quarts of milk daily for 2 months 
after weaning their lambs, and keep up an excellent flow during the 
autumn months. These sheep are prolific, dropping 2, 3, and even 4 
lambs, individuals lambing twice a year. Three sheep are estimated to 
consume as much feed as 1 cow. Ordinary sheep yield from 100 to 150 
lbs. of milk per year, while the milk breeds produce from 300 to 1,400 lbs. 

889. Milking qualities of ewes. — To determine the yield and compo- 
sition of milk from various breeds Carlyle, Fuller, and Kleinheinz 20 
at the Wisconsin Station kept lambs from their dams except at regular 
intervals when they were allowed to suckle. The milk yielded by the 
ewes was determined by weighing the lambs immediately before and 
after placing them with their dams. 

10 Jensen, Milckkunde und Milchhygiene, p. 18. 
,7 Chem. Nakrungs- und Genussmittel, II, 1904, p. 602. 

18 See Staz. Sper. Ag. Ital. 23, p. 572; Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Fleischmann, Milck- 
wirtsckaft, 1901, p. 64; Jensen, Milckkunde und Milckkygiene, 1903, p. 17. 
19 Sckafer-Sieglin, Lekrbuck der Milckwirtsckaft, 1908, p. 17. 
10 Wis. Rpt. 1904. 



556 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Daily milk yield of ewes of different breeds 

Composition of milk 
Number Av. daily Solids Total Specific 

Breed of ewes milk yield Fat not fat solids gravity 

Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 

Oxford 2 3.1 7.7 11.0 18.6 1.038 

Southdown 2 1.9 8.4 11.1 19.5 1.038 

Dorset 2 4.3 7.2 10.9 18.1 1.038 

Shropshire 3 2.5 5.9 10.8 16.7 1.039 

Merino 3 2.3 6.0 10.8 16.8 1.038 

Range 2 2.7 7.2 11.1 18.3 1.039 

Average, 14 ewes ... . 2.8 7.1 10.9 18.2 1.038 

The Dorsets gave the most and the Southdowns the richest milk. On 
the average the milk contained over 7 per ct. fat and nearly 11 per ct. 
of solids not fat, its specific gravity exceeding that of cow's milk. 

890. Feed for 100 lbs. of ewe's milk. — At the Wisconsin Station Shep- 
perd 21 recorded the milk yield of ewes receiving a mixture of 3 parts 
wheat bran and 1 of linseed meal, with fair-quality clover hay and sliced 
potatoes for roughage. 

F( ed and water consumed by ewes for each 100 lbs. of milk produced 

Concentrates Clover hay Potatoes Water drunk Dry matter 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Single ewe 51 61.6 38 293 105 

Group of 2 ewes . . 59 55.5 29 417 105 

Group of 2 ewes.. 72 63.0 36 404 125 

The single ewe produced 100 lbs. of milk while consuming 51 lbs. of 
concentrates, 61.6 lbs. of clover hay, and 38 lbs. of potatoes, containing 
in all 105 lbs. of dry matter. When we compare these figures with those 
showing the amount of dry matter required by cows for 100 lbs. of milk, 
(544) and further consider that the milk of the ewe is richer and that 
she is at the same time growing a fleece, the economy of her production 
is most striking and suggestive. 

891. Value of ewe's milk for lambs. — Shepperd 22 further recorded the 
amount of milk consumed by lambs and their gains by weighing the 
lambs before and after sucking. 

Daily gain of lambs and gain per pound of ewe's milk consumed 

Milk for 100 lbs. 
Age Gain per day gain 

Days Lbs. Lbs. 

Lamb No. 1 25 0.62 641 

Lamb No. 2 28 .47 602 

' Lamb No. 3 36 .44 690 

Lamb No. 4 34 .40 629 

Average 31 .48 640 

The lambs made an average daily gain of nearly 0.5 lb. and consumed 
640 lbs. of milk for 100 lbs. gain. Shepperd concludes that the gain of 
lambs, during the first month of their lives at least, is largely controlled 

-'Agr. Science, VI, p. 397. 22 Agr. Science, VI, pp. 397, 405. 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 557 

by the quantity of milk they receive, and consequently that ewes should 
be carefully selected for their milking qualities. 

892. Cow's milk for lambs. — Lambs can be successfully reared on cow's 
milk, tho close attention is necessary during the first month. Warm cow's 
milk with some cream added can be fed from a nursing bottle or a tea- 
pot over the spout of which a rubber ' ' cot ' ' with an opening in the end 
has been placed. At first the lamb should be fed 15 to 18 times in 24 
hours, and later half a dozen times. At the Wisconsin Station 23 the 
senior author reared 4 vigorous cross-bred Shropshire-Merino lambs, 10 
days old and averaging 10 lbs. in weight when the trial began, on cow's 
milk and other appropriate feeding stuffs. For the first 21 days whole 
cow's milk at blood heat constituted their sole food; later skim milk, 
ground oats, and green clover were supplied. During the last 21 days 
hay was fed in place of the milk. 

Cow's milk and other feeds required for 100 lbs. gain with lambs 

Whole Skim Green 

Period milk milk Oats clover Hay- 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

1st period, 21 days 579 ... ... .... 

2d period, 115 days 830 119 262 

3d period, 21 days 291 1,197 17G 

At the close of the last period, when 167 days old, the lambs averaged 
79 lbs. each, showing a daily gain, including birth weight, of nearly 0.5 
lb. each. The heavy gains which followed the use of cow's milk sug- 
gest its profitable use in forcing lambs to meet the requirements of spe- 
cial markets, e. g., "Christmas lambs." 

893. Relative economy of lambs and pigs. — From the figures for the 
second period of the preceding article and those in Art. 1021 the fol- 
lowing data are deduced : 

Feed required for 100 lbs. of increase by young pigs and lambs 

Feed Pigs Lambs 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Meal 237 119 

Skim milk 475 830 

Green clover ... 262 

Meal equivalent 316 284 

Estimating that 6 lbs. of skim milk equals 1 lb. of meal in feeding 
value, according to the Danish formula, (958) we have 316 lbs. of meal 
or its equivalent, as the feed required for 100 lbs. of gain with unweaned 
pigs. Using the same ratio for the skim milk fed to the lambs and allow- 
ing 10 lbs. of green clover to equal 1 lb. of meal, we have 284 lbs. of meal, 
or its equivalent, as the feed required for 100 lbs. of gain with young 
lambs, or 32 lbs. less than that required by the pigs. From this it is 
apparent that lambs make at least as economical gains for feed consumed 
as do pigs of the same age. 

a Wis. Rpt. 1890. 



558 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

894. The young lamb. — When about 2 weeks old the lusty young lamb 
will be found nibbling forage at the feed trough beside its dam, and the 
shepherd should provide specially for its wants to early accustom it to 
take additional food. This is best accomplished by having an enclosure 
or room called the "lamb-creep" adjoining the ewe-pen, into which the 
lambs find their way, while the mothers are prevented from entering 
because of the limited size of the openings. In this space, accessible to 
the lambs only, should be placed a low, flat-bottomed trough, with an ob- 
struction lengthwise over the top to prevent the lambs from jumping into 
it. In the trough should be sprinkled a little meal especially palatable 
to the lamb, such as ground oats, bran, corn meal or cracked corn, oil 
meal, soybean meal — one or all — varying the mixture to suit the chang- 
ing tastes of the young things. At first they will take but little, but soon 
they become regular attendants at the trough thru habit impelled by 
appetite. There should be no more feed in the trough at any time than 
will be quickly consumed, and any left over must be removed and the 
trough thoroly cleaned before the next allowance is given. Fine alfalfa 
or second-crop clover hay should be provided, and roots, cabbage, or 
good silage will be appreciated. All feed should be fresh, with no 
smell of the stable — that which is left over can be given to the pigs. 
Lambs will drink a good deal of water, and this also must be fresh and 
clean. Ram lambs not intended for breeding should be castrated when 
1 to 2 weeks old, and all lambs should be docked, the ewes when 8 to 
14 days old and the rams 5 to 7 days after castration. 

895. Turning to pasture. — With the springing of the grass, ewes and 
lambs should be turned to pasture for a short time during the warm 
part of the day. It is best to accomplish the change gradually and 
while the grass is short. After a few hours spent in the sunshine, nib- 
bling at the grass, the ewes and lambs should be returned to shelter, 
where a full feed awaits them. When the grass has become ample and 
nutritious, stable feeding may be dropped for ewes, or both ewes and 
lambs, according to the plan followed. With good pasture, breeding 
ewes need no grain. Indeed, we may look forward to the pasture sea- 
son as marking the time to "draw the grain from their systems," as 
it is termed by shepherds. In some instances pasture so stimulates the 
milk flow of ewes that an over-supply of rich milk causes digestive de- 
rangement and sudden death with young lambs. The shepherd should 
forestall such trouble by removing the ewes from the pasture after a few 
hours grazing each day, and by giving hay or other dry feeds, thereby 
reducing the milk flow. 

It is usually best to feed the lambs concentrates in addition to what 
they get from dams and pasture. To this end, at some convenient point 
in the pasture let there be a "lamb-creep," and in a space accessible by 
way of the creep a trough for feeding grain. Whenever the lamb passes 
thru the creep it should find something in this trough to tempt the appe- 
tite — oats, bran, pea meal, and corn meal constituting the leading 



GENERAL CARE OP SHEEP AND LAMBS 559 

articles. Williams of the Arizona Station 24 reports good results from 
feeding a mixture of 4 parts of corn meal, 1 of bran, and 1 of cottonseed 
meal to lambs running with their dams on alfalfa pasture. Grain never 
gives such large returns as when fed to thrifty young animals, and the 
growing lamb is no exception. 

896. At weaning time. — Lambs of the mutton breeds, more or less 
helpless at birth, are lusty at 4 months of age, and will be found graz- 
ing regularly beside their dams in pasture when not at rest or eating 
grain within the lamb-creep. At this time they should generally be 
weaned, for their own good as well as to allow their dams a rest before 
another breeding season. Wing 23 states that it is not necessary to wean 
lambs of the mutton breeds before they go to market if they have been 
well fed, for they will reach a weight of 75 to 85 lbs. while suckling 
their mothers. If possible, advantage should be taken of a cool spell 
in summer to wean the lambs. Lambs weaned during excessively hot 
weather may receive a serious setback because of the heat and fretting 
for their mothers. The lambs should be so far separated from their 
dams that neither can hear the bleating of the other. For a few days 
the ewes should be held on short pasture or kept on dry feed in the 
yard. The udders must be examined, and if necessary, as is often the 
case with the best mothers, they should be drained of milk a few times 
lest inflammation arise. The lambs should be put on the best pasture 
and given a liberal supply of grain. New clover seeding is especially 
relished, while young second-crop clover is also satisfactory. An es- 
pecially choice bite may always be provided for the lambs at this im- 
portant time by a little forethought on the part of the shepherd. 

897. After weaning. — Fresh, nutritious pasture should be provided for 
the lambs after weaning. Besides clover, rape is especially suitable. 
Other forage crops may also be employed in sections where they thrive. 
Lambs that are to be marketed early or those being fitted for shows will 
utilize a grain allowance with profit. For those to be fattened in winter 
or for the ewe lambs to be retained in the flock grain may not be necessary 
when grazing is good. Ram lambs require grain during the fall to secure 
proper development, whether they are to be sold as lambs or retained 
till yearlings. Naturally the concentrate allowance for the lambs des- 
tined for the breeding flock should supply a greater proportion of pro- 
tein than is necessary for those being finished for market. 

898. The stomach worm. — In the territory east of the Mississippi river 
the stomach worm, Strongylus contortvs, is a serious menace to sheep 
raising, lambs being especially susceptible to attack. The eggs of the 
parasite pass in the droppings of the sheep and are scattered about the 
pastures, where they soon hatch. Sheep become infested only by swallow- 
ing the worms while grazing. Fields on which no sheep, cattle, or goats 
have grazed for a year, and those that have been freshly plowed and 
cultivated since sheep grazed thereon, are practically free from infest- 

-' Information to the authors. c5 Sheep Farming in America, p. 149. 



560 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

ation. Old bluegrass pastures are especially to be avoided. It is also 
dangerous to allow sheep to drink from stagnant pools. During warm 
weather, otherwise clean pastures may become infested in from 3 to 14 
days by grazing sheep thereon. 

To remove the worms from the intestinal tract of sheep, various 
drenches are recommended, the one most commonly used being 1 table- 
spoonful of gasoline, thoroly mixed with 5 to 6 ounces of fresh cow's 
milk, with a tablespoonful of raw linseed oil added. The above dose, 
suitable for a lamb of average size, should be increased for older sheep. 
The 1 real incut should be repeated each day for 3 days. With weak 
lambs the doses may be given on alternate days. 

Tho remedies are of value, prevention of infestation has proved more 
successful. Kleinheinz 20 of the Wisconsin Station recommends the fol- 
lowing system of handling sheep and lambs: In the northern United 
States worm-free and infested sheep may graze together in a clean field 
at any time from the last of September until May with little danger. 
From June to September change to fresh, clean pasture every 2 or 3 
weeks. Annual pastures, as rape, clover seeding, etc., are well adapted to 
this system. This effective method requires several separate, clean pasture 
lots. In the warmer sections the sheep should be changed to clean pas- 
ture earlier in the spring and more frequently during the summer. Thor- 
oly treating the ewes with some vermifuge will remove most of the worms, 
and aid in preventing infestation. Farmers often make the serious mis- 
lake of allowing the lambs to remain with their dams after weaning. 
Instead, they should at once be placed on fresh, clean pasture on which 
no sheep have previously grazed that season. Nothing is better than 
turning the Lambs into a field of well-matured rape connecting with a 
fresh grass pasture. Well-fed, thrifty sheep and lambs can much better 
resist parasites than those getting poor feed and care. 

1 1. Hints on Fattening Sheep 

899. Hints on sheep feeding. — Sheep feeders do not begin operations 
at an early hour in winter, preferring not to disturb the animals until, 
after daybreak. Usually grain is first given, followed by hay and water. 
The trough in which grain is fed should be kept clean at all times, and 
there should be ample space, so that each animal may get its share of 
grain. As has been previously pointed out in this chapter, regularity 
and quiet are of especial importance with fattening sheep. Faville of 
the Wyoming Station 27 reports that during a certain 2- week period of 
a feeding trial 160 lambs fed by McLay, a most experienced shepherd, 
made a total gain of 475 lbs. During the next 2 weeks McLay was ab- 
sent. Tho his place was taken by a man who followed the "letter of 
the law" the lambs lost 85 lbs. in the 2 weeks, several going off feed. 
The regular shepherd then returned and in the next 2 weeks the lambs 
gained 508 lbs. 

2 "Sheep Management, p. 111. "Wyo. Bui. 89. 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 561 

Nowhere does the skill of the feeder show more plainly than in getting 
sheep to full grain feed without getting a single one off feed. Western 
sheep may not be able at first to take over 0.1 lb. of grain per day. 
If so, 2 months or 10 weeks may be required in getting the flock to full 
feed. English mutton sheep take grain more readily, and in some cases 
no more than 3 or 4 weeks need intervene between placing the lambs on 
feed and full feeding. In no case should this operation be hurried, for 
it means waste of feed and injury if not loss of some of the animals. 

In all cases before sheep are admitted to the fattening pens they should 
be examined by an experienced shepherd, and if any evidence of skin 
disease or vermin is found the flock should be dipped in the most thoro 
manner. In the West scab and in the East lice and ticks are common 
troubles. To attempt to fatten sheep afflicted with any of these pests 
is to court disaster. Ticky sheep show increased irritability and rest- 
lessness as soon as fattening begins. 

900. Length of feeding period. — The feeding period with sheep and 
lambs which have never received grain while on pasture should last 
from 12 to 14 weeks, according to their condition in the beginning and 
the rapidity with which they gain. The tables in the preceding chapter 
show that lambs increase in weight at least a quarter of a pound per 
day when gaining normally. For a feeding period of 100 days the 
gains should run from 25 to 30 lbs. per head. This weight, mostly 
fat, added to the carcass of a lamb weighing originally 60 to 90 lbs., 
brings it to the size desired by the market. Formerly the market called 
for a large lamb, but now the demand is for plump ones weighing from 
80 to 90 lbs., or even less if they are from the western ranges. As soon 
as lambs are ripe, or when the backs and the region about the tail seem 
well covered with fat, they should be sold, for further gains cannot 
be made at a profit. Ripe lambs fed a heavy grain ration at the North 
Dakota Station- s gained only 0.8 lb. each in 4 weeks, returning a heavy 
loss instead of profit. 

901. Rations for fattening lambs; cost of gains. — From the many trials 
reviewed in the preceding chapter the feeder can readily determine the 
best combination of feeds to employ under his local conditions. The 
tables showing the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain will en- 
able him to compute the approximate cost of gains with feeds at market 
prices. It should be remembered that the results presented were se- 
cured with thrifty lambs, fed by skilled feeders and under good con- 
ditions. The feed required for a given gain will therefore often exceed 
the amount stated. Comparing the cost of gains, it will be found that 
lambs give better returns for the feed supplied than do steers. The 
gains of mature sheep will cost from 25 to 30 per ct. more than those 
of lambs. 

902. Proportion of concentrates. — Thruout the corn belt and the east- 
ern states lambs are commonly fed all the grain they will clean up after 
being brought to full feed. On the other hand, in the West, where hay 

a N. D. Bui. 28. 



562 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

is cheap compared with grain, the allowance of grain is often restricted. 
At the Illinois Station 2 " Coffey conducted the following trials lasting 90 
and 98 days, respectively, with lots each of 20 western lambs, to determine 
the effect of feeding various proportions of shelled corn and alfalfa hay : 

Feeding various proportions of shelled corn and alfalfa hay to lambs 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Corn Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
FxTst LtxclL 

Lot I, Corn, 1.2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .2 lbs. 69 0.30 412 408 

Lot II, Corn, 1 .0 lb. Alfalfa hay, 1 .4 lbs. 69 0.27 389 527 

Lot III, Corn, 0.7 1b. Alf alfa hay, 1 . 7 lbs. 69 0.22 327 791 

Lot IV, Corn, 0.5 1b. Alfalfa hay, 1 .9 lbs. 69 0.20 266 918 
Second trial 

Lot 7, Corn, 1 .4 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .2 lbs. 65 0.33 411 353 

Lot II, Corn, 1 . 1 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs. 65 0.32 356 466 

Lot III, Corn, 0.9 1b. Alfalfa hay, 1 .8 lbs. 65 0.29 299 606 

In each trial the rate of gain increased with the amount of corn fed, 
tho the difference was not great between Lots I and II in each trial. 
Coffey concludes that except with very high-priced corn and cheap hay, 
the cost of gains is usually less and the profit greater when the lambs 
are full fed on corn. 

At the New Mexico Station 30 Simpson found that when lambs were 
fed allowances of corn ranging from 0.25 lb. to 0.90 lb. per head daily 
with alfalfa hay, the lambs fed the heavier allowances of grain made 
more rapid gains and reached a better finish. On a market which paid 
a premium for well-fattened lambs the heavier corn allowances would 
have been the more profitable. Simpson states that the time required 
to finish the average lambs is about as follows : With a heavy corn 
allowance, 70 to 80 days; with a medium corn allowance, 90 to 100 
days; with a light corn allowance, 100 to 110 days; with alfalfa alone, 
110 to 120 days. On alfalfa alone lambs can hardly be brought to the 
same finish as on grain, hence many western feeders use hay alone dur- 
ing the first of the fattening period and then add grain to finish the 
lambs and harden the flesh. 

903. Fattening lambs in the fall. — Finishing lambs for market in the 
fall is the common practice with farmers who raise their own lambs and 
many who rely on buying feeder lambs from the western ranges. Until 
cold weather sets in the lambs may be grazed on rape or other pasture, 
being fed grain in addition. Thrifty lambs placed on feed in the fall 
should be ready for sale in December or early in January, a season when 
there is usually a scarcity of good lambs on the market, since the grass- 
fed lambs have been marketed and those in winter feed lots are not yet 
finished. 

In some sections train loads of lambs are annually distributed in Au- 
gust among the farmers of a neighborhood and by them given the run 
of the stubble fields from which the small grain has been harvested. 

-"111. Bui. 167. 30 N. Mex. Bui. 79. 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 563 

Often rape has been sown on the fields to increase the herbage, the seed- 
ing not taking place until the small grain is well above ground, lest the 
rape grow so large as to injure the grain crop. The stubble fields well 
cleaned, the lambs are shifted to the fields of standing corn, where they 
feed on the lower leaves of the corn and on rape or turnips sown at the 
last cultivation of the corn, finally eating more or less of the corn on 
the ears. 

904. Fattening lambs in the western states. — Thruout the western states, 
especially in Colorado, large numbers of lambs and older sheep are fat- 
tened annually. Alfalfa hay is the chief roughage, with wet sugar beet 
pulp in the vicinity of beet sugar factories. In Colorado corn is the chief 
grain fed, while farther north and west larger use is made of the small 
grains, especially barley. The whole western range is drawn on for 
feeders, and the small fine-wool type of earlier times has been largely 
replaced by the cross-bred lamb of better mutton quality. Formerly 
many mature wethers were fed; but now mostly lambs are fattened. 

In large feeding plants the corral, or enclosure, is commonly divided 
into 2 rows of lots with a lane between, each lot accommodating from 
400 to 500 lambs. No shelter is provided, but windbreaks are desirable. 
The hay is usually fed in the lanes, 12 to 14 feet wide, extending be- 
tween the lots. The low fences bordering the lanes have a 7 or 8 inch 
space between the first and second boards, thru which the lambs feed on 
the hay. About 1 running foot of lane fencing and feed troughs is al- 
lowed each sheep. The hay from the stacks is hauled down the lanes and 
piled along the fences, being pushed up to them 2 or 3 times a day as it 
is eaten away. 

All lots are provided with flat-bottomed troughs for feeding grain. 
There is an extra or vacant lot at one end of each row of lots, likewise 
provided with troughs. At feeding time grain is placed in the troughs 
of this extra lot and the lambs from the adjoining lot are turned in. As 
soon as a lot is vacated, grain is put in the troughs of this lot, and the 
lambs enter from the next lot, and so on. At the next meal feeding 
begins by using the vacant lot at the other end of the row, reversing 
the process. After a week or more of preliminary hay feeding, corn 
feeding is begun. At first only a very little corn is sprinkled in the 
troughs, but as the lambs get used to it the amount is gradually increased 
until after about 2 months the lambs are on full feed, which is from 2 
to 3 bushels of corn per 100 head daily. The feeding yards are usually 
located on streams or ditches which supply running water. Those on 
high ground have watering troughs into which the water is pumped. 
Salt is liberally furnished in troughs. 

Most of the Colorado lambs are marketed unshorn. If feeding con- 
tinues until late in the spring the- lambs are usually shorn 6 weeks be- 
fore shipping. They Mali then gain enough more to make up the weight 
of the wool removed, will pack more closely in the car, and shrink less 
in shipping. Gains of from 15 to 30 lbs. per head are secured by this 



564 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

method of fattening. With favorable markets and low-priced feed enor- 
mous profits are made, but sometimes heavy losses occur. Under this 
system often little or no use is made of the manure produced. As hag 
been mentioned in the preceding chapter (860), large numbers of lambs 
are fattened on field peas in certain districts of the West, especially the 
San Luis Valley in Colorado. 

905. Feeding small bands. — Fattening great numbers of lambs at a 
single point reached its zenith years ago when corn and wheat screen- 
ings ruled low in price, and the large operator suffered little compe- 
tition from the ranchman and farmer in finishing range lambs for the 
market. Now conditions have changed. The price of feed has increased, 
and the fattening of range lambs in smaller bands has rapidly developed 
in the western states, in the corn belt, and farther eastward. Most for- 
tunately for a conservative agriculture, the large operator, who often 
receives no benefit from the great accumulation of rich manure in the 
feed lot, cannot compete with the farmer who fattens one or more car- 
loads of lambs and uses the manure for enriching his land. Prudent 
farmers rightly hold that enough fertility is returned to their land thru 
the feed lot to pay the entire labor cost of feeding. As sheep and lamb 
fattening on range and farm increases, the gradual decline of the old 
feed lot is assured. 

906. Fattening lambs in the corn belt. — Tho many extensive feeders 
in the corn belt each annually fatten thousands of lambs, for the rea- 
sons mentioned in the preceding paragraph the tendency is toward feed- 
ing small bands. In the corn belt, shelter is required to protect the 
lambs from the winter storms. While too much exercise decreases the 
gain, the lambs are commonly allowed the freedom of small yards. In 
the western states the allowance of grain is often limited, so that the 
lambs will consume more hay, but in the corn belt they are commonly 
brought to full feed as soon as can be done with safety. 

907. Fattening in the East. — In the eastern states an intensive sys- 
tem of feeding has been developed, in which the lambs are kept in pens 
in a barn or shed, never being turned out for exercise. The grain troughs 
are protected by vertical slats in such a manner that there is just room 
for a lamb to feed in each opening, and a single space is provided for 
each lamb. The lambs are brought to full feed as rapidly as possible 
and are given as much grain as they will clean up until ready for mar- 
ket. With this heavy feeding and the small amount of exercise care must 
be taken to keep the lambs quiet and a feeding space must be closed up 
whenever a lamb is removed from the pen, for excitement or overeating 
will cause heavy losses from apoplexy. 

III. Hot House and Spring Lambs ; Goats 
During recent years an increasing demand has developed for winter, 
or ' ' hot house ' ' lambs. The term ' ' hot house ' ' lambs does not mean that 
they are reared in artificially heated quarters, but has been applied be- 



GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 565 

cause the lambs are produced at an unusual season and are hence com- 
parable to the out-of -season products of hot houses. The greatest obstacles 
to success in this specialty are getting the ewes to breed sufficiently early, 
and producing carcasses which meet the exactions of the epicure. The 
demand for winter lambs prevails from the last of December to Easter, 
the price usually being the best between New Year's and the first of 
April. The condition of the carcasses of such lambs is more important 
than their size. They must be fat and present a well-developed leg of 
mutton with plenty of tender, juicy lean meat and a thick caul to spread 
over the exposed flesh of the carcass when on exhibition. Winter lambs 
should weigh alive from 45 to 60 lbs. Large but lean and bony ones 
present a staggy appearance and bring unsatisfactory prices. Early in 
the season small lambs top the market, but later the heavier ones are 
in demand. 

908. Breeding for winter lambs. — The ewes best suited for winter lamb 
production are pure-breds or grades of the Dorset, Tunis, and Merino 
or Rambouillet breeds, for the other breeds can not usually be depended 
on to breed sufficiently early. 31 However, Hampshires, Shropshires, and 
Southdowns are occasionally used with success. 

At the Minnesota Station, 32 in trials covering 6 years, Shaw found 
that the breeding habit of common grade ewes which usually drop their 
lambs in the spring may be so changed by 2 or 3 generations of 
judicious crossing and the selection of the early yeaned lambs for breed- 
ers that they will drop lambs in fall and early winter. This change can 
be hastened and more permanently fixed by mating the ewes with pure- 
bred Dorset rams. Where the ewes have the early breeding habit well 
fixed, superior lambs may be obtained by using dark-faced rams, such 
as Shropshire and Southdown. Shaw further found that ewes which 
have suckled winter lambs breed more readily before being turned to 
grass than subsequently, especially when fed a stimulating grain ration 
while still in the shed. At the New York (Cornell) Station 33 Dorset 
ewes bred earlier, stood forced feeding better, and were less affected by 
unfavorable weather than Shropshire ewes, and their lambs made more 
rapid gains. Miller and Wing 34 advise using a young ram, well fed dur- 
ing service but not too fat, turning him with the ewes not earlier than 
the middle of March nor later than the middle of May. The ewes should 
be in good condition and so fed as to be gaining in flesh. Even with 
favorable conditions, all the ewes will not breed at the desired time, and 
to secure 400 winter lambs about 500 ewes are necessary. Ewes which 
fail to breed are sold early, and those breeding late drop lambs useful 
for later sales. Ewes which are successful breeders are kept as long as 
possible, since those lambing in November are likely to breed at the right 
time the following year. 

909. Care of the ewe. — During the summer the ewes need abundant 

31 Wing, Savage, and Tailby, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 309. 

82 Minn. Bui. 78. M N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 88. "The Winter Lamb, p. 6. 



566 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

pasture, water, and shade. Should the grass become scant, they should 
receive additional feed — rape, pumpkins, etc. If in good condition it 
is rarely necessary to feed grain before lambing, and then only in small 
amount. The ewes should be shorn in the fall or as early in winter as 
possible so as to keep them cool. At weaning time the ewes should be 
removed to the lambing pen and fed lightly for a few days. The lamb- 
ing pen should be warm so that the new-born lambs may not be chilled. 
Alfalfa and clover hay with silage or roots serve best for roughage, 
while oats, bran, oil cake, and corn prove suitable concentrates. The 
object at all times is to produce the largest possible flow of milk to 
hasten the lamb's growth. In trials at the Ohio Station 35 Hammond 
found a mixture of 4 parts corn and 1 part linseed meal and an- 
other of 5 parts corn, 2 parts oats, 2 parts bran, and 1 part linseed meal 
of about equal value when fed with alfalfa hay and corn silage to ewes 
raising winter lambs. Corn as the sole concentrate resulted in as good 
gains by the lambs, but the ewes lost in weight while others fed corn, 
oats, bran, and linseed meal gained. 

910. The lambs. — A creep should be provided and the lambs taught to 
eat from a trough as soon as possible. To this end, a little sugar may 
sometimes be sprinkled on the grain to render it specially palatable. The 
lambs begin to eat freely when 2 or 3 weeks old, and are forced on bran, 
cracked corn, linseed meal, ground oats, barley, gluten feed, etc. They 
should be induced not only to eat, but to eat a large quantity, and to 
keep eating. Alfalfa, clover, or soybean hay is indispensable, while roots 
and silage are helpful. The feed troughs should be cleaned each morn- 
ing, and the grain and hay supply be changed 2 or 3 times a day. When 
necessary, lambs are fed new milk from a nursing bottle or from a tea- 
pot having a punctured rubber cot placed on the spout. Ewes bereft 
of their lambs thru sale are given one of a pair of twin lambs. Thus 
forced, the best lambs weigh from 50 to 60 lbs. alive at 10 to 12 weeks. 
For the eastern markets the lambs are "hog dressed," i. e., the feet and 
all the viscera, except the heart, liver, and kidneys, are removed, but 
the pelt and frequently the head left on. The caul fat is carefully spread 
over the exposed parts, and the carcass sewed up in muslin after thoroly 
cooling. To be profitable, winter lambs must sell for not less than $5 
per head, and the best ones sometimes bring as much as $12. This spe- 
cialty can be conducted with profit only by experts who have gained 
their experience thru patient and discreet effort, and who have nearby 
markets that will pay the high prices such products must command. 

911. Spring lambs. — A less intensive system than the preceding is the 
production of spring lambs. These should be dropped from January to 
March and are usually marketed in May and June, weighing 65 to 90 
lbs., at a time of the year when there is a good demand for lambs. Rais- 
ing spring lambs is especially profitable in Tennessee, Kentucky, Vir- 
ginia, and states to the southward, for here the ewes may be largely 

35 Ohio Bui. 270. 



1NERAL CASE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 567 

maintained on pasture thruout the year, greatly lowering the feed bill. 
Quereau 30 writes that in the Cumberland plateau ewes are pastured in 
summer and allowed to run on the fields after the crops are removed. 
"Winter crops, such as oats, barley, wheat, vetch, and crimson clover, 
are planted for winter and spring pasture. The sheep receive little if 
any grain, but during periods of bad weather are run under a shed and 
fed hay or other roughage. 

912. Goats. — The raising of Angora goats for their mohair has be- 
come an industry of considerable importance in certain districts of the 
United States, especially Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oregon, and 
California. According to the census of 1910 there were over a million 
goats in Texas and about half a million in New Mexico. In the west- 
ern states the goats graze upon rough land, utilizing browse which even 
sheep would refuse. In the cut-over districts of the North. Angora goats 
are useful in clearing land of brush at a low expense. 

In Europe the milch goat is of importance as a milk producing ani- 
mal, there being over 3.000.000 milch goats in Germany alone. 37 By 
their habits of life they are peculiarly adapted to the needs of the peas- 
ants, or poorer classes, of these countries, and have hence been ap- 
propriately termed "the poor man's cow." While the quality of the 
milk may be injured if the goat is maintained largely on weeds, kitchen 
waste, and other refuse, yet they can utilize much feed which would 
otherwise be wasted about the household. As with cows, the milk 
of goats varies widely. A good milch goat should continue to produce 
for 8 to 10 months, and yield 2 quarts of milk or more daily. The milch 
goat produces somewhat more milk, based upon body weight, than the 
cow, often yielding 10 times her body weight annually, and also requires 
iced to produce 100 lbs. of milk, tho the milk is higher in fat than 
average cow's milk. The milch goat has not yet attained any importance 
in this country, but it should have a place in supplying fresh, pure milk 
for households in our cities. The general principles of feeding and care 
which have been presented for sheep also apply to goats. 

K Tenn. Bui. 84. 

57 Thompson, Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats, p. 177. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 

Because of the economy with which the pig converts its food into edible 
flesh, this animal steadily increases in importance as our population be- 
comes more dense. (132-3) Practically every farmer should raise and 
Patten pigs, for family consumption if not for the market, in order to 
profitably conserve valuable nutritive material that would otherwise be 
wasted. We should dismiss the idea that profitable hog raising belongs 
to the corn belt only. Denmark raises no corn, yet produces more pork 
of the highest quality than any other equal area in the world. The south- 
ern states still buy vast quantities of pork from the North despite the 
fact that their experiment stations have demonstrated that it can be pro- 
duced at lower cost in the South. Pigs produce a pound of gain from 
4 to 5 lbs. of dry mailer while fattening cattle require from 10 to 12 
lbs. The pig yields from 75 to 80 per ct. of his live weight as dressed 
carcass; the steer only 55 to 65 per ct. (717, 726) Pigs will profitably 
utilize many by-products of the farm otherwise lost, such as dairy by- 
products ami kitchen and garden waste, as well as grains that cannot 
otherwise be profitably disposed of. No other line of stock farming can 
so quickly be brought to profitable production with limited capital in- 
vested in stock and equipment as can the making of meat from the pig. 
In many eases I he grower should not only fallen his pigs but also slaugh- 
ter them and market (he cured products, obtaining increased profits even 
tho the undertaking be a small one. 

In this book we have generally used the word "pig" rather than "hog," 
thereby following the usage of English farmers, for we regard the pig 
as the young, and the hog as the really mature animal among swine. 
In modern pork production swine are usually mere pigs in age when 
they are finished for the market and therefore such usage of the word is 
reasonable. 

913. Rate and economy of gains by pigs. — The economy with which 
pios of different weights convert feed into meat is shown in the follow- 
ing table summarizing the data from over 500 feeding trials with more 
than 2,200 pigs at many American experiment stations. In this table 
6 lbs. of skim milk or 12 lbs. of whey are rated as equal to 1 lb. of con- 
centrates. 

The table shows that pigs weighing under 50 lbs. consumed on the 
average 2.2 lbs. of feed daily, while 300-lb. pigs consumed 7.5 lbs. daily. 
Based on weight, the 50-lb. pigs consumed 6.0 lbs. of feed per 100 lbs. 
of body weight, while 300-lb. pigs consumed only 2.4 lbs. per 100 lbs. In 

568 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE EUSBANDR^ 



569 



other words, young pigs consume far more feed for their weight than 
do large ones. The average gain per day started at 0.8 lb. for pigs 
under 50 lbs. each, and gradually increased until those weighing 250 
lbs. showed a daily gain of 1.5 lbs. The last column shows that pigs 
weighing less than 50 lbs. each gained 100 lbs. for every 293 lbs. of 
feed or feed equivalent consumed, and that the quantity of feed required 
for 100 lbs. gain steadily increased as the pigs became larger, until at 
300 lbs. weight it required 535 lbs. of feed to make 100 lbs. of gain. The 
great economy of young, growing pigs over older and more mature ones 
for making gain from a given quantity of feed is plainly brought out by 
the table. (114) When we compare the amounts of \'c>-<\ required for 
100 lbs. gain by pigs of the different weights with the amounts required 
by beef cattle and sheep, the superiority of the pig as a meat producer 
is niosl si riking. 

/,'< lul ion. of weight of pigs to feed consumed and, rate of gain 







No. of 


Av. feed 


l''cc(] cii.lrii dnil\ 






\\'\. Of |H!' 1 


Actu.-il 


animals 


eaten per 


per loo ll)n. 


Av. gain 


Peed for 




av. wt. 


fed 


day 


live weight 


per (lay 


100 II, . !• ,11, 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


I.'. to 50 


38 


174 


2.2 


G.O 


0..X 


293 


50 to LOO 


78 


417 


3.4 


4.3 


0.8 


400 


100 to 150 


L28 


495 


4.8 


3.8 


1 .1 


437 


L50 to 200 


174 


489 


5.0 


3.5 


1.2 


482 


200 to 250 


226 


300 


6.6 


2.9 


1 ,3 


498 


250 to 300 


271 


223 


7.4 


2.7 


1 .5 


511 


300 to 350 


320 


1 ( 15 


7.5 


2 1 


1.4 


:,:;r, 



In trials by the senior author at the Wisconsin Station, 1 5 sows and 
litters were fed 70 days on corn meal, wheat middlings, and sour skim 
milk. The unweaned pigs were also given all of the same food they 
would consume at a separate trough. At 10 weeks the pigs were weaned, 
and the feeding continued for 7 weeks with the sows and weaned pigs 
separately. While suckling their pigs, 1 sow lost and 2 gained in weight. 
The table shows the feed required for 100 lbs. of net gain with sows and 
pigs before and after weaning: 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain by sows and pigs before and. after weaning 

M"al 
Meal Milk equivalent 

Lbs, Lbs. Lbs. 

By sows anrl'pigs 10 weeks before weaning 237 475 316 

By pigs only, 7 weeks after weaning 2XX 576 384 

By sows only, 7 weeks after weaning 710 1 ,420 947 

It is shown that 237 lbs. of grain, together with 475 lbs. of separator 
skim milk, produced 100 lbs. of combined net gain with sows and their 
unweaned pigs. Reckoning 6 lbs. of skim milk equal to 1 of the mixed 
meal, it is shown that 316 lbs. of meal equivalent produced 100 lbs. net 
gain with sows and their unweaned pigs. For the 7 weeks following 
weaning the pigs required 384 lbs. of meal equivalent, or 22 per ct. more 
'Wis. Rpt. 1897. 



570 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



feed, for 100 lbs. of gain than before weaning. It thus appears that 
young, unweaned pigs are fed more economically thru the sow than after 
weaning. The table shows that, after their pigs were weaned, the sows 
required the surprisingly large amount of 947 lbs. of meal equivalent to 
make good each 100 lbs. of flesh lost while suckling their pigs. The 
prudent stockman always feeds both sows and pigs liberally before wean- 
ing, realizing that the sows should not be allowed to grow thin thru 
scant feeding. 

914. Gain of young pigs. — To show the rate of gain by young pigs 
before and after weaning, the following table is taken from a study by 
the senior author at the Wisconsin Station, 1 " the data covering 70 days 
before and 49 days after weaning : 

Weight of a Utter of pigs at birth and gains before and after weaning 













Before 


weaning 














Days 
from 


Wt. 
of 








Weight 


cf pigs 








Date 




















birth 


sow 


No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3 


Nc. 4 


No. 5 


No. 


No. 7 


No. 8 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


May 24 




332 


















May 25 . . 









3.6 


3.2 


3.3 


3.2 


3.4 


3.2 


2.8 


1.9 


May 31 . . 




7 


290 


7.1 


5.1 


5.9 


6.4 


6.3 


5.8 


4.8 


3.0 


June 7 . . . 




14 


285 


10.7 


7.7 


9.9 


9.4 


9.5 


9.2 


7.5 


5.1 


June 14 . . 




21 


277 


19.0 


11.5 


13.5 


13.5 


12.5 


12.5 


10.8 


7.6 


June 21 . . 




28 


278 


19.4 


14.5 


17.4 


17.8 


15.6 


16.0 


14.1 


10.4 


June 28 . . 




35 


280 


24.2 


16.4 


22.2 


23.1 


20.6 


20.9 


18.2 


14.4 


July 5. . . . 




42 


293 


28.0 


18.7 


25.5 


26.5 


23.5 


24.2 


22.0 


16.5 


July 12. . . 




49 


280 


32.5 


19.0 


30.0 


32.5 


29.0 


29.5 


26.0 


21.0 


July 19. . . 




56 


278 


40.5 


22.5 


37.0 


43.5 


38.0 


38.0 


35.5 


26.5 


July 26. . . 




63 


268 


47.0 


24.5 


44.0 


51.0 


45.5 


45.0 


42.5 


31.0 


August 2 . 




70 


261 


50.5 


25.0 


50.0 


60.5 


50.0 


51.0 


47.0 


37.5 


Gain 


—29 


46.9 


21.8 


46.7 


57.3 


46.6 


47.8 


44.2 


35.6 









After weaninp 



August 2 . . . 







50.5 


25.0 


50.0 


60.5 


50.0 


51.0 


47.5 


37.5 


August 9 . . . 


7 




53.0 


25.0 


57.5 


68.0 


57.5 


55.0 


54.5 


44.0 


August 16 . . 


14 




57.0 


27.5 


63.5 


75.0 


61.0 


59.0 


61.0 


50.0 


August 23 . . 


21 




62.5 


33.5 


72.5 


86.5 


67.0 


69.0 


72.0 


56.0 


September 6 


35 




69.0 


43.0 


84.0 


101.0 


80.0 


76.0 


79.0 


64.0 


September 13 


42 




77.5 


48.0 


94.0 


105.0 


86.0 


88.0 


88.0 


74.0 


September20 


49 




85.5 


56.0 


104.0 


114.0 


92.0 


93.0 


93.0 


82.0 


Gain 






35.0 


31.0 


54.0 


53.5 


42.0 


42.0 


!' 5 


44.5 



It will be seen that the sow lost 29 lbs. in weight while suckling her 
pigs, which gained from 21.8 to 57.3 lbs. each in 10 weeks between far- 
rowing and weaning. For the 7 weeks succeeding weaning the individual 
gains ranged from 31 to 54 lbs. It is possible for a suckling pig to weigh 
70 lbs. when 70 days old, and sometimes, tho rarely, it may exceed that 
high figure. 

ia wis. Rpt. 1890. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 571 

915. Maintenance requirement of the pig. — At the Wisconsin Station 2 
Dietrich gradually reduced the feed of four 50-lb. pigs getting corn meal, 
wheat middlings, and skim milk during 2 weeks until they were neither 
gaining nor losing in weight. They were held on this allowance for 7 
days to confirm the figures and then gradually brought back to full feed 
again. When the pigs averaged 100 lbs. the process was repeated, with 
the results shown in the table: 

Daily maintenance requirement of pigs at different weights 

Average ration Digestible nutrients per 

Concen- Skim 100 lbs. live weight 

trates milk Crude protein Total 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

When pig weighed 50 lbs 0.3 1.2 0.12 0.60 

When pig weighed 100 lbs 0.8 1.6 0.12 .70 

When pig weighed 150 lbs 1.6 1.6 0.13 0.84 

When pig weighed 200 lbs 2.0 ... 0.10 0.72 

The table shows that a 50-lb. pig maintained its weight on a ration 
of but 0.3 lb. of concentrates (corn and middlings) and 1.2 lbs. skim milk, 
which furnished 0.12 lb. digestible crude protein and 0.60 lb. total digest- 
ible nutrients per 100 lbs. live weight. The amount of feed eaten daily 
per pig increased as the pigs grew heavier, but there was no marked 
change in the requirements per 100 lbs. live weight. In these and also 
in later experiments at the Illinois Station 3 Dietrich found that if the 
ration was reduced after the animal was apparently receiving only 
enough feed to maintain its weight it would lose in weight for a period 
and then often be able to maintain itself on the reduced ration or even 
gain in weight, due to a better utilization of the feed. It has already 
been pointed out that steers fed scanty rations are likewise able to utilize 
their feed more efficiently than when liberally fed. (82) 

Dietrich found that pigs, previously fed scanty rations, may be main- 
tained on 0.10 lb. digestible crude protein and 0.42 to 0.57 lb. total digest- 
ible nutrients. This is 4.2 to 5.7 lbs. total digestible nutrients per 1,000 
lbs. live weight, somewhat less than the amount required by the dairy 
cow or the steer, as is shown in Appendix Table V. This is probably 
due to the fact, previously pointed out (91), that maintenance require- 
ments depend upon body surface, and since the pig is built more com- 
pactly than the steer or cow, he has less body surface per 100 lbs. live 
weight. 

916. Utilization of feed by the pig. — In the trial reported in the pre- 
ceding article, after each maintenance period the pigs were gradually 
returned to full feed, which was continued until the next maintenance 
period. The following table shows the gains made during these inter- 
mediate periods, together with the percentage of the feed which was 
required for maintenance and used for making gain. 

2 Wis. Rpt. 1899. "111. Bui. 163. 



572 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Use made by the pig of the feed consumed 

Av. daily Percentage of food used 
gain For maintenance For gain 
Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. 

When pig weighed 50 lbs .93 18 82 

When pig weighed 100 lbs 1 .66 25 75 

When pig weighed 150 lbs 1 .85 27 73 

When pig weighed 200 lbs 1 .22 36 64 

The table shows that the 50-lb. pig, when gaining nearly 1 lb. a day, 
used only 18 per ct. of its feed for the support of the body, leaving 82 
per ct. of all it consumed for gain in body weight. As the pig increases 
in weight, as has already been pointed out, it consumes less feed per 
100 lbs. live weight, and hence after the maintenance requirements are 
met has a smaller percentage of its feed left for gain. (913) 

917. Maintenance of the sow. — At the Wisconsin Station 4 Davies re- 
corded the feed eaten by a 394-lb. Berkshire sow and her 7 suckling 
pigs for 10 weeks between farrowing and weaning, obtaining the fol- 
lowing results : 

Feed required to maintain the brood sow 

Concen- Skim 

trates milk 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Feed (J4 corn, y 2 wheat middlings) consumed by sow 660 1,381 

Calculated amount needed to maintain sow alone 242 484 

Feed eaten by sow that went to nourish her pigs 418 897 

Additional feed given to pigs 100 313 

Total 518 1,210 

Feed given sow and pigs for 100 lbs. gain by pigs 146 339 

Feed required to maintain sow 1 day 3.5 6 .9 

Davies estimates that concentrates equivalent to 1 per ct. of the weight 
of the sow supported her for 1 day, and that about one-third of what 
she ate went for the support of her own body, while two-thirds was used 
in elaborating milk for her young. It required but 146 lbs. of grain and 
336 lbs. of skim milk fed to sow and pigs for 100 lbs. of gain by the 
pigs — an exceedingly small allowance. 

Faville of the "Wyoming Station 5 found that brood sows weighing 314 
lbs. at the beginning of the trial and 376 lbs. at the close made average 
daily gains of 0.4 lb. on a daily allowance of 4.6 lbs. of concentrates 
(2 parts corn and 1 part mill feed). This ration supplied only 57 per 
ct, of the nutrients called for by the Wolff -Lehmann standard. 

918. Nutrient requirements of swine. — Since pigs are now commonly 
fattened for market before maturity, they are growing rapidly as well 
as storing fat in their bodies. Consequently their ration should supply 
ample protein and mineral matter for normal growth. The requirements 

"Wis. Rpt. 1904. 3 Wyo. Bui. 96. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 573 

of pigs of various ages, as shown in studies by the junior author of the 
numerous trials at American experiment stations, are set forth in the 
Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. (Appendix Table V) 

The other farm animals eat large quantities of hay, which is relatively 
high in mineral matter, including calcium (lime), compared with the 
cereal grains. Except when on pasture, pigs, on the other hand, are fed 
chiefly on the cereal grains, not being fitted to utilize much dry rough- 
age. Since all the cereals, especially corn, of which pigs are unusually 
fond, are low in calcium, there is much greater danger than with other 
animals that they will not obtain sufficient calcium for normal growth 
of skeleton and body tissues. "When rations are fed which do not con- 
tain ample calcium it should be supplied in the form of ground lime- 
stone, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate. When the ration furnishes 
sufficient protein to meet the standards, it will also supply sufficient phos- 
phorus for rapid growth, since the common feeds which are rich in pro- 
tein are likewise high in phosphorus. (119) 

919. Effect of adding calcium to the ration. — The trials reviewed in a 
preceding chapter (135-7) show clearly that when pigs are fed corn alone 
they develop weak skeletons and fail to make normal growth. This is 
both because corn is low in protein and because it is low in mineral 
matter, especially calcium. To determine the effect upon the strength 
of the skeleton of adding various supplements to corn, during each of 
2 years Burnett fed 4 lots, each of four 79-lb. pigs, the rations shown in 
the table for 137 days at the Nebraska Station. 6 The breaking strength 
of the right and left femur, tibia, humerus, radius, and ulna of the legs 
of each pig was determined at the close of the trial. During the first 
5 weeks of the first trial and the first 12 weeks of the # second all lots 
were on alfalfa pasture. 

Ground hone and tankage as supplements to corn 

Concen- Av. breaking 

Daily trates for strength of 

Average ration gain 100 lbs. gain bones 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn, 5.0 lbs 1.0 511 303 

Lot II, Ground bone, 0.5 lb. Corn, 4.5 lbs 1.0 507 575 

Lot III, Shorts, 1.3 lbs. Corn, 3.7 lbs 1.0 491 354 

Lot IV, Tankage, 0.5 lb. Corn, 4.5 lbs 1.1 456 497 

Due to the alfalfa pasture during the first part of the trial, the lot 
on corn alone made satisfactory gains. However, Lot II, receiving 
ground bone in addition to corn, had much stronger bones. The skele- 
ton was also greatly strengthened by the addition of tankage, which con- 
tains considerable calcium, and to a small degree by the addition of 
shorts. As shown later (1013), it is important that the calcium supply 
in the ration of the brood sow be ample. 

920. Grinding grain. — At the Wisconsin Station 7 during each of 10 
consecutive winters the senior author, at first alone and later with Otis, 

"Nebr. Bui. 107. 7 Wis, Rpt. 1906. 



574 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

fed ground corn, in comparison with shelled corn, to fattening pigs 
averaging 175 lbs. in weight at the beginning of the trials, during per- 
iods ranging from 63 to 98 days each. Iowa No. 3, year-old shelled 
corn was used, part of which was ground in a buhrstone mill to the 
usual fineness, while part was fed unground, as shelled corn. Since 
pigs do not thrive on corn alone, in all cases the ration was made up of 
one-third wheat middlings and two-thirds ground or shelled corn. The 
mixed ground corn and middlings were fed wet with a small quantity 
of water, while the shelled corn was fed dry and alone, the middlings 
having first been fed as a slop. Salt and wood ashes were supplied at 
all times to both lots. The results of the 18 trials are summarized in the 
following table : 

Summary of 10 winters' feeding ground corn and shelled corn 







Total feed given 




Feed for 




Whole 


Corn 


Wheat 


Total 


100 lbs. 


Feed given 


corn 


meal 


middlings 


gain 


gain 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


140 pigs fed shelled corn and 












wheat middlings 


46,736 




22,590 


13,828 


501 


140 pigs fed ground corn and 












wheat middlings 




50,647 


24,189 


15,891 


471 



In 11 out of 18 trials the saving from grinding corn ranged from 
2.5 to 18.5 per et., and in 7 cases there was a loss by grinding, ranging 
from 1.1 to 11.1 per ct. On the average it required 501 lbs. of whole 
corn and wheat middlings for 100 lbs. of gain, and only 471 lbs. of 
ground corn and middlings, a saving of 6 per ct. This means that with 
corn worth 50 cts. per bushel there was a saving of 3 cts. on each bushel 
by grinding, allowing nothing for labor or expense. It was observed that 
the pigs getting ground corn ate more feed in a given time and gained 
more rapidly than did those getting shelled corn, which fact no doubt 
explains the general impression among farmers that pigs do better on 
ground corn than on shelled. 

Kommel, 7a summarizing 9 trials at 5 stations where whole or ground 
grains — peas, wheat, rye, oats, and barley — were fed, either dry or 
soaked, to fattening pigs, found it required approximately 473 lbs. of 
whole grain or 415 lbs. of ground grain to produce 100 lbs. of gain — a 
saving of 12 per ct. by grinding. We may then conclude that it will 
usually pay to grind the small grains for pigs. 

921. Effect of preparing corn for pigs. — To study the benefits of pre- 
paring corn for pigs of various ages, King conducted trials at the Indiana 
Station 8 with a total of 140 pigs. Similar lots of pigs were fed either 
ear corn, shelled corn, or ground corn, the corn being supplemented with 
tankage and wheat shorts. Some lots were placed on experiment when 
the pigs weighed about 50 lbs., others at 85 lbs., and still others at 100 
lbs., at 150 to 160 lbs., and at 210 to 220 lbs., respectively. The ear 

fa U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 47. 
8 Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1913, pp. 22-31. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 



575 



Effect of preparing corn for pigs of different iveights 





No. of 
pigs 


Initial 
weight 


Daily 
gain 


Average ration 


Feed for 


Preparation of corn 


Corn 


Shorts 


Tankage 


100 lb3. 
gain* 


First month 

Ear com 

Shelled com . . . 
Ground corn. . . 

Second month 

Ear corn 

Shelled corn. . . 
Ground com. . . 

Third month 

Ear corn 

Shelled com . . . 
Ground corn. . . 

Fourth month 

Ear corn 

Shelled com . . . 
Ground corn . . . 

Fifth month 

Ear corn 

Shelled corn. . . 
Ground corn. . . 

Sixth month 

Ear corn 

Shelled corn. . . 
Ground com . . . 


16 
16 
16 

16 
16 
16 

43 
42 
43 

51 
50 
51 

58 
58 
58 

64 
53 
64 


Lbs. 

54 
54 
54 

73 

74 
73 

108 
106 
107 

140 
139 
141 

178 
178 
182 

219 
217 
226 


Lbs. 

0.63 
0.66 
0.64 

0.89 
0.84 
0.84 

0.96 
0.92 
1.00 

1.14 
1.14 
1.23 

1.21 

1.20 
1.36 

1.44 
1.46 
1.58 


Lbs. 

1.39 
1.38 
1.38 

2.33 
2.18 
2.25 

3.35 
3.32 
3.47 

4.44 
4.51 
4.65 

5.21 

5.29 
5.56 

6.05 
6.30 
6.43 


Lbs. 

0.72 
0.72 
0.72 

0.75 
0.75 
0.75 

0.25 
0.26 
0.25 

0.01 
0.01 
0.01 


Lbs. 

0.25 
0.25 
0.25 

0.25 
0.25 
0.25 

0.27 
0.28 
0.27 

0.34 
0.34 
0.34 

0.35 
0.34 
0.35 

0.36 
0.37 
0.36 


Lbs. 

376 
357 
370 

374 

378 
388 

404 
417 
399 

422 
428 
408 

460 
468 
434 

445 
455 
431 



* Ear corn reduced to shelled corn basis. 

corn and shelled corn were fed dry and the ground corn was wet enough 
so that it would not be thrown out of the trough by the pigs while eating. 
In the above table the results are arranged by months, starting with 
the pigs weighing 54 lbs. 

The table shows that during the first and second months there was 
no appreciable benefit from shelling corn or from grinding it. In the 
third month the pigs fed ground corn began to make slightly larger 
gains, and required a little less feed for 100 lbs. gain. When the pigs 
reached a weight of 140 lbs. the difference became slightly more marked. 
During each of the last 3 months the pigs fed ground corn ate more 
feed, made slightly more rapid gains, and required less feed for 100 
lbs. gain. For these months the saving by grinding, however, was not 
large, amounting to only 4.1 per ct. on the average over ear corn. Ear 
corn gave better results than shelled corn. 

The slightly more rapid and more economical gains of the older pigs 
on ground corn were probably due to the fact that as pigs mature and 
fatten they masticate corn lfess thoroly. This is shown by digestion experi- 
ments conducted by Eward at the Iowa Station 9 with 60-lb. and 200-lb. 
pigs, the results of Which are summarized in the table : 

9 Information to the authors. 



.376 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Percentage of dry matter digested with corn fed in various forms 



By 60-lb. pigs By 200-lb. pigs 



Ear corn (not including cob) 

Dry shelled corn 

Soaked shelled corn 

Dry ground corn 

Soaked ground corn 



Per. ct. 


Per ct. 


88.8 


85.4 


88.0 


86.5 


87.2 


85.4 


87.2 


87.2 


85.9 


88.4 



The young pigs digested corn when fed as ear corn or dry shelled 
corn nearly as well as when the dry ground corn was fed. With young 
pigs soaked ground corn gave the poorest results. With the 200-lb. 
pigs, on the other hand, grinding increased the percentage digested. 
Other trials at the Iowa Station 10 show that for older pigs as large and 
economical gains are made when soaked shelled corn is fed as when 
ground corn is used. Corn should be soaked for about 12 hours and 
must not be allowed to become stale. 

From these trials we may conclude that for young pigs there is no 
appreciable advantage in shelling, grinding, or soaking corn. Pigs weigh- 
ing 150 lbs. or over may make slightly more rapid gains on soaked or 
ground corn and require somewhat less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Whether 
this saving, which will average 4 to 6 per ct., will cover the cost of prep- 
aration must be decided by the feeder. 

922. Cooking feed. — The early agricultural authorities uniformly and 
strongly advocated cooking feed for swine. The first definite results 
in opposition came from the Maine Agricultural College 11 in 1876, which 
reported that as the average of 9 years of continuous experimentation 
it had found that 89.9 lbs. of raw corn meal was as valuable for putting 
gains on fattening pigs as was 100 lb. of corn meal that had been cooked. 
In not a single trial did a given weight of corn meal on being cooked 
by steam prove as satisfactory as the same weight of uncooked meal. 
These results were so at variance with popular opinion that the matter 
was soon tried out at a number of stations, some of the findings of which 
are as follows: 

Results of feeding cooked and uncooked grain to fattening pigs 



Station reporting 



No. of 
trials 



Kind of feed 



Feed for 100 lbs. gain 



How prepared 



Cooked Uncooked 



Wisconsin* 

Wisconsin* 

Wisconsin* 

Wisconsin* 

Ontario Collegef . . . 
Kansas Agr. CollepceJ 
Iowa Agr. College §. . 
Iowa Act. College §. . 
Ottawa!! 



Ground barley 

Ground corn 

Whole corn, shorts. . . . 

Corn meal, shorts 

Peas 

Whole corn 

Shelled corn 

Ground corn 

Ground peas, bar- 
ley, rye 



Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Steamed 
Not stated 
Not stated 

Steamed 



Lbs. 
62S 
517 
564 
597 
475 
750 
538 
562 

417 



Lbs. 
589 
463 
484 
574 
360 
630 
443 
445 

425 



* 4th An- Rpt. t2d An. Rpt. 
'°Iowa Bui. 106. 



JRpt. 1885. §Coburn, Swine in America. ||Rpt. 1891. 

n An. Rpt. Trustees Me. State Col. Agr. 



1876. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 577 

The trials above reported, which are but a fraction of all that have 
been made in this country, show that in most cases there is an actual 
loss of food value by cooking the various grains for fattening swine. 
Some few feeds, such as potatoes, are improved by cooking, but as a rule 
there is no gain and usually a loss by such operation. (425, 427, 429) 
From trials at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation 12 in which the 
value of stewing alfalfa hay for pigs was tested, Snyder concludes that 
the farmer is not warranted in going to much, if any, expense in thus 
preparing the hay. (426) 

923. Wetting or soaking feed. — Rommel, 13 studying all the trials at the 
various stations in which feed was either wet or soaked with water be- 
fore feeding, found a difference of only 2 per ct. in favor of soaking or 
wetting. We have seen in a preceding article (921) that it may be advis- 
able to soak shelled corn for large pigs, while this does not noticeably in- 
crease its value for young animals. Any grain so hard as to injure the 
mouths of the pigs during mastication should always be soaked if it can 
not be ground or rolled. This is especially necessary with such small, 
hard grains as wheat and rye. In a trial at the Kansas Station 14 Kinzer 
and Wheeler found no advantage from, soaking alfalfa meal and ground 
corn for fattening pigs. In trials at the Indiana Station 15 Plumb and 
Van Norman, when feeding corn meal or hominy feed with shorts to 
pigs, found it made no difference' whether 1 or 3 lbs. of water per pound 
of meal was used to form the slop. Good and Smith of the Kentucky 
Station 16 state that when dry ground wheat is fed to pigs it often gums 
up in the mouth, forming a pasty mass which is difficult to masticate 
and swallow. Feeding the wheat as a thin slop largely overcomes this 
trouble. In severe winter weather slop should be warmed for pigs housed 
in cold quarters. 

924. Light vs. heavy feeding. — In experiments at the Copenhagen 
(Denmark) Station 17 with sixty 35-lb. pigs, the influence of intensity 
of feeding on gain was especially studied. The following results were 
secured in trials lasting 120 and 210 days, respectively, the feeds used 
being barley, buttermilk, skim milk, and whey : 

Results from feeding heavy and light rations 

Grain fed A v. gain Grain for 100 
Character of feeding daily per day lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Light 3.61 0.92 391 

Medium ........ 4.23 1.07 397 

Heavy 4.51 1.12 404 

These results indicate a tendency toward a poorer utilization of the 
food in the heavier feeding, tho the difference is slight. 

,2 Nebr. Bui. 147. 

13 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 47. 
"Kan. Bui. 192. 15 Ind. Bui. 86. l8 Ky. Bui. 190. 
"Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpt. 30, 1895. 



578 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

925. Self feeders for swine. — Evvard of the Iowa Station 18 has con- 
ducted numerous trials with self feeders for various classes of swine. 
His results show that this method of feeding is well adapted to the quick 
fattening of well-grown shotes, for fattening old sows, and for growing, 
fattening shotes where it is desired to feed them an unlimited grain al- 
lowance. The self feeder should not be used when rapid gains are not 
wanted, for instance, where it is desired to force pigs to make the maxi- 
mum use of pasturage by limiting the grain allowance. It should not 
be used for pregnant sows except early in pregnancy or unless bulky 
feed, of which ground alfalfa is the best under corn-belt conditions, is 
mixed with the grain. By decreasing or increasing the proportion of 
corn the gilts or sows may be kept in the proper condition. 

To compare the rate and economy of gains when pigs were self-fed 
and hand-fed, Evvard fed 3 lots, each of 5 spring pigs, from weaning 
until they weighed 250 lbs. on the feeds shown in the table. The pigs 
were grazed on alfalfa pasture during the summer and finished in the 
dry lot. 

Self feeder for pigs on alfalfa pasture 

Time to reach Daily Concentrates for 
Average concentrate allowance 250 lbs. gain 100 lbs. gain* 

Days Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Ear corn, hand-fed, 3 .8 lbs.* 

Meat meal, 0.28 1b 206 1.06 385 

Lot II 

Ear corn, hand-fed, 3 .6 lbs.* 

Meat meal, .39 lb 206 1 .07 373 

Lot III 

Shelled corn, self -fed, 4.1 lbs. 

Meat meal, 0.33 1b 180 1.22 364 

*Ear corn reduced to shelled corn basis. 

Lot III, getting shelled corn and meat meal in separate feeders, made 
the largest gains, reaching 250 lbs. in 180 days, and also required the 
least concentrates in addition to pasture for 100 lbs. gain. A lot of 
241-lb. yearling sows self-fed in a dry lot on shelled corn gained 2.6 lbs. 
per head daily, requiring 417 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. Another 
lot hand-fed on shelled corn gained 0.3 lb. less per head daily, and 
required 436 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. 

The large gains which may be secured with growing pigs self-fed in 
dry lots on corn and suitable supplements are shown in another trial 
by Evvard in which 3 lots, each of five 45-lb. pigs, were allowed access 
to the following feeds in separate self feeders for 162 days. A fourth 
lot on alfalfa pasture was supplied shelled corn in addition by means 
of a self feeder and finished in a dry lot on shelled corn and meat meal 
in self feeders for 22 days after the pasture was gone. Salt was sup- 
plied each lot in a self feeder, and in addition ground limestone and 
charcoal were furnished the pigs in the dry lots. 

19 Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914; Corn Belt Meat Producers' Assoc. 
Rpt. 1914. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 579 

Value of self feeder for growing, fattening pigs 

Concentrates 
Daily per 10U lus. 
Average ration gain gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Shelled corn, 5.4 lbs. 

Oats, . 10 lb. Meat meal, .46 lb 1.5 329 

Lot II 

Shelled corn, 6 .0 lbs. Linseed meal, .10 lb. 

Oats, 0.08 1b. Meat meal, 0.40 1b 1.6 417 

Lot III 

Saelled corn, 5 .6 lbs. 

Oats, .04 lb. Linseed meal, .02 lb. 

Middlings, .22 lb. Meat meal, .42 lb 1.5 418 

Lot IV 

Shelled corn, 5 .9 lbs. 

Alfalfa pasture Meat meal, .07 lb.* 1.5 395 

•Meai meal fed only while in dry lot. 

All these self-fed pigs made exceedingly large and economical gains. 
The pigs in Lot II reached an average weight of 316 lbs. at 248 days of 
age, one of the pigs weighing 405 lbs., an unusual record. Evvard states 
that pigs allowed free access to corn and supplements, such as tankage, 
linseed meal, and wheat middlings, show a remarkable ability to balance 
their own ration. At first about 75 per ct. of the entire ration was corn 
and the remainder meat meal and other supplements. As the pigs grew 
older they widened the nutritive ratio of their ration till at the close 
about 99 per ct. of the feed eaten was corn. All lots showed a tendencj 7 
to eat a larger proportion of oats during the first few weeks than later, 
finally consuming only an insignificant amount of this bulky feed as they 
became well fattened. Evvard points out that when pigs are not sup- 
plied with all the corn they will eat it is inadvisable to feed tankage in 
a self feeder, for because of hunger they will eat more meat meal than 
is needed to balance their ration. 

926. Water required by pigs. — Dietrich, 19 who has given the subject 
much careful study, concludes that the proper amount of water for the 
pig ranges from 12 lbs. daily per 100 lbs. of animal at the time of wean- 
ing down to 4 lbs. per 100 lbs. during the fattening period. He holds that 
pigs do not usually drink enough water in winter, and that they should 
be forced to take more by giving it, warm if necessary, in their slop. He 
states that the total quantity of water drunk seems to be of greater im- 
portance than the manner in which it is administered. On protein-rich 
feeds the pig needs more water than when on starchy feeds. (103) 

927. Salt and correctives of mineral nature. — Tho pigs require less salt 
than the other farm animals, they should be supplied with it regularly. 
In a trial by Eward at the Iowa Station 20 pigs allowed free access to 
salt made better gains than those receiving no salt or others getting 
allowances of one-sixty-fourth, one-thirty-second, or one-sixteenth ounce 

"Swine, p. 156. " Information to the authors. 



580 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



per head daily. Salt may be supplied in a trough or a small self feeder. 
If pigs have not had free access to salt they may at first overeat. 

Pigs, especially those kept in confinement, often show a strong craving 
for seemingly unnatural substances — charcoal, ashes, mortar, soft coal, 
rotten wood, soft brick, and many others being greedily devoured when 
offered. Such cravings should be satisfied by supplying such materials 
as charcoal, air-slaked lime or ground limestone, wood ashes, bone meal 
or ground rock phosphate, and copperas, with or without salt. A mix- 
ture of correctives may be placed before the pigs or they may be offered 
in separate compartments of a covered trough or of a self feeder. 

928. Proprietary stock foods. — At the Ottawa Experimental Farms 21 
Grisdale fed groups of 4 pigs, ranging in weight from 45 to 75 lbs. each, 
for 90 days to test the value of certain proprietary stock foods when 
added to a mixture of half shorts and half mixed ground grains — peas, 
oats, and barley. The results of the trial are shown below : 

Value of proprietary stock foods in pork production 





Meal 

per head 

daily 


Av. 

daily 
gain 


Feed for 100 lbs. gain 


Cost of 


Allowance of stock food or supplement 


Meal 


Other feed 


100 lbs. 
gain 


I, Meal alone 


Lbs. 

5.2 
4.3 
4.0 
4.9 
3.5 
4.8 


Lbs. 

1.2 
1.0 
0.9 
1.3 
1.2 
1.2 


Lbs. 
438 
432 
437 
393 
295 
421 


Lbs. 

22 

12 

10 

309 

Pasture 


Dollars 

4.38 


II, Anglo-Saxon stock food, .22 lb 

III, International stock food, . 12 lb 

IV, Herbageum, . 13 lb 


6.52 
6.17 
5.15 


V, Sour skim milk, 3 7 lbs 


3.42 


VI, Clover and rape pasture 


4.21 







Of those receiving stock food, only Lot IV, fed Herbageum, made 
larger gains than Lot I, fed a straight meal ration. Valuing the mixed 
meal at $1, skim milk at 15 cents per 100 lbs., and the stock foods at 
market prices, all the lots receiving stock food made more expensive 
gains than Lot I. Skim milk at 15 cents per 100 lbs. lowered the gain- 
cost materially, and clover and rape pasture to a less degree. In this 
trial the stock food was added to a palatable, well-balanced ration of 
mixed grains. 

In trials at the Iowa Station 22 with International, Iowa, and Standard 
stock foods Michaels and Kennedy found that the stock foods when 
added to corn alone had no beneficial effect on digestion and that a 
bushel of corn produced as much or more pork when fed alone as when 
stock foods were added to it. (289) 

At the Kansas Station 23 Kinzer and Wheeler fed International, Pratt's, 
and Hercules stock foods with corn to 170-lb. pigs in comparison with 
others fed corn alone and still others fed corn and tankage, or corn, tank- 
age, and wheat shorts. The pigs fed corn and stock food made but slightly 
larger gains than those fed corn alone, while those fed corn and tankage, 
or corn, tankage, and shorts gained over twice as much as those fed corn 

"Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpt. 1904. 22 Iowa Bui. 113. ^Kan. Bui. 192. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 581 

alone. The wise farmer will not seek to use stock foods as a supplement 
to corn, but will employ suck protein-rich feeds as skim milk, tankage, 
wheat middlings, and linseed meal. 

929. Winter vs. summer feeding. — The Copenhagen (Denmark) Sta- 
tion 24 has compiled the results of 199 trials conducted at that station 
with about 2,500 pigs, so as to compare the relative economy of gains 
by pigs in summer and winter. In the following table, which summa- 
rizes the results of these trials, all the skim milk, whey, roots, etc. fed 
have been reduced to their grain equivalent to facilitate comparison : 

Feed required to fatten Danish pigs in winter and in summer 

Grain equivalent eaten Grain equivalent for 
per day per head 100 lbs. gain 

Weight Winter Summer Winter Summer 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

35 to 75 lbs.* 2.66 2.65 371 346 

75 to 115 lbs 3.96 3.92 446 397 

115 to 155 lbs 5.26 5.25 516 457 

Average 3 .96 3 .94 444 400 

♦Danish pound = 1.1 avoirdupois lbs. 

It is shown that winter-fed pigs required 444 lbs. feed for 100 lbs. 
gain, or 11 per ct. more than summer-fed pigs. In Denmark the sum- 
mers are cool, and the winters more or less damp but not excessively 
cold. It is fair to hold that in the northern parts of America the differ- 
ence between winter and summer feeding is somewhat greater than the 
Danish figures indicate, while over much of our country there is no great- 
er difference and often no difference at all. 

930. Shelter and exercise. — Even in the northern part of the corn belt 
where the winters are severe, inexpensive shelter is all that is necessary 
for swine. The requisites for healthful winter shelter are freedom from 
dampness, good ventilation without drafts on the animals, sunlight, rea- 
sonable warmth, and a moderate amount of dry bedding. The quarters 
should be located on well-drained ground and should be so arranged that 
they may be easily and thoroly cleaned and disinfected. 

Swine may be housed in a central hog house with a number of pens 
or in small movable ' ' cabins ' ' or colony houses. Many use a combination 
of the 2 systems, for in the northern states the central house is well suited 
for winter shelter and spring farrowing, while the portable houses are 
particularly useful for housing pigs on pasture. At the Ottawa Sta- 
tion, 25 where the winters are severe, Grisdale kept lots, each of 4 to 7 
pigs weighing about 70 lbs., during 60 days in winter in small board 
houses, such as were used for summer shelter. Other lots were kept in 
the well-built piggery, which afforded much greater protection. The pigs 
in the small houses gained 0.68 lb. per head daily, 0.02 lb. less than those 
kept in the piggery, and required 44 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. 

"Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 30, 1895. 
25 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1904. 



582 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Brood sows in the small houses required only 25 per ct. more feed than 
those in the warmer quarters, showing that large animals can withstand 
severe cold better than small ones. The health of the animals was good 
under both conditions. Shelton of the Kansas Agricultural College 26 
found that during a winter in which the temperature at 8 a. m. ranged 
from 31° F. to -12° F. large hogs in warm quarters required 25 per 
ct. less feed than those in a yard protected only by a high board fence 
on the north. 

Tho somewhat more feed is required by pigs wintered in the small, 
colder houses, this is more or less offset by the low cost of the cabins 
and by the ease with which they may be shifted to prevent disease and par- 
asites and to distribute the droppings of the animals. In severe weather 
corn stalks, horse manure, or other litter may be banked against the sides 
of the houses. "With liberal bedding, all but the youngest pigs should 
then be comfortable. When litters come in severe weather a lantern 
hung in the cabin will furnish sufficient warmth. 

For breeding stock and growing pigs ample exercise is of the utmost 
importance. To enforce exercise animals quartered in several cabins can 
be fed at a point, at some distance from the shelters, where there are 
troughs and a feeding floor. When snow covers the ground, paths can 
be broken out with a snow plow. In winter, even where the cold is severe, 
pigs housed in colony houses and forced to take daily exercise thrive 
amazingly. If a permanent hog house is used abundant exercise should 
be enforced at all times with breeding and stock animals. 

931. Types of swine; breed tests. — The principal breeds of swine are 
of 2 distinct types, the lard type, of which the Poland-China, Berkshire, 
Chester-White, and Duroc-Jersey are the leading breeds, and the bacon 
type, represented by the Tamworth and Large Yorkshire breeds. The 
Hampshires, tho often classed as bacon hogs, really stand between the 
extreme bacon type and the lard type. Lard hogs, which are the type 
commonly raised in the United States, have compact, wide, and deep 
bodies. Since the hams, back, and shoulders are the most valuable parts, 
the packer desires a hog furnishing a maximum of these cuts. Usually 
being well-fattened, lard hogs yield a high percentage of dressed car- 
cass. Formerly heavy hogs were in largest demand, but now pigs weigh- 
ing 250 lbs. or less will command the highest price, if well finished. 

The true bacon type is raised but little in the United States, the do- 
mestic demand for bacon being largely satisfied by the leaner pigs of the 
lard type. The bacon pig is raised chiefly in Denmark, Great Britain, 
and Canada, where corn is not the main feed for swine. Pigs of the bacon 
breeds are longer of body and of leg than those of the lard breeds, have 
less thickness and depth of body, and are lighter in the shoulder, neck, 
and jowl. The highest quality bacon is that made for the English mar- 
ket under the name of "Wiltshire side," which consists of the whole half 
of the dressed pig, less the head, feet, shoulder blade, neck bone, and 

20 Kan. Agr. Col., Rpt. Prof. Agr., 1883. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 583 

aitch bone. For this purpose the pigs should weigh from 160 to 200 lbs. 
and carry but medium fat, which should be uniformly from 1 to 1.5 
inches in thickness along the back. 27 

Breed tests have been conducted at several stations to determine 
whether there is any difference in the economy of meat production by 
the different breeds. Of these the most extensive were tests at the On- 
tario Agricultural College 28 and the Iowa Station, 20 in which pigs of the 
Berkshire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester-White, Tamworth, and 
Yorkshire breeds were compared. A study of the results shows that there 
was no consistent and uniform difference in gains or economy of pro- 
duction, a breed which ranked high in some of the tests, being surpassed 
by other breeds in the rest of the trials. The bacon breeds made as eco- 
nomical gains as those of the lard type. We may conclude that there is 
no best breed of swine so far as rate and economy of gains are concerned. 
There are far greater differences between individuals of the same breed 
than between the different breeds. One should select the breed which 
seems best adapted to his conditions and suits his fancy, and then be 
sure to secure and to maintain vigorous, well-bred animals of that breed. 

932. Razorbacks. — Carlyle of the Wisconsin Station 30 procured razor- 
backs or semi-wild swine, also called feral swine, from Texas and Okla- 
homa. In one trial 6 unmixed descendants from the original pair of 
razorbacks were fed in comparison with the same number of pigs ob- 
tained by crossing razorbacks on improved Berkshires or Poland-Chinas. 

The razorbacks made slower gains and required more feed for a given 
gain than did the cross-breds. Carlyle reports that they were also fickle 
in appetite. At one time they would gorge themselves, and then eat 
sparingly, only to follow with another gorge. They seemed to thrive 
best with abundant pasture and bulky food. The second cross with the 
improved breeds produced pigs of fine form that were good feeders. 
None were immune from hog cholera, the original pair dying of that 
disease. 

933. Spayed and unspayed sows. — At the Utah Station 31 Foster and 
Merrill secured a daily gain of 0.82 lb. with spayed sows and 0.86 lb. 
with unspayed sows, no difference in their appetites being noticed. 

934. Barrows vs. sows. — In feeding trials mostly by the senior author 
at the Wisconsin Station, 32 the weights and gains of 98 sows and an 
equal number of barrows were as follows : 

Sows Barrows 

Av. weight at beginning of feeding period, lbs 136 144 

Av. gain per animal during feeding period, lbs 102 107 

It is shown that the barrows, weighing somewhat more than the sows, 
made slightly better gains. Data obtained in feeding 1,216 pigs at the 

"Day, Productive Swine Husbandry, pp. 13-14. ^Wis. Rpt. 1903. 

25 Ont. Agr. Col., Rpts. 1896-8. n - Utah Bui. 70. ; 

»Iowa Bui. 48. ^Wis. Rpts. 1897-1906. 



584 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Copenhagen (Denmark) Station 33 showed practically no difference be- 
tween barrows and sows as to gain, shrinkage, or quality of carcass. 

935. Length of intestines. — Darwin 34 states that the nature of the 
food supplied the pig by man has evidently changed the length of the 
intestines. He quotes Cuvier as reporting the total length of the intes- 
tines of the wild boar to be 9 times the body length; in the domestic 
boar 13.5 to 1 ; in the Siam boar 16 to 1. The senior author 35 measured 
the intestines of 39 fattened hogs and found that the large intestine var- 
ied from 13 to 16 ft., and the small intestine from 54 to 60 ft. in length. 
The average extreme body length of these animals was 3.5 ft. This makes 
the small intestine alone from 16 to 19 times the length of the body, and 
the large and small intestines combined about 21 times the body length. 
From these figures it appears that the intestines of pigs of the improved 
breeds are longer in proportion to the body than those given by Cuvier. 
This may indicate that the modern pig can digest his food more thoroly 
than his ancestors, and also that he can eat a larger quantity of food in 
a given time. (35) 

936. Dressing percentage. — Coburn 36 gives the following concerning 
the percentage of dressed carcass that pigs will yield on slaughtering 
after being deprived of feed for 12 hours. 

Yield of dressed carcass by pigs of various weights 

Dressed Dressed 

carcass carcass 

Live weight, 100 lbs 72 ' Live weight, 250 lbs 77 ' 

Live weight, 150 lbs 73 Live weight, 300 lbs 79 

Live weight, 200 lbs 75 Live weight, 350-500 lbs 80-87 

It is shown that the small, immature, unfinished pig yields the least 
and the large, mature fat one the greatest percentage of dressed carcass. 
For each 100 lbs. of live weight increase over the first 100 lbs. the yield 
is approximately 4 per ct. more dressed carcass. The pig leads all 
4-footed farm animals in the percentage of available carcass it yields. 

937. Requirements for bacon production. — Day 37 of the Ontario Agri- 
cultural College states that to produce a good Wiltshire side of bacon 
requires in the pig "certain definite peculiarities as to weight, condition, 
and conformation. ' ' The customers for this class of bacon are most fas- 
tidious, and bacon which does not come up to the standard in every par- 
ticular is heavily discounted. The fat should be clear white in color, the 
flesh firm, and there should be a much higher percentage of lean to fat 
than in the carcass of the lard hog. (931) 

According to Day, a peculiar feature of swine is their tendency to 
develop fat. If the very best specimens of the bacon type are fed largely 

^Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1S95. 

34 Animals and Plants under Domestication. 

^Wis. Rpt. 1889. 

38 Swine in America, p. 535. 

37 Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 13. 



GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 585 

on corn, in a couple of generations they will show a tendency to become 
shorter and thicker in body. ' ' Even under the most favorable conditions 
there is a tendency for the bacon type to change gradually in the direc- 
tion of the fat type, unless care is exercised in selection. It is safe to 
say, therefore, that it is easier to increase the proportion of fat in a hog 's 
carcass than it is to increase the proportion of lean, and that the extent 
to which the lean may be increased by the character of the feed is very 
limited and is fixed by the individuality of the animal. Further, any 
attempt to increase the amount of lean thru feeding must be started 
when the pig is very young in order to be successful." (137) 

938. Soft pork. — In bacon production a varying number of carcasses 
are usually rejected by the packers after slaughter because they are too 
soft for the requirements of the bacon market. Olein, palmitin, and 
stearin are the three principal fats in the lard of the pig. Olein is 
liquid at ordinary temperatures, while the others are solid. Shutt of the 
Ottawa Experimental Farms 3S concludes that soft pork is largely due 
to an undue proportion of olein in the fat of the carcass. He finds that 
the fat of firm pork carries 68 per ct. olein or less, and that of soft pork 
75 per ct. or more. Pigs fattened exclusively on corn give a lard carry- 
ing as much as 92 per ct. of olein, while an oats-peas-barley ration pro- 
duces a lard with only 67 per ct. olein. 

From the extensive studies of Fjord and Friis of the Copenhagen 
(Denmark) Station, 39 and those of Day, Grisdale, and Shutt of the Can- 
adian Stations, 40 we learn that soft pork unsuited to the production of 
high quality bacon is due on the part of the animal to unthriftiness, 
lack of exercise, immaturity, and lack of finish, and only in a small way 
to the breed. Imperfect feeding, marketing before being finished, hold- 
ing too long after finishing, and undue forcing — especially when im- 
mature — are other causes. In general, improper feeding stuffs and feeds 
improperly combined tend to produce low-quality bacon. According to 
Day, 41 exclusive meal feeding is one of the most common causes of soft- 
ness, especially with pigs not given exercise. Of the grains in common 
use, corn has the greatest tendency to produce softness. This can be 
modified by mixing it largely with other meal, or by feeding skim milk, 
green feed, and roots, but its tendency to produce softness is so strong 
that it is undesirable for bacon pigs when fed in large amount. While 
corn appears to give a good quality of meat in the case of the lard hog, 
it must be remembered that the bacon hog is marketed at lighter weights 
and in thinner condition than the lard hog, which may possibly explain 
why corn is unsatisfactory for feeding bacon hogs. It is possible also 
that the difference in the methods of curing the flesh may have an in- 
fluence. Beans seem to have a more marked effect than corn in pro- 

33 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 38. 

39 Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpts. 1884, et seq. 

w Rpts. and Buls. Ont. and Ottawa Expt. Stations, 1890-96. 

" Productive Swine Husbandry, pp. 133-5. 



586 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

ducing soft pork and should not be used for finishing bacon hogs. Soy- 
beans and peanuts also tend to produce a soft, oily pork. Barley ranks 
first for producing the highest grade of bacon, while oats and peas fol- 
low. Skim milk and whey in combination with the cereal grains, in- 
cluding corn, make a solid flesh that is particularly desirable. Rape, 
roots, and clover are helpful, but these and other succulent feeds should 
be judiciously used. Pigs that have been properly fed and have had free- 
dom until they weigh 100 lbs., if in thin condition, may be finished on 
almost any of the common meal mixtures and produce fine bacon. They 
should be fed slightly less than the full ration. 

Kennedy states 42 that the following rations are used by the Danes, 
who excel in the production of bacon: "Ground barley, cooked pota- 
toes, and skim milk ; shorts and skim milk ; 2 parts shorts, 2 parts ground 
barley, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk ; 2 parts ground barley, 1 part 
wheat bran, 1 part ground rye, and skim milk; 2 parts ground barley, 
1 part ground oats, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk. Corn meal is fed 
with care, especially during warm weather; when fed in small quanti- 
ties with barley, shorts, oats, and bran, combined with a liberal allowance 
of skim milk, there are no bad results. Some good feeders use corn meal 
to the extent of one-third or one-half of the grain ration during the first 
3 or 4 months and then omit it and finish with oats or similar feed. 
Feeders are sometimes compelled to use corn on account of the low price 
of bacon. Ground rye to the extent of about one-third of the ration 
gives good results, but rye shorts are not satisfactory and are only used 
in small quantities. The best feeds are ground barley, crushed oats, and 
wheat shorts. Roots are fed during winter and soiling crops during 
summer. ' ' 

«U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 77. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

FEEDS FOR SWINE 

I. Carbonaceous Concentrates 

The digestive organs of the pig, with their contents, comprise but 7.5 
per et. and those of the ox over 14 per ct. of the total weight of the body. 
(35) The horse, ox, and sheep are normally herbivorous, living on the 
finer and more delicate portions of plants and their seeds, while the 
omnivorous pig feeds not only on the tender leaves, stems, roots, and seeds, 
but on animal matter as well. Because of the limited capacity of the 
stomach and the nature of its digestive apparatus the pig requires food 
that is more concentrated and digestible and less woody than that of the 
other large farm animals. Not only is the pig an omnivorous feeder, but 
in nature it lives close to the earth, gathering some of its food from be- 
neath the surface and swallowing considerable earthy matter in doing so. 
The intelligent swine feeder bears all such facts in mind in feeding his 
herd. 

939. Indian corn. — This imperial fattening grain is the common hog 
feed in the great pork-producing districts of America. Corn is low in 
protein compared with its wealth of carbohydrates and fat, and is also 
deficient in mineral matter. (201) Hence, even for fattening well-grown 
pigs, much larger and more economical gains are secured when this grain 
is properly supplemented by feeds rich in protein and mineral matter, 
especially calcium, or lime. This is clearly shown in the following table, 
which summarizes the results of 32 trials at various stations, averaging 
82 days, in each of which one lot of pigs was fed corn alone and another 
lot corn and a protein-rich concentrate, such as tankage, wheat middlings, 
linseed meal, pea meal, or soybean meal. 

Corn alone vs. corn and nitrogenous supplement for pigs 

Average ration 



Initial 


Daily 


Feed for 100 


weight 


gain 


lbs. gain 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 



Lot I, total of 180 pigs 

Corn, 4. S lbs 115 0.9 602 

Lot II, total of 187 pigs 

Corn, 4.3 lbs. Supplement, 1 .4 lbs 117 1.3 441 

Altho most of these pigs were well grown when placed on trial, aver- 
aging over 100 lbs. in weight, Lot II, fed corn and a nitrogenous supple- 
ment, made over 40 per ct. larger gains and required 27 per ct. less feed 
for 100 lbs. gain. Had the pigs been younger at the beginning of the 
trials the results would have been even more striking. These trials show 

587 



588 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

that no one can afford to feed corn alone to growing, fattening pigs. Corn 
alone gives better results for fattening old sows, but even here the use of 
a supplement is advisable. For brood sows it is highly important that 
feeds rich in protein and lime be supplied with corn. Many recommend 
that not over one-third to one-half the ration of the brood sow should 
consist of corn, but in the corn belt good results have been secured with 
corn and only enough nitrogenous supplement to balance the ration, pro- 
viding the allowance of corn was so restricted that the sows did not be- 
come too fat. (1013) 

In the corn belt most of the corn is fed on the cob, a commendable 
practice since it involves the least labor by the feeder and is satisfactory 
to the animals. (921) Where early fall feeding is desirable, corn in the 
roasting-ear stage may be supplied, stalks and all, but in limited quantity 
at first, for if much is eaten digestive derangements follow. As the kernels 
harden, the corn may be more liberally supplied. Pigs that have grazed 
on clover, alfalfa, or other pasture incur the least risk from new corn. 
Coburn 1 quotes Atkinson as stating that a given area of standing corn 
will go 3 times as far after it begins to dent as it will if fed off when in 
the roasting-ear stage. (23) The Virginia Station 2 found that pigs fed 
new ear corn made as good gains as others fed old corn. 

940. Soft corn. — Coburn 3 states that soft corn is considered excellent 
for swine and especially for young pigs, many breeders believing they can 
obtain better gains from soft than from sound, hard corn. As soft corn 
contains less starch than mature corn, it is advisable to feed some old corn 
for finishing. Soft corn may be used during cold weather without danger, 
but should not be carried over into the warm season, as it will ferment 
and thereby become unfit for use. (205) 

941. Corn meal; com-and-cob meal. — The trials reviewed in the preced- 
ing chapter (920-1) show that there is no appreciable advantage in 
grinding corn for pigs under 150 lbs. in weight, and that for older pigs 
the saving of corn thru such preparation is but slight. The trials of 
Kennedy and Robbins at the Iowa Station 4 show that the labor involved 
in grinding ear corn to corn-and-cob meal is more than wasted, the pigs 
making larger and more economical gains on the ear corn. This seems 
reasonable for the pig has a digestive tract that can at best but poorly 
utilize a hard, fibrous material such as the corn cob, even after it is 
ground. Where the pig's food is limited in quantity the cob particles 
may be useful in distending the digestive tract. Even in such cases the 
feeder should supply woody matter of better character, such as clover 
and alfalfa hay furnish. (208, 921) 

942. Hogging down corn. — In the corn belt many farmers turn pigs 
into fields of standing corn, in which rape or other supplemental crops 
have usually been sown, and allow them to do their own harvesting. This 
system, called "hogging down," was compared with feeding pigs ear corn 

1 Swine in America, p. 287. 3 Swine in America, p. 276. 

2 Va. Bui. 167. 4 Iowa Bui. 106. 



Jays 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


53 


1.4 


488f 


57 


1.1 


546 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 589 

in dry lots by Gaumnitz, Wilson, and Bassett in 2 trials at the Minnesota 
Station 5 and by Evvard in 1 trial at the Iowa Station, 6 with the results 
summarized in the table. In the Minnesota trials rape and in the Iowa 
trial rye was sown in the corn field at the last cultivation to furnish sup- 
plemental feed. The pigs in the Minnesota trials were also fed an allow- 
ance of shorts and in the Iowa trial an allowance of tankage in addition 
to the corn. 

Hogging down corn compared with feeding corn in yard 

No. of Av. length Daily Concentrates for 
pigs fed of trial gain 100 lbs. gain* 

Lot I, Hogging down corn 68 

Lot II, Fed ear corn in yard 31 

* Corn reduced to basis of shelled corn. 

t Corn consumed by pigs hogging down crop estimated. 

The pigs hogging down the corn crop made larger gains and required 
over 10 per ct. less concentrates per 100 lbs. gain than those fed ear corn 
in the yard. Evvard found that of 194 men in Iowa who had had ex- 
perience with hogging down corn only 1 was unfavorable to the practice. 
Over 70 per ct. sowed supplemental crops in the corn field, rape being by 
far the most popular, followed by rye, and by pumpkins. In tests at the 
Iowa Station 7 rape was grown in the corn field at an additional cost of 
only $0.40 per acre, rape and pumpkins at $1.00, rye, soybeans, or cow- 
peas at $3.33, field peas at $3.60, and hairy vetch at $6.00 per acre. Rape, 
and rape and pumpkins were the most economical supplemental crops. 
Eward found that nearly half of the farmers reporting fed some nitrog- 
enous concentrate, such as skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, or lin- 
seed meal, in addition to the corn. Such a supplement is especially im- 
portant when no supplemental crops have been grown in the corn field. 
Even when supplemental crops are used it is preferable to feed a small 
allowance of nitrogenous concentrates in addition. Spring shotes, well 
grown on pasture and forage crops, are generally used for hogging down. 
Many turn in old sows and little pigs after the shotes are removed to 
clean up what little corn has been left — a good practice, for it enforces 
an abundance of exercise. Pigs hogging down corn pick it up as closely 
as is usually done in husking. 

It is best to confine the pigs to limited areas of the field by fencing, so 
that they will clean up the corn in 20, or better, 14 days. Older hogs 
should be confined to smaller areas than shotes, for otherwise they will 
knock down and waste more corn. Woven wire is used for fencing, being 
tied to corn stalks and further supported by posts or stakes where neces- 
sary. According to the Minnesota Station, 8 pigs weighing 125 lbs. at the 
beginning will clean up 1 acre of corn in the time shown in the follow- 
ing table : 

°Minn. Bui. 104. T Iowa Bui. 143. 

"Iowa Bui. 143. 8 Minn. Bui. 104. 



590 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Number of days required by pigs to clean up 1 acre of corn 

Yield, 40 bu. Yield, 50 bu. Yield, 60 bu. Yield, 70 bu. 

per acre per acre per acre per acre 

Days Days Days Days 

When 20 pigs forage 15 19 23 26 

When 40 pigs forage 8 9 11 14 

When 63 pigs forage 5 6 8 9 

When 80 pigs forage 4 5 6 7 

Field feeding of corn is most successful when the weather is dry. It 
is not judicious to keep pigs in the fields after heavy rains, for they then 
waste corn and injure the land. 

943. Hominy feed. — In 5 trials at the Indiana Station, averaging 86 
days, Skinner and King compared the value of hominy feed and corn 
meal for fattening pigs, when fed with either wheat shorts or tankage, 
obtaining the results shown in the table : 

Hominy feed vs. corn for fattening pigs 

Initial Daily Feed for 

Feed given weight gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Hominy feed and supplement 102 1 . 15 427 

Lot II, Corn meal and supplement 102 1 .03 495 

The pigs fed hominy feed made slightly larger gains than those fed 
corn meal and required about 14 per ct. less feed for 100 lbs. gain. 
Similar results were secured by Eastwood in 2 trials at the Ohio Sta- 
tion. 10 (213) 

944. Barley. — In Europe barley is the most esteemed cereal for the 
production of high quality bacon and is important in this country as a 
feed for pigs in the western states. The values of barley and corn when 
fed with wheat middlings have been compared at 3 stations in 6 trials 
averaging 49 days, with the results summarized in the table : 

Barley vs. corn for fattening pigs 

Initial Daily Feed for 

Average ration weight gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Lot I, total of 32 pigs * 

Ground barley, 3 .4 lbs. Middlings, 2 .8 lbs 108 1 .26 499 

Lot II, total of 32 pigs * 

Ground corn, 3.4 lbs. Middlings, 2.7 lbs 104 1.34 452 

* Average of 2 trials by Burnett (S. D. Bui. 63), 1 by Richards and Shepperd (N. D. Bui. 84), and 
i by Smith (Minn. Bui. 22). 

The pigs fed barley and middlings made slightly smaller gains than 
those fed corn and middlings, and required 10 per ct. more feed for 100 
lbs. gain. (226) As barley is carbonaceous in character and is also not 
especially palatable to pigs, it should never be fed alone, but with palat- 
able protein-rich feeds. Barley kernels, being small and hard, should 
always be ground, or better, rolled before feeding. (921) 

945. Wheat.— Commonly wheat of good quality is too high in price 
to feed to stock, but in some seasons, as in 1913, when unusually low in 

9 Ind. Bui. 158. 10 Ohio Bui. 268. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 591 

price, it may be fed with economy in place of corn. In the following 
table are summarized the results of 3 trials, averaging 110 days, with a 
total of 46 pigs, in which ground wheat and ground corn were compared 
when fed with tankage, and of 8 trials, averaging 99 days, with a total of 
76 pigs, in which either ground wheat or ground corn was fed alone to 
fattening pigs: 

Wheat vs. corn for fattening pigs 

Initial Daily Feed for 

Average ration weight gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Wheat vs. com, fed with tankage * 

Lot I, Ground wheat, 6.2 lbs. Tankage, .64 lb 104 1 .54 440 

Lot II, Ground corn, 5 .6 lbs. Tankage, .58 lb ... . 98 1 .37 454 
Wheat vs. corn, fed alone f 

Lot I, Ground wheat, 6.3 lbs 143 1.35 472 

Lot II, Ground corn, 6 . 1 lbs 140 1.23 510 

* Av. of 1 trial by Eastwood (Ohio Bui. 268) and 2 by Weaver (Mo. Bui. 136). 

1 Av. of 1 trial bv Chilcott (S. D. Bui. 38), 1 by Georgeson, Otis, and Burtis (Kan. Bui. 53), 1 by 
Good (Kv. Bui. 175), 2 bv Weaver (Mo. Bui. 136), 1 at the Ohio Station (Rpt. Kansas Bd. Agr. 1894), and 
2 by the senior author (Wis. Rpts. 1894, 1895). 

Both when fed with tankage and when fed alone, good quality wheat 
produced slightly larger gains than did corn. The pigs fed wheat and 
tankage required 3 per ct. and those fed wheat alone 7 per ct. less feed 
per 100 lbs. gain than the corn-fed pigs. In trials at the Missouri Sta- 
tion, 11 Weaver found no appreciable advantage from mixing wheat and 
corn, either when these grains were fed alone or when fed with tankage. 
As wheat, like corn, is low in protein, it should always be fed with some 
nitrogenous supplement. (215) 

Wheat should be ground, or preferably rolled, for swine. At the Ore- 
gon Station 12 Withycombe found that grinding wheat to a meal saved 
16 per ct., and crushing or rolling 22 per ct., over the whole grain. 
Bliss and Lee at the Nebraska Station 13 found soaked ground wheat worth 
13 to 25 per ct. more than soaked whole wheat. At the North Platte, 
Nebraska, Substation, 14 Snyder found that compared with whole wheat fed 
dry the value was increased 1 per ct. by soaking, 16 per ct. by grinding, 
and 19 per ct. by both grinding and soaking. As it tends to form a sticky 
mass in the pig's mouth it may be advisable to feed ground wheat in the 
form of a thin slop. (923) Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 15 
found that from 360 lbs. to 400 lbs. of frozen wheat were required to 
produce 100 lbs. of gain with fattening pigs — a most favorable showing 
for such grain. At the Ontario Agricultural College, Day 16 found frozen 
wheat fully equal to good quality barley when fed with wheat middlings. 

946. Oats. — At the Wisconsin Station 17 the senior author fed whole and 
ground oats with corn meal to 115-lb. pigs for 60 days with the following 
results : 

"Mo. Bui. 136. 15 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1908. 

12 Ore. Bui. 80. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1908. 

"Nebr. Bui. 144. ,7 Wis. Rpt. 1889. 
"Nebr. Buls. 144, 147. 



592 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Whole oats compared with ground oats 

Average Daily Feed for 

Feed ration gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, %, whole oats, }/$ corn meal 3.8 .68 564 

Lot II, Yz whole oats, % corn meal 4 .0 .82 492 

Lot III, % ground oats, Yz corn meal 4 .4 1 .03 429 

Lot IV, Yz ground oats, Y 3 corn meal 5.1 1 .27 402 

The pigs getting whole oats ate less feed and gave poorer returns than 
those fed ground oats. The best returns were with a ration of one-third 
ground oats and two-thirds ground corn. Owing to their bulkiness, oats 
should not be fed as the sole grain to fattening pigs. From trials at the 
Ohio Station 18 Eastwood concludes that, while oats may be used satis- 
factorily during the first part of the fattening period when low in price, 
the proportion of oats in the ration should gradually be decreased and 
they should be omitted entirely during the last 4 or 5 weeks. 

Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 10 found that pigs fed 
soaked shelled corn and skim milk made 49 per ct. greater gains than 
those fed soaked whole oats and skim milk — a good example of the great 
waste which follows the wrong combination of feeding stuffs. Oats and 
corn, or skim milk and corn, are proper combinations, while oats and skim 
milk are not. Again, oats must be ground if they are to be fed in quantity 
to swine, especially when the pigs are young. For pigs while still quite 
small there is nothing more helpful than ground oats with the hulls sieved 
out. For breeding stock and for shotes not being fattened, there is no 
more useful feed than whole oats, fed by scattering thinly on the ground 
or on a feeding floor. (223) 

947. Emmer. — In a trial at the Nebraska Station 20 lasting 94 days, Bur- 
nett and Snyder compared emmer meal with corn and barley meal as a 
feed for fattening pigs. In a second trial lasting 42 days, an allowance 
of half emmer and half corn meal was fed against one of corn meal only. 
In both trials alfalfa hay was fed to the pigs in addition to the meal : 

Emmer meal compared with corn and barley meal for pigs 

Av. wt. at Av. daily Grain for 

Daily grain allowance beginning gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
ril'st tTXQL 

Lot I, Corn meal, 4 .8 lbs 82 1 .02 470 

Lot II, Barley meal, 4 .8 lbs 80 .81 590 

Lot III, Emmer meal, 4 .8 lbs 81 .77 618 

Second trial 

Lot I, Corn meal, 7 .2 lbs 160 1 .53 470 

Lot II, Corn meal and emmer, 6.6 lbs.. 146 1.35 482 

In the first trial it required 148 lbs., or 31 per ct., more emmer meal 
than corn meal, and 5 per ct. more emmer meal than barley meal, to 
produce 100 lbs. of gain. In the second trial emmer meal combined with 
corn meal proved nearly equal to corn meal alone. For swine emmer 
should always be ground and fed with other feeds. (233) 

18 Ohio Bui. 268. » Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. ^Nebr. Bui. 99. 



l^EEDS FOR SWINE 593 

948. Rye. — Extensive trials by the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station 21 
showed that rye meal ranks a little below corn meal and about equal to 
barley meal as a feed for swine. The pork from rye-fed pigs was satis- 
factory, especially when the ground rye was fed with other grains, milk, 
or whey. Rye shorts and middlings had a lower feeding value than rye 
meal and produced a poorer quality of pork. In 1 trial pigs fed rye meal 
became sick. 

Snyder found at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation 22 that 8.6 per 
ct. more soaked whole rye than soaked whole wheat was required for 100 
lbs. gain. (232) Coburn 23 recommends feeding ground rye as a thin slop, 
since dry rye meal forms a sticky paste in the pig's throat on which he 
is liable to choke. (920, 923) Rye may be hogged down when mature 
by pigs ; but there is more waste than in hogging down corn. 

949. The grain sorghums. — Thruout the western plains states the seed 
of the grain sorghums is becoming of great importance for pork produc- 
tion. (235-40) These grains are similar in composition to corn, and hence 
should not be fed alone, but always with other feeds rich in protein, such 
as skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, or alfalfa hay. 
As the seeds are small and hard the grain should be ground. "Where this 
is not possible, it is best to feed the sorghum on the head rather than the 
threshed grain. This is shown in a trial by Cochel at the Kansas Station 21 
in which lots, each of ten 140-lb. pigs, were fed the allowances of kafir 
shown in the table with 2.3 lbs. of wheat shorts and 0.4 lb. tankage per 
head daily for 74 days. In addition all lots had access to alfalfa hay. 

Preparation of kafir for pigs 

Concentrates Feed cost 

Daily for 100 lbs. of 100 lbs. 

Average allowance of kafir gain gain gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Dt liars 

Lot I, Ground kafir, 4 .9 lbs 1 .40 534 6 .29 

Lot II, Whole kafir, 5 .6 lbs 1 .15 718 7 .94 

Lot III, Kafir heads, 6 .2 lbs 1.28 690 6.13 

Lot I, fed ground kafir, made considerably larger gains than Lot II. 
fed whole kafir. Tho the gains of Lot III, fed kafir in the heads, were 
slightly smaller than of Lot I, with head kafir at $14, whole kafir at $20. 
and ground kafir at $22 per ton, they made the cheapest gains. (920) 

950. Kafir, milo, and sorgho vs. corn. — To determine the relative value 
of kafir, milo, and sorgho, compared with corn, "Waters, Kinzer, Wright, 
and King 25 fed 10 lots of ten 125-lb. pigs, which had been grown during 
the summer on alfalfa pasture and a limited amount of grain, and carried 
thru the fall on alfalfa hay with a little grain, the following rations at 
the Kansas Station : 

"Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpts. 1887, 1890. 

~Nebr. Bui. 147. 

3 Swine in America, p. 347. 

"Kansas Industrialist, May 1. 1915. 

-Kan. Bui. 192. 



594 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Kafir, milo, and sorgho vs. corn for vigs 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Initial Daily Concen- 
Average ration weight gain trates Hay 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

With alfalfa hay, fed 80 days 
Lot I 

Ground corn, 6 .6 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .6 lb. .. 124 1 .5 432 39 
Lot II 

Ground milo, 6 .2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb.. .. 125 1.2 510 74 
Lot III 

Ground kafir, 7 .3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb. .. 124 1 .3 520 67 
Lot IV 

Ground sorgho, 5 .7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb ... 126 0.9 650 103 
With shorts and tankage, fed 60 days 
Lot V 
Ground corn, 4.6 lbs. 

Shorts, 2.2 lbs. Tankage, .6 lb 125 2.0 370 

Lot VI 

Ground milo, 4 .2 lbs. 

Shorts, 2 .0 lbs. Tankage, .5 lb .... 124 1.7 390 

Lot VII 

Ground kafir, 4 .6 lbs. 

Shorts, 2 .2 lbs. Tankage, .6 lb 125 1.8 390 

Lot VIII 

Ground sorgho, 4.6 lbs. 

Shorts, 2 .2 lbs. Tankage, .6 lb 125 1.7 440 ..." 

In both trials corn produced slightly the largest gains and with less 
feed for 100 lbs. of gain. The difference between corn and kafir or milo 
was more marked when fed with alfalfa hay. When sorgho was fed con- 
siderably more feed was required for 100 lbs. gain than with kafir or 
milo. On account of its lack of palatability sorgho grain is not particu- 
larly desirable as a hog feed. (241) 

951. Grain sorghums compared. — At the Kansas Station 20 Cochel fed 5 
lots, each of ten 140-lb. pigs, the allowances of grain shown in the table 
for 74 days to compare the value of kafir, milo, feterita, kaoliang, and 
corn. In addition the pigs in each lot were fed 2.3 lbs. of wheat shorts 
and 0.4 lb. of tankage per head daily and had access to alfalfa hay. 

Grain sorghums compared with corn for fattening pigs 

Dnily Concentrates for 

Average allowance of grain gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Ground kafir, 4 .9 lbs 1 .40 534 

Lot II, Ground milo, 4.9 lbs 1.43 523 

Lot III, Ground feterita, 4 .9 lbs 1 .36 549 

Lot IV, Ground kaoliang, 4 .9 lbs 1 .31 572 

Lot V, Ground corn, 4 .9 lbs 1 .46 514 

Both kafir and milo produced practically as large gains as corn, and 
with kafir only 4 per ct. and with milo but 2 per ct. more concentrates 
were required for 100 lbs. gain than with corn. Feterita and kaoliang 
were slightly lower in value than kafir and milo, tho producing satis- 
factory gains. In a trial by "Wilson at the South Dakota Station, 27 when 

"Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915. "S. D. Bui. 157. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 595 

fed with alfalfa hay 27 per ct. more kaoliang was required for 100 lbs. 
gain than corn. From these and other trials we may conclude that when 
ground and fed with feeds rich in protein, the value of milo or kafir 
is but 2 to 8 per ct. below that of corn, while the other grain sorghums 
are somewhat less valuable than kafir or milo. 

952. Millet. — Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station 28 fed 
hog, or broom-corn, millet meal against barley and wheat meal to lots 
of 2 pigs each for 84 days with the results shown in the table : 

Millet meal compared with wheat and barley meal 

Daily gain per head Feed for 100 
Av. wt. at 1st period, 2d period, lbs. gain, 

Average ration beginning 56 days 28 days both periods 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Millet meal, 6 .8 lbs 116 1 .32 .76 595 

Lot II, Barley meal, 6 .2 lbs 125 1 .34 1 .07 495 

Lot III, Wheat meal, 8 .2 lbs 168 1 .75 1 .51 487 

For the first 8 weeks the pigs fed millet meal gave substantially as 
good returns as those fed barley meal, but during the next 4 weeks they 
made poorer gains. Combining both periods, it required about 20 per 
ct. more millet than barley to produce a given gain. Millet meal should 
never be fed alone, but always in combination with some other grain, such 
as corn or barley, or, better, with some protein-rich concentrate, such 
as soybeans, linseed meal, heavy wheat middlings, alfalfa hay, etc. It 
is not so useful for fattening hogs in cold weather as wheat or barley, 
and produces a softer pork than those grains. (243) 

953. Buckwheat. — In a 77-day trial by Robertson at the Ottawa Sta- 
tion, 20 in which 100-lb. pigs were fed either ground buckwheat or ground 
wheat soaked 30 hours before feeding, the pigs fed buckwheat gained 1.2 
lbs. per head daily, compared with 0.8 lb. for those fed wheat. However, 
for 100 lbs. gain the pigs required over 8 per ct. more buckwheat than 
corn. In another trial R. Robertson of the Nappan, Nova Scotia, Ex- 
perimental Farm 30 found that buckwheat, fed with skim milk to 85-lb. 
pigs, was a little lower in feeding value than the same weight of wheat 
middlings. Grisdale of the Ottawa Station 31 states that buckwheat pro- 
duces a poor quality of bacon. (244) 

954. Pigeon-grass seed. — Western grain elevators screen great quan- 
tities of pigeon-grass seed from wheat. At the Wisconsin Station 32 the 
senior author tested its value as a food for swine. Since the pigs refused 
to eat any large quantity of the raw pigeon-grass seed meal, it was cooked, 
after which treatment it was readily consumed. A ration containing 
2 parts cooked pigeon-grass seed meal and 1 part corn meal was found 
to be fully equal to one of corn meal for fattening pigs. A lot fed 1 
part raw pigeon-grass seed meal and 2 parts corn meal gave poorer 

23 S. D. Bui. 83. 31 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. 

'■Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1894. ^Wis. Rpt. 1894. 

^Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1901. 



596 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

returns, tho still justifying the use of this weed seed when it can be 
had at low cost or would otherwise be wasted. To be satisfactory for 
pigs, pigeon-grass seed should be both ground and cooked. 

955. Lamb's quarter or pig weed. — Lamb's quarter, Chenopodium al- 
bum, is a common weed in the wheat fields of Manitoba and the North 
West. In a trial at the Manitoba Experimental Farms 33 100 lbs. of 
lamb's quarter seed screened from wheat was found to be equal to 60 
lbs. of mixed grain when constituting one-fifth of the ration for pigs. 

956. Garbage. — Garbage, or household waste, may be fed to swine, but 
care must be taken that dishwater containing lye or washing soda, broken 
dishes, etc., which are apt to cause death, be kept apart from the ma- 
terials having food value. 34 As there is likewise danger of poisons result- 
ing from the decay of the garbage, the material should be thoroly cooked 
in all doubtful cases. 

Minkler 35 reports that in New Jersey, especially in the vicinity of Se- 
caucus, thousands of pigs are fattened on garbage collected from New 
York and other cities. In some instances the garbage is fed without 
sorting or any treatment except partial drying. At other plants the 
grease is extracted and skimmed off in rendering vats, and the residue 
carefully sorted. In some cases it is run thru steam digesters, concen- 
trated, and put on the market as garbage tankage, which is used chiefly 
as a fertilizer. In other cases, the residue remaining after the grease 
is removed is thinned with water, elevated to storage tanks, and from 
thence carried by troughs to feeding pens. Here pigs are fed garbage, 
swill, and stale bread as the sole ration. Large gains are not secured, 
but all the income from the pigs is often profit, the grease paying for 
the expense of collecting and treating the garbage and for all labor. 

In a trial with 200-lb. pigs, Minkler secured satisfactory gains with 
such mixtures as corn meal 4 parts, molasses 2 parts, and garbage tank- 
age 9 parts; corn meal 4 parts, skim milk 18 parts, and garbage tank- 
age 9 parts ; and corn meal 4 parts, molasses 2 parts, skim milk 18 parts, 
and garbage tankage 9 parts. The garbage tankage was of about the 
same consistency as molasses. At first the pigs refused any feed con- 
taining the garbage tankage, but were gradually accustomed to it. The 
flesh of the pigs fed garbage tankage was firm and of good color. 

II. Nitrogenous Concentrates 

957. Dairy by-products.— Skim milk and buttermilk are ideal feeds for 
swine, especially brood sows and growing pigs. Rich in digestible pro- 
tein and carrying much mineral matter, they should never be fed alone 
but always in combination with such starchy feeds as corn, barley, wheat, 
kafir, milo, emmer, and millet. This combination stands unexcelled for 
producing economical growth and for fattening. Indeed, where skim 
milk or buttermilk is used as a supplement to corn or other cereals, 

88 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1902. 34 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 141. 35 N. J. Cir. 40. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 597 

the gains will usually be slightly larger than with any other supplement. 
(118) For example, Skinner and Cochel 30 obtained the following results 
in a 60-day trial with 114-lb. pigs in which skim milk, tankage, wheat 
middlings, linseed meal, and soybean meal were fed as supplements to 
corn meal, about the same amount of protein being fed each lot : 

Skim milk compared with other nitrogenous supplements for pigs 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Corn Supplement 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Skim milk, 9 .0 lbs. Corn, 6 .0 lbs 2 .02 297 445 

Lot II, Tankage, .44 lb. Corn, 6 .6 lbs 1 .83 359 24 

Lot III, Middlings, 3.6 lbs. Corn, 3.6 lbs 1.97 181 180 

Lot IV, Linseed meal, .73 lb. Corn, 5 .8 lbs 1 .75 333 42 

LotV, Soybean meal, 0.84 lb. Corn, 5.8 lbs 1.82 321 46 

Large and economical gains were made by all lots, but skim milk 
.slightly excelled the other supplements. Dairy by-products are so use- 
ful for pigs that the breeder of pure-bred swine should in many cases 
keep a dairy in order to have the by-products for the sows and their 
young. (266-8) 

It has been emphasized before that skim milk, buttermilk, or whey 
should always be pasteurized at the creamery or cheese factory before 
being returned to the farm, in order to prevent the spread of tuber- 
culosis and other diseases. Swine are especially susceptible to tuber- 
culosis and may contract the disease not only from infected milk, but, 
as Kennedy and Dinsmore found at the Iowa Station, 37 by following 
tuberculous cattle to work over the droppings. (269) 

958. Skim milk. — That skim milk should not be fed alone is shown in 
an 86-day trial by Beach and Garrigus at the Connecticut (Storrs) Sta- 
tion. 38 Pigs averaging 25 lbs. in weight, fed skim milk alone, gained only 
0.72 lb. per head daily and required 2,739 lbs. of milk for 100 lbs. of 
gain. Others which were fed 3.2 lbs. of grain and 12.9 lbs. of skim milk 
per head daily gained 1.38 lbs. and required only 233 lbs. grain and 
935 lbs. skim milk for 100 lbs. gain. 

The value of skim milk when fed with corn or the other cereals has 
been determined at several stations. The following table summarizes 
the results secured in some of these trials: 

Grain value of skim milk for pigs 

Milk recmired 

to equal 100 

lbs. of grain 

Lbs. 

Fjord, Conenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rnt. 1887 600 

Grisdale, Ottawa (Canada) Expt. Farms, Bui. 33 604 

Linfield, Utah Bui. 94 495 

Soule ard Fain, Tenn., Bui. Vol. XVI, No. 3 476 

The senior author, Wis. Rpt. 1895 475 

M Ind. Bui. 137. "Iowa Bui. 107. - s Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 39. 



598 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

It is shown that when properly combined with concentrates, from 475 
to 600 lbs. of separator skim milk has a feeding value equal to 100 lbs. 
of corn or other grain. 

Clinton of the New York (Cornell) Station 39 recommends that, in 
starting pigs on a ration containing a large quantity of skim milk, care 
be exercised lest at first the pigs be overfed. 

Cooke of the Vermont Station 40 found that pigs fed sour skim milk 
were more thrifty than those getting sweet skim milk. According to Day 41 
sweet milk is better for very young pigs. (266) 

959. Proper proportion of skim milk to grain. — To determine the proper 
proportion of skim milk to feed with meal to pigs, the senior author con- 
ducted 19 feeding trials at the "Wisconsin Station 42 in which a total of 
88 pigs, usually weighing 100 lbs. or over, were fed varying amounts of 
skim milk with corn meal. In the following table the results are arranged 
in groups according to the amount of skim milk fed per pound of corn 
meal. The last column shows the amount of skim milk required to save 
100 lbs. of corn meal, assuming that 500 lbs. of corn meal fed alone would 
have produced 100 lbs. of gain. 

Skim milk and corn meal required for 100 lbs. of gain by pigs 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain Milk to replace 

Proportion of milk to corn meal Corn Milk 100 lbs. corn 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

1 lb. com meal with 1 to 3 lbs. milk 321 585 327 

1 lb. corn meal with 3 to 5 lbs. milk 265 1,048 446 

1 lb. corn meal with 5 to 7 lbs. milk 250 1,434 574 

1 lb. corn meal with 7 to 9 lbs. milk 207 1,616 552 

The table brings out plainly the important fact that skim milk has 
the highest value when not over 3 lbs. of milk are fed with each 100 lbs. 
of corn meal to pigs weighing 100 lbs. or over. The nutritive ratio of a 
ration of 1 part corn and 3 parts skim milk is 1 : 5.2, which is slightly 
too wide for pigs just after weaning. For pigs of this age 4 or 6 parts 
of skim milk to 1 part of corn should be ample. Larger allowances of 
skim milk may be fed than here stated with entirely satisfactory gains 
when a surplus is at hand, but the milk will not then have as high a 
value as when only sufficient is given to balance the ration properly. 

960. Money value of skim milk. — The feeder desirous of knowing the 
money value of skim milk compared with corn at varying prices will gain 
help from the following table, derived from the previous study : 

Money value of 100 lbs. of skim milk 

When 1 lb. of corn meal is fed 

With 1 to 3 With 7 to 9 Avpraae 
lbs. of milk lbs. of milk of all trials 
Cents Cents Cents 

Com at $16 per ton or 44.8 cents per bushel 24 15 17 

Com at $18 per ton or 50 .4 cents per bushel 28 16 19 

Corn at $20 per ton or 56 .0 cents per bushel 31 18 21 

Com at $30 per ton or 84 .0 cents per bushel 46 27 32 

B0 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 199. "Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 210. 

J0 Vt. RDt. 1891. tt Wis. Rpt. 1895. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 599 

The table shows that when corn is worth $16 per ton, or 44.8 cents per 
bu. of 56 lbs., separator skim milk has a value of 24 cents per 100 lbs., 
provided not over 3 lbs. of skim milk is fed with each pound of corn. 
Should the feeder give as much as 7 to 9 lbs. of skim milk with each 
pound of corn, then the milk is worth but 15 cents per 100 lbs. 

The above measures in a general way the value of skim milk when 
combined with corn for fattening pigs. Those familiar with this feed- 
ing stuff and its worth for bone and muscle building know that in many- 
cases, especially for young pigs and brood sows, its value is much higher 
than stated. 

A rule by Hoard for finding the money value of skim milk when fed 
to fattening pigs is in substance : 

To find the value of 100 lbs. of skim milk when fed alone, multiply the market 

Srice of live hogs in cents per pound by 5 ; if fed in combination with corn or 
arley, multiply by 6. 

According to this rule, when live hogs are worth 5 cents per pound, each 
100 lbs. of milk is worth 25 cents when fed alone, and 30 cents when fed 
with corn or barley meal. 

The Gurler rule proposed many years ago is : 

The value of 100 lbs. of skim milk when fed along with corn to fattening hogs 
is half the market price of corn per bushel. 

By this rule, when corn is worth 50 cents per bushel, skim milk is 
worth 25 cents per 100 lbs. for fattening hogs, if combined with corn or 
some other suitable grain. 

961. Whole milk. — On account of the high value of butter fat for 
human food it is not profitable to feed whole milk to pigs. Scheven 43 
found that when whole cow's milk was fed to 12-weeks-old pigs, from 
900 to 1,620 lbs. was required to produce 100 lbs. of gain, the average 
being 1,253 lbs. Linfield concludes from a trial at the Utah Station 44 
that whole milk is worth only about twice as much as skim milk for pigs. 
This shows that ordinarily one cannot afford to feed whole cow's milk 
to pigs. (265) Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station 45 has shown 
that cow's milk rich in fat is far from satisfactory as a feed for young 
pigs. (117) 

962. Buttermilk.— The value of buttermilk and skim milk has been 
compared by Goessmann in a 125-day trial at the Massachusetts Station 46 
and by Wilson in two 62-day trials at the South Dakota Station 47 with 
the results shown in the table : 

Buttermilk vs. skim milk for pigs 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Corn Milk 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Buttermilk, 17.1 lbs. Corn, 4 .1 lbs. . . 77 1.67 249 1,026 

Lot II, Skim milk, 17 .2 lbs. Corn, 4 .0 lbs. . . 77 1 .67 246 1,036 

43 Martiny, Die Milch. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 31. 4T S. D. Bui. 136. 

"Utah Bui. 94. <6 Mass. Rpt. 1884. 



tiOO FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The pigs in Lot I, fed buttermilk and corn, made just as large and 
economical gains as those in Lot II, fed skim milk and corn. These trials 
support the general experience that where no water has been added 
buttermilk is fully equal to skim milk for pig feeding. (287) 

963. Whey. — In pig-feeding trials by Day at the Ontario Agricul- 
tural College 48 and by the senior author at the Wisconsin Station 40 whey 
fed in combination with meal of the mixed grains gave the following 
returns : 

481 lbs. of mixed grain when fed alone produced 100 lbs. of gain. 
303 lbs. of mixed grain with 1,398 lbs. of whey produced 100 lbs. gain. 

Since 1,398 lbs. of whey saved 178 lbs. of grain, 785 lbs. of whey was 
equal to 100 lbs. of grain. The whey used in the Wisconsin trials was 
richer in fat than the average. Fjord of the Copenhagen (Denmark) 
Station 50 estimates that for swine feeding in Denmark, where the whey 
is poorer than with us, 1,200 lbs. is equal to 100 lbs. of mixed grain. 
From the above we may conclude that, when properly combined with 
corn and barley meal, 1,000 lbs. of ordinary whey is worth 100 lbs. of 
corn meal for fattening swine. Accordingly, whey is worth about half 
as much as skim milk for pig feeding. 

Day, 51 after studying the relative merits of sweet and sour whey and 
taking into consideration the health of the animals, their gains, and the 
quality of their flesh, states that the first slight fermentation which 
whey undergoes does not seriously detract from its value for pig feed- 
ing. Day 52 further found that ordinary whey was worth from 25 to 
30 per ct. more than separated whey. (268) 

964. Tankage; meat meal. — The value of tankage or meat meal as a 
supplement to corn or other carbonaceous concentrates has been demon- 
strated in trials at many stations and by experience on many farms. 
Rich in protein which is well-balanced in composition (118) and like- 
wise high in calcium and phosphorus, tankage is excelled only by skim 
milk or buttermilk in producing thrifty growth and large gains. Since 
tankage or meat meal for stock feeding is thoroly cooked under pressure 
at a high temperature, there is no danger from spreading disease by its 
use. (270) To illustrate the value of tankage as shown in the trials at 
the various stations there are given in the following table the results of 
2 trials of 127 and 100 days, respectively, in which various proportions 
of tankage were fed as supplements to corn, and 1 trial of 56 days in 
which different amounts of tankage were used as supplements to corn for 
pigs running on alfalfa pasture : 

'"Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1896. ""Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1897. 

19 Wis. Rpt. 1891. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1909. 

""Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1887. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 601 

Tankage or meat meal as supplement to corn 

Supple- Feed for 

ment Initial Daily 100 lbs. 

Average ration fed weight gain gain 

Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 
Indiana Station, 12 pigs, fed 127 days * 

Lot I, Corn meal, 3 .5 lbs 64 0.7 520 

Lot II, Tankage, .4 lb. Corn meal, 3 .9 lbs. . . . 9 66 1.2 370 

Lot III, Tankage, .7 lb. Corn meal, 3 .9 lbs. . . . 17 65 1 .2 378 
Iowa Station, 48 pigs, fed 100 days f 

Lot I, Corn meal, 6 .5 lbs 135 1.2 557 

Lot II, Meat meal, .8 lb. Corn meal, 7 .6 lbs. . . 9 137 1.9 451 

Lot III, Meat meal, .9 lb. Corn meal, 7 .3 lbs. . . 11 140 1.7 457 

Lot IV, Meat meal, 1 .0 lb. Corn meal, 6 .7 lbs. . . 13 136 1 .8 436 
Nebraska Station, SO pigs, fed 56 days % 

Lot I, Soaked corn, 5.2 lbs 145 1.3 416 

Lot II, Tankage, 0.3 lb. Soaked corn, 5.3 lbs. 5 144 1 .5 371 

Lot III, Tankage, .6 lb. Soaked corn, 5 .0 lbs. . . 10 144 1.5 366 

•Plumb and VanNorman (Ind. Bui. 90). fKennedy and Robbins (Iowa Bui. 91). 

JBurnett (Nebr. Bui. 94). 

In the Indiana trial the ration containing 9 per ct. tankage produced 
slightly more economical gains than the one containing 13 per ct. In 
this trial 100 lbs. of tankage, when forming 9 per ct. of the ration, 
replaced 555 lbs. of corn. In the Iowa trial, with older pigs, the ration 
containing 9 per ct. meat meal produced the largest gains, 100 lbs. of 
the meat meal replacing 359 lbs. of corn. In the Nebraska trial, with 
pigs on alfalfa pasture, 5 per ct. of tankage produced as large gains as 
10 per ct., due to the fact that the protein-rich alfalfa largely balanced 
the corn allowance. From these and other trials we may conclude that 
when high grade tankage, carrying 55 per ct. of protein or over, is fed as 
the sole supplement to corn to pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, not over 9 
to 10 per ct. is needed to balance the ration. With mature pigs the 
proportion of tankage may be reduced even lower. With young pigs 
soon after weaning it is advisable to feed as high as 20 per ct. of tank- 
age, or better, feed 9 to 10 per ct. of tankage and add sufficient lin- 
seed meal, wheat middlings, etc., to provide the proper amount of pro- 
tein for animals of this age. (Appendix Table V) Where a lower grade 
of tankage is fed the amount supplied should be correspondingly in- 
creased. For pigs fed corn on such protein-rich pasture as alfalfa, 
clover, soybean, cowpea, or rape, 5 per ct. of high grade tankage is 
usually sufficient to balance the ration. (985) 

965. Tankage as sole supplement vs. tankage and shorts. — To determine 
the effectiveness of tankage as the sole supplement to corn, compared 
with both tankage and wheat shorts, Waters, Kinzer, Wheeler, Wright, 
and King 33 conducted 4 trials, averaging 62 days, at the Kansas Station 
with a total of sixty-three 145-lb. pigs, obtaining the results shown in 
the table: 

■"Kan. Bui. 192. 



602 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Tankage alone vs. tankage and shorts as supplements to com 

Daily Feed for Feed cost of 

Average ration gain 100 lbs. gain 100 lbs. gain* 

Lbs. Lbs. D.;llar3 

Lot I, Tankage, .70 lb. Corn, 6 .3 lbs 1 .44 485 5 .20 

Lot II, Tankage, 0.52 1b. 

Shorts, 2.03 lbs. Corn, 4.9 lbs 1 .60 460 5.11 

•Corn at $19, shorts at $24, and tankage at $41 to $45 per ton. 

In each of the 3 trials Lot II, fed both tankage and shorts to supple- 
ment the corn, made slightly the most rapid gains, and, with feeds at 
the prices stated, the cheapest gains in all but 1 of the trials. It seems 
probable that these results are due to the greater variety of proteins 
furnished when both tankage and shorts are fed as supplements to corn. 

966. Tankage vs. linseed meal. — At the Indiana Station 54 Skinner and 
Cochel, in 3 trials averaging 57 days, compared tankage and linseed meal 
as supplements to corn meal with a total of 43 pigs, averaging 164 lbs. 
in weight. Since tankage contains almost twice as much digestible crude 
protein as linseed meal, only half as much of the former was fed. 

Tankage compared with linseed meal as supplements to com 

Daily Total Feed for 100 

Average ration gain gain lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn, 6 .0 lbs. Tankage, .3 lb 1.6 94 381 

Lot II, Corn, 5 .5 lbs. Linseed meal, .6 lb 1.5 89 394 

The table shows that when fed with corn 0.3 lb. tankage produced 
slightly larger and more economical gains for feed consumed than twice 
as much linseed meal. 

967. Tankage for pigs following corn-fed steers. — At the Ohio Sta- 
tion 55 Carmichael placed one 108-lb. pig with each 2 steers fattening 
on a ration composed mostly of corn. The corn voided by the steers 
was ample for the pigs, not all being consumed. Half of the pigs were 
each given one-third of a pound of tankage daily. The pigs on drop- 
pings alone gained 1 lb. each daily, and those getting tankage in addition, 
1.5 lbs. For each 100 lbs. of tankage fed, the pigs made 162 lbs. of 
extra gain. 

968. Blood meal vs. skim milk. — In experiments at the Virginia Sta- 
tion 56 Quick and Spencer found blood meal and skim milk about equal 
in value as supplements to corn, when fed on the basis of equal pounds 
of protein. Blood meal at $3 per 100 lbs. was as valuable as skim milk 
at 25 cents per 100 lbs. It was found necessary to mix blood meal with 
about its own weight of wheat middlings for the pigs to relish it. Day 57 
states that since blood meal is a highly concentrated feed it must be 
fed in small amount and with care to avoid injurious results. (271) 

969. Wheat middlings, or shorts. — Wheat middlings, or shorts, are one 
of the most popular nitrogenous supplements for pigs. They are rich 
in protein and phosphorus, but are relatively low in calcium. Hence 

M Ind. Bui. 126. "Ohio Cir. 73. M Va. Bui. 176. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1905. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 603 

when middlings are used as the sole supplement to corn for pigs in dry- 
lots, it is important to supply additional calcium in the form of ground 
limestone, slaked lime, etc. (927) That it is not economical to feed mid- 
dlings alone to swine is shown in a trial by the senior author 58 with 
3 lots, each of 3 pigs, fed the following rations for 6 weeks : 

Wheat middlings alone vs. middlings and corn 

Daily Total Feed for 

Average ration gain gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn meal, 4 .4 lbs 0.8 35 537 

Lot II, Wheat middlings, 4.0 lbs 0.8 32 522 

Lot III, Corn meal and middlings, 3 .8 lbs 0.9 36 439 

"While the pigs fed either corn meal or wheat middlings alone required 
over 500 lbs. of feed for 100 lbs. of gain, those in Lot III, fed equal parts 
of middlings and corn, consumed only 439 lbs. of feed per 100 lbs. of 
gain. As has been pointed out (965), when both middlings and tank- 
age are fed as supplements to corn, larger gains are generally secured 
than with either middlings or tankage as the sole supplement. In a trial 
by Carroll at the Utah Station 59 with 2 lots, each of 6 pigs fed 84 days, 
adding 1 part of tankage to the already fairly well-balanced mixture 
of 6 parts wheat shorts and 5 parts barley did not increase the gains 
sufficiently to prove profitable. Middlings are often useful for mixing 
with other feeds as they make a fine textured, palatable slop. (220) 

970. Wheat shorts vs. tankage. — To compare the value of wheat shorts 
and high-grade tankage as supplements to corn, Erf and Wheeler fed 2 
lots, each of ten 128-lb. pigs, the following rations for 45 days at the 
Kansas Station : 60 

Wheat shorts vs. tankage as supplements to corn 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Daily 
Average ration gain Corn 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Shorts, 2 .49 lbs. Corn meal, 4 .79 lbs. 1.5 319 

Lot II, Tankage, 1 .16 lbs. Corn meal, 5 .82 lbs. 1.6 364 

While the pigs fed tankage made slightly the larger gains, the feed 
cost of 100 lbs. gain was about the same for both the lots, with corn at 
$19, shorts at $24, and tankage at $40 per ton. 

971. Red dog flour. — At the Virginia Station 61 54-lb. pigs were fed 
soaked red dog flour and corn meal, equal parts, for 58 days. They 
gained 1.3 lbs. daily, requiring but 390 lbs. of the mixture for 100 lbs. 
of gain, while on the same feed given dry 490 lbs. were required. The 
high value of red dog flour when properly fed is here shown. This feed 
serves its highest purpose with quite young pigs, which need a highly 
digestible, palatable feed, containing little fiber. (219) 

6s Wis. Rpt. 1885. 60 Kan. Bui. 192. 

"Information to the authors. ai Va. Bui. 167. 



Suppb- 


Feed cost of 


ment 


100 lbs. gain 


Lbs. 


Dollars 


160 


4.95 


73 


4.92 



604 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

972. Wheat bran; wheat mixed feed. — Bran is too bulky a feed to be 
fed in any large amount to fattening pigs, for which middlings or shorts 
are far preferable. Where clover or alfalfa hay, roots, or other cheaper 
bulky feeds are not available, a limited amount of wheat bran is help- 
ful in adding nutriment and volume to the otherwise meager ration 
usually given brood sows and shotes not being fed for gain. At the 
Maine Station 02 Jordan found wheat middlings twice as valuable as 
wheat bran for fattening pigs, and at the Copenhagen (Denmark) Sta- 
tion 03 bran gave unsatisfactory results when fed alone to pigs. (218) 

At the Kentucky Station 04 Good obtained satisfactory results with a 
good grade of wheat mixed feed (shipstuff ) which contained all the mid- 
dlings, when fed with an equal weight of corn meal to fattening pigs. 
(221) 

973. linseed meal. — The value of this feed compared with tankage as 
a supplement to carbonaceous feeds has already been discussed. (966) 
The value of linseed meal compared with other protein-rich concen- 
trates is further shown in a trial by Forbes at the Missouri Station 05 
in which 6 lots, each of 5 pigs averaging 93 lbs., were fed for 90 days 
on corn meal supplemented with the feeds shown in the table : 

Linseed meal compared with other nitrogenous concentrates 

Average Daily Feed for 

Supplement fed with each 100 lbs. of corn ration gain 100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Linseed meal, 20 lbs 6.4 1.4 445 

Lot II, Wheat middlings, 100 lbs 5.2 1.0 502 

Lot III, Wheat middlings, 50 lbs 5.0 1.0 518 

Lot IV, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Germ oil meal, 10 lbs. . . . 5.5 1.2 476 

Lot V, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Gluten meal, 10 lbs 5.6 1.2 483 

Lot VI, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Gluten feed, 10 lbs 5 .9 1 .3 452 

Lot I, fed linseed meal as the sole supplement to corn meal, made the 
largest and most economical gains. The lots fed middlings and corn 
required from 13 to 16 per ct. more concentrates for 100 lbs. gain than 
those fed linseed meal and corn. When germ oil meal, gluten meal, or 
gluten feed was substituted for half the linseed meal, the rate of gain 
was lowered and the amount of grain required for 100 lbs. gain in- 
creased. Gluten feed proved slightly more valuable than gluten meal 
or germ oil meal. Forbes writes that the pork from pigs fed linseed 
meal was characterized by hard, white fat. As large an allowance of 
linseed meal as is necessary to balance a ration of corn or other cereals 
is often rather unpalatable to pigs. Hence many feeders prefer to feed 
less linseed meal and a small allowance of other supplements, such as 
skim milk, tankage, or middlings. A small allowance of linseed meal is 
often highly beneficial, especially with brood sows before farrowing, on 
account of its slightly laxative effect. Because of its mucilaginous nature 
linseed meal makes a slop of uniform, creamy consistency. (254) 

62 Me. Rpt. 1889. 64 Ky. Bui. 175. 

63 Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1892. « 5 Mo. Bui. 67. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 605 

974. Cottonseed meal. — As now prepared, cottonseed meal is poisonous 
to swine. All the various proposed ways for safely feeding this meal 
have failed under careful and continued tests. Pigs thrive at first on 
the meal, but usually in from 4 to 6 weeks some die — not all, as a rule, — 
but so many that all possible profits from the use of this feed are lost. 
A. few feeders continue to use the meal, experience enabling them to avoid 
most of the losses. If cottonseed meal is not fed continuously for over 
40 days and does not form over one-fourth of the ration, and if the pigs 
are freely supplied with green forage or grazed on pasture, the risk 
from this feed is slight. It is considered safe to have pigs follow steers 
which are being fed cottonseed meal, for the meal does not seem to be 
poisonous after passing thru the cattle. Care should always be taken 
that the steers do not throw so much meal out of the feed boxes that the 
pigs may be poisoned by eating such waste meal. (249) 

975. Field peas. — These leguminous seeds, rich in protein, are well 
suited to supplement corn and the other carbonaceous grains. While 
trials 00 have shown that peas alone produce fair gains, larger and much 
cheaper gains are secured when only sufficient of this rich feed is used 
to balance the ration properly. According to Grisdale, 07 pigs fed solely 
on pea meal in dry lots do not thrive. 

Cottrell os reports that in the San Luis valley, Colorado, field peas are 
grown on irrigated land and the vines allowed to mature and cure on 
the ground. Pigs are then turned into the fields to fatten on the peas 
alone, an acre of good peas producing about 400 lbs. of gain. Sometimes 
the unthreshed vines, after being stacked, are fed to pigs in yards, an 
acre of good peas producing from 600 to 800 lbs. of gain. Pork from 
pigs so fattened is firm, sweet, and tender, with a delicious flavor. Cot- 
trell recommends feeding barley, wheat, potatoes, or roots once a day 
to pigs foraging on peas. (261) 

976. Cull beans. — Cull table beans are satisfactory for swine when 
thoroly cooked and fed with carbonaceous feeds. At the Michigan Sta- 
tion 09 in 3 trials of from 56 to 70 days with 26 pigs, averaging 160 lbs., 
Shaw and Anderson found that pigs fed equal parts of cooked cull beans 
and corn meal made average gains of 1.5 lbs. per head daily, requiring 
406 lbs. of feed for 100 lbs. of gain. Pigs fed beans alone made daily 
gains of only 1.1 lbs. and required 421 lbs. of beans for 100 lbs. gain. 
Salt should always be added to the water in which the beans are cooked. 
When beans are fed alone or in excess they produce a soft pork lacking 
in quality. (263) 

977. Soybeans. — Soybeans, rich in protein, are a valuable supplement 
for corn or other grains. In the following table are summarized the 
results of 5 trials, averaging 70 days, in which soybeans have been com- 
pared with tankage as a supplement to corn. 

60 Wis. Rpt. 1902; S. D. Bui. 38. ^Colo. Bui. 146. 

"Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. ^Mich. Bui. 243. 



606 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 


Feed for 

100 lbs. gain 

Lbs. 


1.37 


409 


1.46 


382 



Soybeans vs. tankage as supplements to com 

Initial 
Average ration weight 

Lbs. 
Lot I, total of 37 pigs * 

Soybeans, .90 lb. Corn, 4 .7 lbs 110 

Lot II, total of S3 pigs * 

Tankage, 0.63 lb. Corn, 5.1 lbs 109 

♦Average of 1 trial bv Erf and Wheeler (Kan. Bui. 192), 2 by Good (Ky. Bui. 175), 1 by Skinner 
(Ind. Bui. 108), and 1 by Skinner and Cochel (Ind. Bui. 137). 

Lot I, fed soybeans and corn, made entirely satisfactory gains, only 
slightly smaller than Lot II, fed tankage and corn. In these trials 0.90 
lb. of soybeans per head daily was nearly as effective in supplementing 
the corn allowance as was 0.63 lb. of tankage. 

In each of 2 trials by Skinner and Cochel 70 at the Indiana Station 
pigs fed soybeans and corn made slightly larger gains and required 
slightly less feed for 100 lbs. gain than others fed linseed meal and 
corn. When fed in too large amount soybeans produce soft pork, dark 
and dull in color. At the "Wisconsin Station 71 Humphrey found that 
when 1 part of soybeans and 2 parts of corn were fed to pigs receiving 
skim milk, soybeans were worth 10 per ct. more than wheat middlings, 
so far as gains were concerned. However, when this proportion of soy- 
beans was fed the pork was less firm and the grain of the meat and the 
distribution of fat and lean less satisfactory than with pigs fed mid- 
dlings, corn, and milk. Soybeans are commonly ground for pigs. (256) 

978. Cowpeas. — In the South cowpeas are of great importance in eco- 
nomical pork production. The seed may be used as a supplement to corn 
or other carbonaceous feeds, or the pigs may be turned into the field to 
harvest the crop when the pods are well matured. (990) The following 
table presents the results of 3 trials in which the value of cowpeas and 
corn for pigs has been compared : 

Cowpeas for fattening pigs 



Average ration 

Duggar, Ala. Bui. 82 

Lot I, Corn; 2 .5 lbs 

Lot II, Cowpeas, 2 .8 lbs 

Lot III, Corn, 1 .4 lbs. Cowpeas, 1 .4 lbs. 
Duggar, Ala. Bui. 143 

Corn, 3.5 lbs 

Corn, 1 .7 lbs. Cowpeas, 1 .9 lbs. . . . 
Newman and Pickett, S. C. Bui. 52 

Corn, 9.2 lbs 

Ground cowpeas, 6 . 7 lbs 



Lot I, 
Lot II, 

Lot I, 
Lot II, 




478 
395 

602 
491 



In the Alabama trials cowpeas and corn were practically equal in feed- 
ing value when fed separately, but a mixture of both proved more satis- 
factory than either alone, as would be expected from the composition of 

70 Ind. Buls. 126, 137. "Wis. Rpt. 1905. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 607 

these feeds. The South Carolina test was decidedly in favor of the cow- 
peas.. (262) 

979. Peanut. — This leguminous plant is of great and increasing im- 
portance in the South for the feeding of swine. Pigs are commonly 
turned into the fields to do their own harvesting, as is pointed out 
later (991), or the peanut cake or meal resulting from the manufacture 
of peanut oil may be used as supplements to carbonaceous feeds. If 
pigs are fattened on peanuts alone soft pork is produced, but this may 
be overcome by feeding them corn for the last part of the finishing 
period. (258) 

980. Rice by-products. — To compare the value of rice meal and corn 
meal, Lindsey divided a litter of six 10-weeks-old pigs into 2 lots and 
fed them for 92 days at the Massachusetts Station. 72 The pigs in one 
lot were fed 3.1 lbs. of rice meal and 13.0 lbs. of skim milk and those in 
the other an equal weight of corn meal with the same amount of skim 
milk. The 2 lots made the same gains, showing that rice meal was equal 
to corn meal. At the South Carolina Station 73 Conner found rice meal 
slightly superior to corn meal when fed with skim milk. 

Dvorachek fed 8 lots, each of five 140-lb. pigs, the rations shown in 
the table for 63 days at the Arkansas Station, 74 to determine the value 
of rice bran and rice polish compared with corn chop : 

Rice bran and rice polish vs. corn for pigs 

Daily Feed for 100 
Average ration gain lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn, 6 .2 lbs 1 .30 476 

Lot II, Rice bran, 6 .2 lbs 1 .46 423 

Lot III, Rice polish, 5 .8 lbs 1 .63 358 

Lot IV, Corn, 2.1 lbs. Rice bran, 2.1 lbs. 

Rice polish, 2 . 1 lbs 1 .72 363 

Lot V, Rice bran, 3 . 1 lbs. Rice polish, 3 . 1 lbs 1 .40 404 

Lot VI, Rice bran, 4 . 1 lbs. Rice polish, 2 . 1 lbs 1 .66 369 

Lot VII, Rice bran, 1 .9 lbs. Rice polish, 3 .9 lbs 1 .49 390 

Lot VIII, Rice bran, 1 .6 lbs. Rice polish, 4 .6 lbs 1 .72 358 

This table shows the high value of rice bran and rice polish for pigs. 
Lot IV, fed equal parts corn chop, rice bran, and rice polish, and Lot 
VIII, fed 1 part rice bran and 3 parts rice polish, made the largest gains, 
and Lots III and VIII required the smallest amount of feed for 100 lbs. 
of gain. Dvorachek concludes that 100 lbs. of rice polish is equal to 133 
lbs. of corn, and that 100 lbs. of rice bran is equal to 112 lbs. of corn. 
Duggar secured similar results at the Alabama Station, 75 finding 127 
lbs. of rice polish equal to 100 lbs. of corn meal. (234) 

981. Miscellaneous nitrogenous concentrates. — Dried distillers' grains 
are not relished by pigs when fed as the sole concentrate allowance, and, 
moreover, are too bulky a feed to be supplied in large amounts to fatten- 
ing pigs. However, they give good results when fed as a supplement 

"Mass. Rpt. 1897. "Information to the authors. 

78 S. C. Bui. 55. 75 Ala. Bui. 122. 



608 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

to corn or the other cereals, as is shown in a trial by Good and Smith 
at the Kentucky Station. 70 Four lots of 10 to 15 pigs each, averaging 
69 lbs., were fed as shown in the table for 73 days, all lots except Lot 
IV running on rape and oats or rape pasture : 

Dried distillers' grains for fattening pigs 

. Concentrates 

Average ration Daily for 100 lbs. 

gain gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Dried distillers' grains, 1 .7 lbs. Pasture 0.46 368 

Lot II, Corn meal, 3 .2 lbs. Pasture .93 344 

Lot III, Corn meal, 2 .6 lbs. 

Dried distillers' grains, .51 lb. Pasture 1 .03 300 

Lot IV, Corn meal, 3 .3 lbs. Dried distillers' grains, .66 lb. . .88 444 

When fed as the sole concentrate to pigs on pasture, dried distillers' 
grains were much inferior to corn. However, a mixture of 1 part dis- 
tillers' grains and 5 parts corn produced larger and more economical 
gains than corn alone. Lot I could not be induced to eat more than 1.7 
lbs. of distillers' grains per head daily. Lots II and III, however, would 
have eaten even larger allowances of concentrates than shown in the 
table but were restricted so as to make more use of the pasture. (282) 

Distillery slop may be fed to pigs with good results, when concen- 
trates such as corn and the other cereals are supplied in addition, as the 
slop is too watery to be fed alone. 

Gluten meal and gluten feed, as has been shown before (973), give 
satisfactory results when fed with corn and some other supplement, such 
as linseed meal. It is not advisable, however, to use these corn by- 
products as the sole supplement to corn for pigs in the dry lot, for the 
pigs would then receive only corn protein, which, as we have seen (201), 
is somewhat unbalanced in composition. Watson at the New York (Cor- 
nell) Station 77 found a mixture of 1 part gluten meal and 4 parts corn 
meal 7 per ct. more valuable than wheat meal when both were fed with 
skim milk. (210-1) 



III. Forage Crops, Pasture, and Other Succulent Feed; Hay 

982. Value of forage crops and pasture. — Thru the use of suitable forage 
and pasture crops, pork may be produced at a much lower cost than 
where pigs are maintained in dry lots on expensive concentrates alone. 
Spring pigs will thrive amazingly on good pasture supplemented by a 
limited allowance of concentrates and if not finished by the close of the 
pasture season will be in condition to make most economical gains in 
the dry lot. Not only do pigs at pasture make cheaper gains, but the 
succulent feed and the exercise they obtain are important aids in keep- 
ing them thrifty and in good health. When pigs are fed in dry lots it 
is difficult to save the manure unless they are confined closely, and thus 

76 Ky. Bui. 190. 77 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 89. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 609 

ofteu much fertility is wasted. With pigs at pasture the manure is uni- 
formly distributed on the fields. By the use of forage crops thruout the 
growing season and legume hay during the winter the cost of maintain- 
ing brood sows may be materially reduced. Tho pasturage is of prime 
value for pigs in all sections of the country, it is especially important in 
the southern states, where, by a well-selected rotation of pastures, green 
feed may be furnished thruout nearly the entire year. 

As Evvard of the Iowa Station 78 writes: An ideal forage for hogs 
should show: 1. adaptability to local soil and climate; 2. palatability ; 

3. a heavy yield of digestible nutrients, being high in protein and min- 
eral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, and low in crude fiber; 

4. succulence; 5. long pasturing season; 6. ability to endure grazing; 
7. permanency ; 8. reasonable cost and ease of seeding ; 9. capability of 
furnishing quick pasture at any time during the growing season. ' ' These 
essentials are not found in any single forage, but alfalfa, the clovers, 
and rape have most of them." (109) 

983. Amount of grain to feed on pasture. — Owing to the high price of 
concentrates it is important to determine the minimum amount which 
should be fed to pigs on pasture for satisfactory results. It is never 
profitable to force young pigs to subsist on pasture alone. At the Utah, 79 
New Mexico, 80 Mississippi, 81 and Oklahoma 82 Stations alfalfa pasture 
proved little more" than a maintenance ration for growing pigs. At the 
Kentucky Station 83 Good found that 63-lb. pigs did not maintain their 
weight on good rye pasture, and 82-lb. pigs barely held their own on 
mixed clover and bluegrass pasture. Good states that full-grown brood 
sows, in thin condition and not suckling pigs, will take on flesh when 
grazing good pasture without grain. Snyder reports that during a 
trial of 70 days at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation 84 mature hogs, 
thin in flesh, gained about 0.5 lb. daily on alfalfa pasture without grain. 

At the Utah Station 85 a series of trials extending over 12 years was 
conducted, chiefly by Linfield, to determine the most profitable amount 
of grain to feed to pigs on pasture, which was principally alfalfa. The 
results of the trials, which were with pigs weighing 60 to 75 lbs. at the 
start, are summarized in the following table : 

Amount of grain to feed pigs on pasture 

No. of Daily Grain for 100 
pigs gain lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Full grain ration, in pens 74 0.9 484 

Full grain ration, on pasture 20 1 .2 413 

Three-fourths grain ration, on pasture 17 1 .0 383 

One-half grain ration, on pasture 16 0.7 304 

One-fourth grain ration, on pasture 10 0.5 247 

Pasture only 19 0.2 

Green alfalfa only, in pens 2 —0 .3 

^Iowa Bui. 136. «°N. M. Bui. 90. w Okla. Rpt. 1899. 84 Nebr. Bui. 99. 

"Utah Bui. 94. ^Miss. Rpt. 1905. 83 Ky. Bui. 175. a5 Utah Bui. 94. 



610 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

We learn that the pigs on a full grain ration in pens gained 0.9 lb. 
each daily and required 484 lbs. of grain for 100 lbs. of gain, while 
those getting a full grain ration on pasture gained 1.2 lbs. each daily, 
pasturage effecting a saving of about 15 per ct. in the grain required 
to produce 100 lbs. gain. The pastured pigs getting a limited grain 
ration ate less grain for each 100 lbs. of gain than when fed a full grain 
ration, but also made smaller daily gains, the fattening period being 
thereby lengthened. If the full grain ration on pasture would have 
fattened pigs in 100 days, the quarter grain ration would have required 
245 days. 

Linfield states S(? that pigs fed a limited grain ration on pasture, when 
later put on full feed, made rapid gains at slightly less cost than those 
fed a full ration from the start. Hence, for growing pigs to be fattened 
later, a restricted grain ration on pasture is economical. 

984. Alfalfa pasture. — Wherever it thrives alfalfa is the best per- 
manent pasture crop for pigs, since there is no danger from bloat, as with 
cattle and sheep. (340) Alfalfa provides pasturage during a longer 
season than almost any other single crop, starting early in the spring 
and remaining green and succulent in late summer when bluegrass has 
dried up and even clover is often somewhat hard and woody. Since 
heavy pasturing of alfalfa is injurious to the stand, the number of pigs 
should be restricted and the plants allowed to grow up, being cut for 
hay 2 or 3 times a year. In tests at the Iowa Station by Evvard and 
Kennedy 87 in which pigs were fed corn and tankage on alfalfa pasture 
the alfalfa produced 623 to 865 lbs. of pork per acre, after deducting 
the gains to be credited to the concentrates fed, and without crediting 
the alfalfa with the hay cut from the pasture. In one trial an acre of 
alfalfa carried an average of over 16 spring pigs for 180 days, producing 
1.05 lbs. of gain per head daily. With corn at $0.50 per bushel and 
tankage at $50 per ton, the concentrates fed cost only $2.88 per 100 lbs. 
of gain. 

The most profitable amount of grain to feed pigs on alfalfa pasture 
will depend on the age of the pigs, the abundance of forage, and the 
relative cost of concentrates and pasture. At the North Platte, Neb- 
raska, Substation 88 Snyder grazed 3 lots of 47-lb. pigs on alfalfa pasture 
during each of 2 summers. One lot received a light, the second a 
medium, and the third a full allowance of shelled corn. The combined 
results of the trials, lasting 98 and 119 days, respectively, are averaged 
below : 

Light, medium, and heavy corn feeding on alfalfa pasture 

Daily Corn for 100 
Daily allowance of corn gain lbs. gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Shelled corn, 0.5 lb 0.4 128 

Lot II, Shelled corn, 1 .1 lbs 0.5 221 

Lot III, Shelled corn, 2 .6 lbs 0.8 331 

s6 Utah Bui. 94. "Iowa Bui. 136. 68 Nebr. Bui. 99. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 611 

It is shown that Lot I, fed a light grain allowance on alfalfa pasture, 
required only 39 per ct. as much grain for 100 lbs. gain as Lot III, fed 
a full corn allowance. Lot III, however, made twice as rapid gains as 
Lot I. Snyder concludes that a light grain allowance on alfalfa pasture 
is not economical for growing pigs unless alfalfa is abundant, grain 
high in price, and market conditions warrant holding the pigs. It is 
usually more profitable to feed 2 lbs. or more of corn per 100 lbs. of pigs 
than to feed a lighter ration. From trials at the New Mexico Station 80 
Foster and Simpson conclude that in their section, where concentrates 
are high in price, pigs with abundant alfalfa pasture make the most 
economical gains when fed only about 1 lb. of grain daily per 100 lbs. 
live weight. 

985. Feeding a supplement with corn on alfalfa pasture. — Pigs fed corn 
alone on alfalfa pasture make fairly satisfactory gains, since the alfalfa 
goes far toward balancing the corn allowance. More rapid gains are, 
however, secured when some nitrogenous concentrate is fed in addition. 
This is shown in the following table which summarizes the results of 3 
trials, averaging 71 days, by Waters, Kinzer, Wright, and King 90 at the 
Kansas Station in which one lot of pigs was given a full allowance of 
ground corn on alfalfa pasture while another lot was fed a mixture of 
62 per ct. corn, 30 per ct. wheat shorts, and 8 per ct. tankage in addition 
to the pasture : 

Feeding supplement in addition to com and alfalfa pasture 

Average ration 

Lot I, Corn, 3 .8 lbs. Pasture 

Lot II, Corn, shorts, and tankage, 5 .4 lbs. Pasture. 

The pigs fed shorts and tankage consumed more feed than those fed 
only corn in addition to alfalfa pasture, made much larger gains, and 
required 18 per ct. less concentrates for 100 lbs. gain. Since the ration 
is partly balanced by the alfalfa, not as much additional supplement is 
required as with corn in the dry lot. For pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, 
fed corn on alfalfa pasture, 5 per ct. of high grade tankage or other 
concentrates furnishing an equivalent amount of digestible protein, will 
produce about as large and usually more economical gains than a larger 
proportion. (964) 

986. Clover pasture. — In the northern and central states red clover is 
one of the most valuable pasture crops for pigs. Carmichael and East- 
wood rank 4 forage crops tested at the Ohio Station 91 as follows > in the 
order of their efficiency: red clover, rape, soybeans, bluegrass. In Mis- 
souri, Mumford and Weaver 02 found it inferior only to alfalfa, and in 
Iowa, Eward 93 found it surpassed only by alfalfa and rape. Since 

* 9 N. M. Bui. 90. 91 Ohio Bui. 242. " 3 Iowa Bui. 136. 

"Kan. Bui. 192. 02 Mo. Bui. 110. 



Initial 

weight 

Lbs. 


Daily 
gain 
Lbs. 


Concentrates 

for 100 lbs. 

gain 

Lbs. 


81 
80 


0.85 

1.49 


439 
358 



til2 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

early pasturing may kill clover, pigs should not be turned on until it 
lias made a good growth. Clover does not furnish as constant a supply 
of succulent feed as does alfalfa, tending to become woody late in the 
summer, but clipping will aid in inducing a new growth. (348) On soils 
too wet or too acid for red clover, alsike clover may be grown. (350) 
Especially in the southeastern states crimson clover, sown as a winter 
annual, furnishes valuable spring pasture for pigs. (353) 

987. Sweet clover. — On soils not well adapted to alfalfa or red clover, 
sweet clover may often be used to advantage as a pasture for pigs. The 
first year's growth is best suited to pigs, as it is less coarse and woody. 
To encourage the growth of new shoots the crop should be pastured 
reasonably close and the tall growth clipped with a mower. (352) 

988. Field peas for pasture. — In the northern states field peas, sown 
either alone or with oats or oats and rape, are a most satisfactory summer 
forage crop for pigs. The extensive use of field peas in certain valleys 
of the "West has already been mentioned. (975) At the Wyoming Sta- 
tion, 94 Faville found that an acre of fair field pea pasture grazed by 
fattening pigs saved 2,344 lbs. of mixed grain. Ashby and Monroe 
report that at the Washington Station 95 an acre of oats and peas grazed 
by pigs netted $39.90 after paying for supplemental feeds and the cost 
of producing the crop. The} r state that pigs should be turned in when 
the earliest pods are ripe and should not be allowed to graze over the 
whole field, but should be confined to small plots by temporary fences 
or hurdles. (355) 

989. Soybean pasture. — In the North the soybean is surpassed by 
alfalfa, clover, rape, and field peas, except perhaps on light, sandy soil 
where the soybean may produce a larger crop. In the South, however, 
the soybean is one of the best allies of the pork producer. The high 
value of this legume is shown in the following table which summarizes 
the results of 3 trials by Gray, Ridgeway, and Eudaly, at the Alabama 
Station. 96 In these trials lots each of four to five 45-lb. pigs, carrying 
some improved blood, but no better than the average pigs of the district. 
were fed as indicated for periods of 42 to 81 days : 

Value of soybeans for southern pork production 

Feed for 100 Feed cost 

Daily lbs. gain of 100 lbs. 

Average ration gain Corn Pasture gain* 

Lbs. Lbs. Acres Dollars 

Lot 7, Corn meal, 0.75 1b. Soybean pasture 1 . 10 6S 0.21S 2.59 

Lot 77, Corn meal, 1.39 lbs. Soybean pasture 1 .01 13S 0.204 3.36 

Lot III, Corn meal, 2.33 lbs. Soybean pasture 1.33 175 0.123 3.17 

Lot IV, Corn meal, 2. 2S lbs 0.3S 609 7.61 

*Corn, SO. 70 per bu. and soybean pasture SS per acre. 

The table shows that where soybean pasture was used pork was made 
for less than half of what it cost when corn was used alone. During the 
first few weeks of the grazing period, when the pigs ate no part of the 

M Wyo. Rpt. 1913. "Wash. Pop. Bui. 63. "Ala. Bui. 154. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 813 

plants except the leaves, as the beans were not yet formed, good gains 
were made when the pasture was supplemented by corn. During the last 
few weeks the animals ate nothing but the beans which had fallen from 
the plants. Excellent gains were made during this time. The amount 
of corn to feed on soybean pasture will depend on the amount of corn 
on hand to dispose of, the amount of available pasture, and the length 
of time in which the animals should be fattened. When prices are low 
it may be wise to simply carry the hogs along on pasture plus a light 
grain ration or no grain ration at all until the prices advance. Since 
a large allowance of soybeans tends to produce soft pork, the greater the 
amount of corn which is fed the harder the meat will be at the end of 
the grazing period. Soybeans are often grown with corn and the com- 
bined crop hogged down. (358) 

990. Cowpea pasture. — Especially on poorer soils in the southern states 
the cowpea is an important forage crop for swine, as it flourishes where 
other legumes will not produce good crops. In a 60-day trial by Gray, 
Summers, and Shook 97 in Alabama with 3 lots, each of five 53-lb. pigs, 
the following results were secured: 

Cowpea pasture for fattening pigs 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration gain Concentrates Pasture 

Lbs. Lbs. Acres 

Lot I, Corn, 2.62 lbs. Tankage, . 29 lb •. 0.54 540 

Lot II, Corn, 1.39 lbs. 

Tankage, . 16 lb. Cowpea pasture . 97 159 . 78 

Lot III, Corn, 1 .56 lbs. Cowpea pasture .90 173 .83 

The pigs on cowpea pasture gained nearly twice as fast as those fed 
corn and tankage without pasturage. The pigs were grazed on a good 
crop of cowpeas from August 12 to September 16, but from this date 
to November 5 they were grazed on a field in which there was only half 
a normal crop, hence the large area of pasture required per 100 lbs. of 
gain. On land suited to soybeans they excel cowpeas for pigs on account 
of the larger production of seed. Like soybeans, cowpeas and corn are 
frequently hogged down. (357) 

991. Velvet bean pasture. — To determine the value of velvet bean 
pasture for pigs, Gray, Summers, and Shook 08 turned a lot of five 62-lb. 
grade pigs into a field where velvet beans had been grown with corn, 
but the corn crop already removed. In addition the pigs were given a 
half ration of corn meal 9 parts, and tankage 1 part, while another lot 
was fed corn and tankage in a dry lot. During 72 days the pigs foraging 
the velvet beans gained 1.23 lbs. per head daily, requiring 0.38 acre of 
beans and only 170 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. gain. The pigs in 
the dry lot gained but 0.84 lb. and consumed 400 lbs. concentrates for 
100 lbs. gain. An acre of velvet beans, raised in a corn field, thus re- 
placed over 600 lbs. of concentrates. Velvet beans in the pod may also 

"Ala. Bui. 168. ""Ala. Bui. 168. 



tfl4 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

be fed to pigs as a supplement to corn or other grain. The pigs will not 
eat the pods, but become expert in shelling out the beans." (361) 

992. Rape pasture. — Over the greater part of the northern United 
States rape is unsurpassed as an annual forage crop for swine. As it 
may be sown both early and late in the season, forage may be provided 
at any desired time. The best yields are usually obtained with spring 
seeding and if the crop is not pastured too closely growth will continue 
until fall. According to Evvard of the Iowa Station, 100 the pigs should 
not be turned on the rape till it is 10 to 14 inches high and when it is 
pastured down to 4 or 5 leaves to the plant the animals should be trans- 
ferred to another plot to give the crop a chance to recuperate. The 
value of rape pasture for pigs is well shown in the following summary 
of 6 trials, lasting 80 to 190 days, in which one lot of spring pigs was 
pastured on rape and another on alfalfa, both being fed concentrates in 
addition : 

Rape vs. alfalfa pasture for pigs 

Concentrates 
Daily for 100 Ids. 
Average ration gain gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I,* Concentrates, 3 .7 lbs. Rape pasture 1 .08 340 

Lot II * Concentrates, 3 .8 lbs. Alfalfa pasture 1 .12 344 

♦Average of 3 trials bv Evvard (Iowa Bui. 136, Proc. Am. Sic. Anim. Prod. 1913), 1 by Otis (Kan. 
Bul. 99), and 2 by Waters', Kinzer, Wheeler, and King (Kan. Bui. 192). 

The pigs on rape pasture made practically as large gains as those on 
alfalfa pasture and required even less concentrates for 100 lbs. gain. 
Where alfalfa thrives it surpasses rape, not because it results in larger 
gain, but because it will usually carry more pigs per acre and does not 
need to be reseedecl each year. In 2 of the Kansas trials an acre of 
alfalfa pasture carried twice as many pigs thruout the season as did 
an acre of rape. In 2 of the Iowa trials, however, rape produced more 
pork per acre than did alfalfa. Evvard 101 finds that the portion of the 
rape plant eaten by pigs is nearly as rich in protein, on the dry matter 
basis, as is alfalfa, and that pigs fed corn on rape pasture do not need 
the addition of more than 5 per ct. of tankage, or an equivalent amount 
of other supplement, to the corn allowance. Pigs with light colored skin 
or thin hair may be blistered by running in rape when the dew is on, 
but this may be obviated by keeping them off the fields at such times. 

Kape is often grown in combination with oats or oats and field peas 
for pig pasture. From trials at the Missouri Station 102 Mumford and 
Weaver rank rape and oats next to alfalfa and red clover among several 
forage crops tested. At the Wisconsin Station 103 Carlyle found rape 
fully equal to red clover pasture, an acre of rape grazed by pigs 4 to 
10 months old replacing 2,436 lbs. of mixed corn meal and wheat shorts. 
At the Oregon Station 104 an acre of rape pasture with no grain pro- 

00 Scott, Fla. Bul. 113. 101 Iowa Bul. 136. m Wis. Rpt. 1901. 

100 Iowa Bul. 136. ,02 Mo. Bul. 110. 104 Ore. Bul. 89. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 615 

duced 154 lbs. of gain with pigs. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental 
Farms 105 pastured 60 pigs that finally reached an average weight of 185 
lbs. each, on 1.5 acres of rape, feeding in addition thereto about 500 lbs. 
of grain to each pig. Rape is an excellent winter forage crop for the 
South. In 2 trials at the Alabama Station 106 Gray, Summers, and Shook 
found that pigs, weighing from 45 to 60 lbs., fed a half allowance of 
corn and either shorts or tankage on rape pasture for 116 to 147 days 
during the winter, made an average daily gain of 0.70 lb. and required 
0.14 acre of rape and only 273 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. of gain. 
(381) 

993. Grasses and cereals for pasture. — Among the permanent grasses 
bluegrass provides the best pasture thruout the northern states. As blue- 
grass makes little growth during the summer, other crops should be pro- 
vided for this season, the bluegrass being relied on for grazing in spring 
and early summer and in early fall. With pigs fed corn on bluegrass, 
a somewhat larger allowance of nitrogenous supplement is needed than 
on legume or rape pasture, tho very young bluegrass is fairly rich in 
protein. (310-11) In the South, Bermuda grass furnishes the best per- 
manent grass pasture for pigs. (320) 

For fall and early spring pasture in the North and for pasture from 
late fall thruout the winter and spring in the South, the cereals are 
unexcelled. Good of the Kentucky Station 107 has found that green rye, 
wheat, or oats when 5 to 8 inches high are even richer than alfalfa, 
clover, soybeans, or cowpeas in protein. Hence the cereals at this stage 
are really nitrogenous pastures, and go far toward supplementing corn. 
Good conducted 3 trials, averaging 117 days, to determine the value of 
giving a small allowance of tankage or soybeans to 49-lb. pigs fed corn 
on rye pasture during the winter and spring, securing the results shown 
in the table : 

Feeding supplement with corn to pigs on rye pasture 

Concentrates 
Daily for 100 lbs. 
Average concentrate allowance gain gain 

Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Corn, 3 .0 lbs 0.74 397 

Lot II, Corn, 2.8 lbs. Supplement, .39 lb .92 345 

The pigs fed a small amount of supplement with the corn made larger 
and more economical gains than those fed only corn on the rye pasture. 
During the periods when the pasture is covered by snow it is especially 
advantageous to feed a supplement with the corn. In the southern states, 
winter rye or oats will furnish most satisfactory pasture for pigs thruout 
the entire winter, greatly decreasing the cost of maintaining brood sows 
and raising fall pigs. (318) 

994. Hogging down ripe grain. — Ripe grain,usually rye, bald barley, 
or wheat, is frequently hogged down, the pigs being turned into the field 

105 Ottawa Expt. Farms. Bui. 51. 103 Ala. Bui. 168. W7 Ky. Bui. 175. 



616 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

when the crop is nearly ripe. This practice is especially common in the 
grain districts of the Pacific Northwest, where the summers are dry. 
Hunter of the United States Department of Agriculture 108 reports that 
in eastern Washington 109 pigs having access to an acre of pasture 
hogged down 7.2 acres of standing wheat, and gave a net return of 
$15.73 per acre. The net return from wheat alongside, harvested and 
threshed, was only $8.04 per acre. In 5 trials by Mumford and Weaver 
at the Missouri Station 109 ripe rye hogged down produced an average 
of 212 lbs. of pork per acre, after deducting the additional grain fed. 
In a trial by Evvard at the Iowa Station 110 1 crop of rye yielding 41 
bushels per acre was worth only $18.56 an acre when hogged down by 
pigs fed meat meal in addition, the pigs making poor gains. Later when 
hogging down corn the same pigs made most satisfactory gains. It seems 
doubtful whether it is usually profitable to hog down the small grains 
in the humid districts, when labor can be secured to harvest the crop. 
As we have seen (942), hogging down corn is a most successful practice. 

995. Gleaning stubble fields. — Especially on the grain farms of the 
West stubble fields are an important factor in economical pork produc- 
tion. Where the grain is harvested by means of a header a consider- 
able amount is left ungarnered and was formerly wasted. Now many 
farmers are hog fencing tbeir fields and turning pigs on the stubble to 
glean the scattered heads of grain. Gains made on such waste are almost 
clear profit. 

996. Sorghum; Japanese cane. — Sorghum is too high in fiber to excel 
as a pasture for young pigs, tho it is useful in the South for providing 
succulence when other crops are not available. For older pigs it gives 
somewhat better results, 111 supplied in addition to a fair allowance of 
grain. (309) 

Scott found at the Florida Station 112 that Japanese cane fed alone 
would not maintain young pigs. As succulence with grain this forage 
should have about the same value as sorghum. (323) 

997. Soilage. — It is not ordinarily profitable to cut and haul green 
crops to pigs, for they can better do their own harvesting. To deter- 
mine the value of soilage as a supplement to corn, Waters fed 4 lots, 
each of six 48-lb. pigs, the rations shown in the table for 102 days at 
the Missouri Station. 113 The fresh-cut green forage was fed twice daily. 

Various soilage crops compared 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration gain Concentrates Soilage 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, Middlings, 1 .4 lbs. Corn meal, 2 . 1 lbs 

Lot II, Green alfalfa, 0.8 lb. Corn meal, 3.3 lbs . 
Lot III, Green clover, 0.7 lb. Corn meal, 3 .3 lbs. . 
Lot IV, Green bluegrass, .7 lb. Corn meal, 3 .4 lbs. 

l08 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 599. 100 Mo. Bui. 110. n0 Iowa Bui. 136. 
"'Gray, Duggar, and Ridgeway, Ala. Bui. 143; Scott. Fla. Bui. 113. 
n3 Fla. Bui. 113. ,18 Mo. Bui. 79. 



0.7 


518 




0.8 


401 


91 


0.8 


435 


93 


0.6 


531 


113 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 617 

The pigs fed green alfalfa or clover made larger gains than those fed 
middlings and corn meal, 78 lbs. of green alfalfa or 112 lbs. of green 
clover saving 100 lbs. of concentrates. Bluegrass was a poor supplement 
to corn. (418-22) 

998. Roots. — We have seen in previous chapters that for dairy cattle, 
beef cattle, and sheep, silage from corn or the sorghums provides about 
as satisfactory succulent feed as do roots, and at a much lower cost over 
the greater part of our country. (366, 638-40, 784, 866) With the pig 
however, silage will not replace roots, for the digestive apparatus of this 
animal is not adapted to utilize large amounts of such coarse and fibrous 
feed. Since roots have a high value for pigs, with the high prices now 
ruling for concentrates large numbers of farmers can profitably grow 
roots for winter succulence for their pigs. Roots not only add variety 
to the ration, but reduce the amount of concentrates required, and aid 
in maintaining the health of the animals. On account of their slightly 
laxative effect and their bulkiness, roots are especially valuable for brood 
sows in winter. Danish farmers grow no Indian corn, and yet by means 
of waste products of the dairy, purchased feeding stuffs, and root crops, 
mostly beets, they lead the world in the production of pork, both as to 
quantity and quality. 

The value of roots for fattening pigs is shown in the following table, 
summarizing the results of 8 trials, averaging 88 days, in which concen- 
trates alone were fed to one lot of pigs, while another lot was fed roots 
in addition to the same concentrates : 

Value of roots for fattening pigs 

Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 

Average ration weight gain Concentrates Roots 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I, total of SS pigs* 

Concentrates, 5 .4 lbs 90 1.2 499 

Lot II, total of 38 pigs* 

Concentrates, 3 .6 lbs. Roots, 5 .6 lbs 87 1.0 358 631 

*Av?rage of 1 trial bv Clark (Utah Bui. 101), 1 bv Lazenby (Ohio Rpt., 18S4), 2 by Plumb (Ind. BuR 
79, 82), 1 bv Robertson (Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1891), 2 by Sanborn (Utah Rpt. 1891), and 1 by Shaw 
(Mont. But 27). 

As shown in the table, the value of adding roots to the ration for 
fattening pigs, lies not in any increase in the rate of gain, but in lessen- 
ing the amount of concentrates required for 100 lbs. gain. In these 
trials only 448 lbs. of roots was required to save 100 lbs. of concen- 
trates. This is a higher value than we would expect from the amount 
of dry matter they contain, for 100 lbs. of corn contains as much dry 
matter as 546 lbs. of sugar beets, which are the richest of the common 
root crops. The high value of roots is undoubtedly due to their bene- 
ficial effect on the digestive tract. For young pigs roots are especially 
valuable, as they tend to growth rather than fattening. Indeed, in 
finishing pigs the allowance of roots should be restricted, or the desired 
finish will not be secured. 



618 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Root crops may be economically gathered by turning pigs in to graze 
the field. At the Michigan Station, 114 Shaw turned pigs receiving one- 
third of a normal grain ration into a beet field to do their own foraging 
and found that 1 acre of sugar beets produced 716 lbs. and 1 acre of 
half sugar beets and half mangels 792 lbs. of gain. In the South root 
crops may be used with advantage as forage for pigs during the winter. 

Tho it is not wise to force pigs to live on roots alone, it is of interest 
to note that Buffum and Griffith of the Colorado Station 115 found that 
sugar beets, fed alone, rather more than maintained pigs. As high as 
25 lbs. per day of mangels have been fed to dry sows or those not far 
advanced in pregnancy, the allowance being decreased and the meal ra- 
tion somewhat increased as pregnancy advanced. 

999. Comparison of root crops. — The Danish (Copenhagen) Experi- 
ment Station, 116 in trials with 204 pigs fed whole or sliced roots in 
combination with skim milk, whey, and grain, found that 1 lb. of ground 
barley was equal in feeding value to : 

Dry matter Sugar 

7.5 lbs. mangel beets containing 11 .0 per ct. 6.7 per ct. 

6.5 lbs. mangel beets containing 13 .6 per ct. 8.9 per ct. 

5 .0 lbs. fodder beets containing 16 .5 per ct. 10 .9 per ct. 

4.0 lbs. sugar beets containing 21 .2 per ct. 14.0 per ct. 

Thus it is shown that 7.5 lbs. of mangels or 4 lbs. of sugar beets are 
as useful in pig feeding as 1 lb. of ground barley, when all are combined 
with dairy waste products. Carrots proved as valuable as beets when 
measured by the dry substance contained. Since roots are almost wholly 
digestible their relative feeding value depends upon the total dry matter 
they contain, rather than the variety or kind. According to Day, 117 
sugar beets not only possess the highest feeding value per ton, but are 
also most readily eaten by pigs. He states that hogs prefer mangels 
to carrots. (367-72) 

1000. Sugar beets; beet pulp; molasses. — At the Utah Station lls Clark 
fed sugar beets, wet beet pulp, and beet molasses in combination with 
wheat shorts to 4 lots of 130-lb. pigs for 48 days with the results shown 
below : 

Sugar beets, beet pulp, and beet molasses fed to pigs 

Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Daily B^ets or 

Average ration gain Short3 beet pulp Molasses 

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

Lot I 

Shorts, 7.6 lbs 1.7 444 

Lot 1 1 

Shorts, 3 .2 lbs. Sugar beets, 8 .3 lbs. ..1.2 268 697 

Lot III 

Shorts, 3 .3 lbs. Beet pulp, 12 .3 lbs.. . . 1.2 275 1,030 

Lot IV 

Shorts, 3 .0 lbs. Beet pulp, 9 .4 lbs. 

Beet molasses, 4.4 lbs. 1.6 186 600 281 

114 Mich. Bui. 233. m Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 206. 

u5 Colo. Bui. 74. lls Utah Bui. 101. 

'"Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1892. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 619 

The table shows that while the shorts-fed pigs gained 1.7 lbs. each 
daily, those fed a half allowance of shorts with sugar beets or beet pulp 
additional gained 1.2 lbs. each daily. In this trial 609 lbs. of wet beet 
pulp or 396 lbs. of sugar beets replaced 100 lbs. of wheat shorts. (274) 
Shorts, beet pulp, and beet molasses combined produced nearly as large 
gains as shorts alone. One hundred lbs. of beet molasses saved 32 lbs. 
of shorts and 153 lbs. of beet pulp. All the pork was of good quality 
except that from the molasses-fed pigs, which had a peculiar unsavory 
taste. (276) 

Overfeeding with beet molasses causes pigs to scour. In a trial at 
the New York (Cornell) Station, 119 after feeding five 87-lb. pigs a ration 
of 1.6 lbs. corn meal, 2.4 lbs. sugar-beet molasses, and 4 lbs. milk for 3 
days, 2 pigs died suddenly. The molasses was then withdrawn from 
the ration, but the remaining pigs did not thrive, doubtless due to the 
effects of the molasses. 

1001. Potatoes. — In two trials by the senior author at the Wisconsin 
Station 120 potatoes were cooked in an open kettle, using as little water 
as possible, and corn meal added to form a thick mush which was eaten 
by pigs with great relish. Corn meal wet with water was fed to a second 
lot for comparison. The results were as follows : 

440 lbs. of corn meal, fed alone, produced 100 lbs. of gain. 

262 lbs. of corn meal with 786 lbs. of potatoes, weighed before cooking, produced 
100 lbs. of gain. 

From this we learn that 786 lbs. of potatoes, when fed to pigs after 
being cooked, effected a saving of 178 lbs. of corn meal, 442 lbs. of po- 
tatoes taking the place of 100 lbs. of corn meal. 

At the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station 121 Fjord found 400 lbs. of 
cooked potatoes equal to 100 lbs. of mixed grains for swine. 

Potter of the Oregon Station 122 reports that when steamed potatoes were 
fed with barley at the rate of 3 to 6 lbs. of potatoes to 1 lb. of barley, 
it took only 340 to 381 lbs. of potatoes to replace 100 lbs. of grain. To 
replace 100 lbs. of barley 552 lbs. of raw potatoes were required. Gris- 
dale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 123 reports that raw potatoes 
alone will scarcely maintain life in pigs, but given in small quantities 
they help to keep them in health when other succulent feed is lacking. 
(374) Potatoes should be cooked for pigs, and fed with concentrates. 

1002. Artichokes. — French of the Oregon Station 124 placed pigs in a 
field of artichokes, estimated to yield 740 bu. per acre. As the pigs 
made little gain on the tubers alone, a small allowance of mixed wheat 
and oats was supplied in addition, about 310 lbs. of mixed grain being 
then required to produce 100 lbs. of gain. In this case the artichokes 
saved from 150 to 200 lbs. of grain for each 100 lbs. of gain made. 

U0 N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 199. 122 Breeder's Gaz., 63, 1912, p. 896. 

120 Wis. Rpt. 1890. 1; - Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 57. 

^Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1890. 124 0re. Bui. 54. 



620 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Sweitzer of the Missouri Station 125 rates artichokes equal to potatoes 
for pig feeding. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms 126 found 
artichokes economical and slightly more valuable than potatoes. Altho 
long grown in a small way and often extolled, no extended feeding trials 
have yet been made with artichokes, nor does their use by feeders seem 
to increase. (375) 

1003. Pumpkins; squashes. — Rommel, 127 summarizing the findings of 
3 stations, reports that 273 lbs. of grain, together with 376 lbs. of raw 
pumpkins, gave 100 lbs. of gain with fattening pigs. When cooked it 
required 1,150 lbs. of pumpkins and 222 of grain for 100 lbs. of gain. 
From these data we may conclude that cooking is of no advantage with 
this vegetable. As has been pointed out before (383), the seeds should 
not be removed before feeding pumpkins as they are rich in nutrients. 
Feeding an undue allowance of seeds would, however, tend to cause di- 
gestive disturbance, on account of their richness. 

Cottrell of the Colorado Station 128 states that some Colorado stock- 
men fatten hogs exclusively on raw squashes. They report favorable 
returns per acre, with meat of good flavor but having an undesirable 
yellow color. 

1004. Sweet potatoes. — Dodson of the Louisiana Station 129 recommends 
sweet potatoes as the best root crop for pigs for fall and early winter 
grazing on the cut-over pine lands of the South. Sweet potatoes planted 
in June and early July are ready for feeding by the middle of October. 
Since the tubers are low in protein, pigs grazing sweet potatoes should 
be given such nitrogenous feeds as soybeans or cowpeas. Dodson states 
that an acre of sweet potatoes should carry 8 to 10 year-old pigs for 
60 days, when they are given a limited concentrate allowance in addition. 
Duggar of the Alabama Station, 130 allowing pigs to harvest sweet po- 
tatoes at will, secured 100 lbs. of gain by feeding 313 lbs. of grain 
additional, thereby saving about 200 lbs. of grain for each 100 lbs. of 
increase while fattening. (376) 

1005. Peanuts. — For the season in the fall when they are available pea- 
nuts provide one of the best forage crops for pigs in the South. Their 
value is shown in a trial by Gray, Summers, and Shook at the Alabama 
Station, 131 in which 3 lots, each of six 60-lb. pigs, were fed for 96 days 
as shown in the table : 

Peanuts as a forage crop for pigs in the South 

Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain 
Average ration gain Concentrates Pasture 

Lbs. Lbs. Acres 

Lot I, Peanut pasture only 1 .00 ... .22 

Lot II, Corn, 1 .7 lbs. Peanut pasture 1 .25 134 .18 

Lot III, Corn, 1 .6 lbs. Tankage, .4 lb. Pasture . 1 .42 139 . 13 

The pigs on peanut pasture without other feed made fair gains but 

m Mo. Bui. 29. 12S Colo. Bui. 146. 130 Ala. Bui. 122. 

120 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. 120 La. Bui. 124. m Ala. Bui. 168. 

'- 7 U. S. Dept- Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 47. 



FEEDS FOR SWINE 621 

were not fat enough for market at the close of the trial, while Lots II 
and III were well finished. Compared with another lot fed corn and 
tankage in a dry lot, an acre of peanut pasture saved 2,390 lbs. of con- 
centrates. Lot I, grazing peanuts alone, made 454 lbs. of gain per acre 
of peanuts. Much higher returns than this are sometimes secured, a 
field at the Arkansas Station yielding at the rate of 1,252 lbs. of pork 
per acre. Since peanuts tend to make soft pork, pigs should be finished 
on such feeds as corn for at least 2 to 3 weeks after grazing peanuts. 
Peanuts can be grazed during only a relatively short season, for after 
a time the nuts will sprout or rot if left in the ground, especially in wet 
weather. (258, 362) 

1006. Chufas. — Like artichokes, the small tubers of the chufa remain 
in the ground uninjured all winter. Chufas grow best on light, sandy 
soils, producing 100 to 150 bushels per acre. Duggar of the Alabama 
Station 132 hurdled young pigs on a chufa field, giving them corn and 
cowpea meal additional. The average of 2 trials showed that, after due 
allowance was made for the grain fed, the chufas produced pork at the 
rate of 307 lbs., worth over $15 per acre. (377) 

1007. Cassava. — Conner of the Florida Station 133 found that pigs fed 
cassava alone or equal parts of cassava and sweet potatoes did not main- 
tain their weight. When fed with shorts cassava produced fair gains. 
Larger returns can generally be secured from other crops for pigs than 
from cassava. (378) 

1008. Silage. — May of the Kentucky Station 134 found that hogs re- 
ceiving shelled corn and corn-and-soybean silage made larger gains than 
those fed shelled corn alone, 100 lbs. of silage equaling 22 lbs. of corn 
in feeding value. The pigs first picked out the grain in the silage and 
then chewed the remainder, tho swallowing but little of it. At the 
Ottawa Experimental Farms 135 clover and alfalfa silage invariably 
proved useful, and corn silage was fairly well eaten. The addition of 
some dry meal to the silage caused it to be eaten quite readily. Clover, 
alfalfa, or other legume hay should generally prove more satisfactory 
than silage of any kind. Silage from the corn plant is both too woody 
and too low in digestible matter to serve with any satisfaction as a feed 
for swine that are being properly maintained. If shotes and breeding 
stock live on a limited allowance of rich concentrates alone, they will 
suffer for lack of proper bulk in the ration. For such pigs, silage, and 
even corn silage, will be helpful in distending the digestive tract. 

1009. The legume hays. — With the prices of feeding stuffs ruling high, 
the swine feeder must make the largest possible use of alfalfa, clover, 
vetch, cowpea, soybean, and other legume pasture in summer, and in win- 
ter feed freely of specially cured hay from the legumes in order to have 
healthy animals and to keep down the cost of production. The finer 
parts of clover and alfalfa hay, especially the first cutting of clover and 

132 Ala. Bui. 122. * 4 Ky. Bui. 101. 

183 Fla. Bui. 90. 1S5 Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. 



6 22 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the last cutting of alfalfa, are often as valuable for feeding pigs as is 
the same weight of expensive wheat middlings. The southern planter 
has a specially choice list of equally valuable legumes in the cowpea, soy- 
bean, velvet bean, peanut, etc. Legume hay may be fed to pigs from 
slatted racks or from boxes with openings low on the sides from which 
the animals can eat at will. The legume hays not only furnish pro- 
tein, so essential for building all the lean meat tissues and the organs of 
the body, but they also carry much calcium (lime), which is needed in 
bone building. They are therefore doubly useful in supplementing Indian 
corn and the other cereals, which are rather poor in both protein and 
calcium. 

1010. Alfalfa hay. — Leafy, bright alfalfa hay is the best of all legume 
hays for the pig. Not only is this hay useful for brood sows and stock 
pigs but it is a cheap and fairly efficient supplement to corn or the other 
cereals for fattening pigs. The value of alfalfa hay for fattening pigs 
is shown in the following table, which summarizes the results of 3 trials, 
averaging 103 days in length, by Snyder at the North Platte, Nebraska, 
Substation, 130 with pigs averaging 133 lbs. in weight : 

Alfalfa hay for fattening pigs 

Corn for Feed cost 
Daily 100 lbs. of 100 lbs. 

Feed given gain gain gain* 

Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 

Lot I, Corn alone 1 .27 506 4 .25 

Lot II, Corn and long alfalfa hay in rack 1 .50 436 3 .78 

Lot III, Corn 90, and chopped alfalfa hay 10 per ct. 1.46 433 3.87 

Lot IV, Corn 75, and chopped alfalfa hay 25 per ct. 1 . 12 431 4 .33 

Lot V, Com 75, and alfalfa meal 25 per ct 1.27 399 4.35 

*Corn at $0.47 per bushel; long alfalfa hay at $S, chopped alfalfa hay at $10, and alfalfa meal at $15 
per ton. 

In these trials the pigs in Lot I, fed ground corn alone, made better 
gains than is usual on this unbalanced ration, due to the fact that they 
had been well-grown on alfalfa pasture. The pigs in Lot II, supplied 
long alfalfa hay in racks in addition to corn, gained 0.23 lb. more per 
head daily than those in Lot I and made the largest and the cheapest 
gains of all lots. Chopping the hay by passing it thru a feed cutter 
or grinding it to a meal did not produce more rapid gains, but increased 
the cost. When the proportion of cut alfalfa hay or alfalfa meal was 
increased to 25 per ct. the gains were smaller and more expensive. In 
trials at the Kansas Station, 137 Kinzer and Wheeler likewise found that 
grinding alfalfa hay to meal did not result in larger gains by fattening 
pigs. 

While fattening cattle and sheep will consume enough alfalfa hay to 
make a fairly well balanced ration with corn, the fattening pig has not 
this capacity for roughage and hence will not consume enough hay to 
balance his ration sufficiently to produce maximum gains. This is shown 
in 4 trials by Waters, Kinzer, and colleagues at the Kansas Station 138 

^Nebr. Bui. 124. K7 Kan. Bui. 192. ,S8 Kan. Bui. 192. 



weight 


gain 


Concentrates 


Hay 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


154 


1.13 


587 


95 


153 


1.58 


477 





FEEDS FOR SWINE 623 

with a total of 192 pigs, in which one lot was fed corn with alfalfa hay 
in racks while another was fed corn and tankage. The results of the 
trials, which averaged 65 days, are summarized in the table : 

Alfalfa hay vs. tankage as supplements to com 

Initial Daily _ Feed for 10 ° lb f: e ain 
Average ration 

Lot I, Corn, 6 .5 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .2 lbs. 
Lot II, Corn, 6 . 6 lbs. Tankage, .9 lb 

Lot II, fed tankage and corn, made considerably larger gains than 
Lot I, fed alfalfa hay as the sole supplement to corn. With corn at 
$19, alfalfa hay at $8, and tankage at $41 to $45 per ton, in each trial 
the gains of Lot I were more expensive than where tankage was used 
as the supplement. 

AVhether to use alfalfa hay or purchased concentrates to balance the 
ration of the fattening pig will depend on the relative price of these 
feeds. With corn and barley at $20, tankage at $40, and alfalfa hay at 
$5 per ton, Morton of the Colorado Station 130 found alfalfa a much more 
economical supplement than tankage. In one trial by Snyder at the 
North Platte, Nebraska, Substation, 140 fattening pigs made cheaper gains 
and returned more profit on corn and alfalfa hay than on corn and 5 
per ct. of tankage, while in another trial the results were reversed. Sny- 
der points out that alfalfa hay is most efficient as a supplement in fine 
winter weather when the pigs have good appetites for the hay and corn. 
In unfavorable weather or when the pigs are out of condition the use of 
some nitrogenous concentrate, like tankage, linseed meal, or shorts, aids 
in stimulating the appetite and hence results in larger gains. (339, 1013) 

1011. Clover hay. — In 2 trials with 90-lb. pigs at the Montana Sta- 
tion 141 Linfield found that pigs fed 4.9 lbs. per head daily of a mixture 
of 2 parts ground barley and 1 part wheat bran gained 0.9 lb. per head 
daily, requiring 529 lbs. of concentrates for 100 lbs. of gain. Other lots 
fed the same concentrate allowance with 1 lb. of clover hay per head daily 
made an average daily gain of 1 lb. and required 487 lbs. of concen- 
trates and 101 lbs. of hay for 100 lbs. of gain. In these trials 100 lbs. 
of clover hay was equal to 42 lbs. of mixed barley and bran. (347) 

,30 Colo. Bui. 188. 140 Nebr. Bui. 147. ,41 Mont. Bui. 57. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 

Tho the synonym for filthiness, no other animal serving man will, if 
given a chance, so well keep its abode in order as the pig. He will in- 
dustriously gather dried grass, leaves, etc., and form them into a bed 
which he will not foul. The floor where his corn is thrown will remain 
clean if he has half a chance to show his manners. When he wallows in 
the mire or rubs on the oiler it is with a wisdom that knows whereof 
it acts. 

He is excelled only by the cow in economy of converting the gross 
products of the farm into edible products for man. Garbage, vegetable 
and other waste, green forage, and grain are all voraciously consumed 
and quickly and economically converted into meat. So swift is his 
career that he usually breaks into life with the spring flowers, plays the 
gormand in summer, and yields his unctuous body a sacrifice to men's 
necessities with the dropping of the leaves in fall. The pig is the poor 
man's reliance and the opulent farmer's gold mine. Of all domestic 
animals he is the most prolific, and his possibilities in multiplying are 
the delight of the city man in his ecstatic dreams of land owning and 
raising his meager investment in a single mother pig to the nth. power 
thru her precocious progeny. 

1012. Summer care of swine. — During summer all swine, including 
brood sows and boars, should live in the open air on fresh, uncontam- 
inated soil in order to escape intestinal parasites and other ailments. 
Grazing on succulent pastures with a reasonable allowance of concen- 
trates additional, they will develop bone, muscle and constitution along 
with a vigorous, roomy, digestive tract. Shade and running water, 
preferably supplied from a well, or, if from a spring or brook, safeguarded 
from contamination, are essential in pastures. Artificial wallows, made 
of cement, that hold a few inches of water, will not spread disease, afford 
much comfort, and are a paying proposition when many pigs are kept. 

Tho even mature pigs can barely subsist on grass pasture, good pas- 
ture, such as alfalfa, clover, or rape, somewhat more than sustains life 
and so leaves for producing increase all the extra feed which may be 
supplied. In addition to pasture, sufficient concentrates should be fed to 
keep the pigs thrifty and gaining, but in no case so abundantly as to 
make them lazy and shiftless, for pigs, if heavily fed, forage little, but 
lie idly in the shade. Observation will soon determine the quantity of 
feed which will keep pigs gaining normally while actively foraging to 

624 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 625 

appease their hunger. With animals on such protein-rich pasture as 
that furnished by the legumes and rape, the concentrates may be mostly 
carbonaceous in character, such as corn, wheat, barley, kafir, and milo, 
with enough skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, or other 
protein-rich concentrates to balance the ration. (918, 964) 

Boars and brood sows of the larger breeds should reach a weight of 
about 250 lbs. at one year of age if rightly fed and managed. The feed 
and care of the boar does not differ from that of the sow. Too often 
both are closely confined in filthy quarters, away from the wholesome 
earth, without opportunity for exercise or foraging. 

1013. Winter feed and care. — Breeding stock and shotes should not be 
heavily fed during winter lest they grow too fat. If rich concentrates 
only are given and the animals not overfed, the feed allowance will not 
have enough volume or bulk to distend the stomach and intestines prop- 
erly, and this leaves the animals unsatisfied, restless, and quarrelsome. 
To correct this trouble and because such feed is both cheap and whole- 
some, all such hogs should be daily fed some fine, well-cured legume hay 
or some roots, or better, both hay and roots. If, unfortunately, neither is 
available, then bran and oats, tho more costly, will be helpful in giving 
bulk to the ration. The concentrates fed to stock hogs should always be 
given as a thin, watery slop with the chill taken off, to help distend the 
digestive tract at meal time. 

Pigs that do not otherwise get exercise in winter should be provided 
with a feeding floor, covered, if possible, and kept clean, on which shelled 
corn and whole oats are scattered thinly so as to force them to pick up 
a grain at a time. Here too can be placed racks holding legume hay. 
In this. way pigs may be kept out of their beds and on their feet for 
hours at a time getting air and exercise. Young breeding stock and 
shotes should gain from half to three-fourths of a pound daily in winter, 
the supply of feed being regulated to that end. 

It is highly important that the ration of the brood sow furnish ample 
protein and mineral matter for the proper nourishment of her body and 
the development of the unborn young. Trials by Eward of the Iowa 
Station, 1 which are summarized in the following table, show the folly of 
feeding brood sows corn alone. In one trial a lot of 5 gilts was fed 3.6 
lbs. of ear corn alone per head daily, while other lots were fed ear corn and 
meat meal ; ear corn and a mixture of oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, 
and linseed meal ; shelled corn with cut clover hay and molasses ; ear corn 
and clover hay ; and ear corn and alfalfa hay. In a similar trial with 4 
lots, each of 10 yearling sows, one lot was fed ear corn alone, and the 
other lots ear corn supplemented by meat meal, linseed meal, or alfalfa 
hay. In the table all weights of ear corn are reduced to a shelled corn 
basis. 

l Proc. Am. Sop. Anim. Prod., 1913. 



tf26 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Com requires supplement for orood sows 

Average Proportion 

Daily weight of strong 

Average ration gain of piga pigs 

Lbs. Lbs. Per ct. 

Gilts, 5 in each lot 

I, Ear corn, 3.6 lbs 0.35 1.74 68 

II, Ear corn, 3.2 lbs. Meat meal, 0.13 lb 0.58 2.01 93 

III, Ear corn, 2 .8 lbs. Meat meal, .43 lb .62 2 .23 93 

IV, Ear corn, 2 .7 lbs. Mixture (oats 3, bran 3, mid- 
dlings 3, linseed meal 2 parts), 1 .1 lbs 0.35 1.84 83 

V, Shelled corn, 3.8 lbs. Cut clover and molasses, 

1.6 lbs 0.58 2.19 86 

VI, Ear com, 3.7 lbs. Clover hay in rack, 0.30 lb. . 0.53 2.21 94 

VII, Ear corn, 3 . 7 lbs. Alfalfa hay in rack 1 . 1 lbs. ... . 63 2 . 29 89 
Yearling soivs, 10 in each lot 

I, Ear corn, 5.0 lbs 0.59 1.85 41 

II, Ear corn, 4 . 1 lbs. Meat meal, .50 lb .78 2 .42 85 

III, Ear corn, 4 . 1 lbs. Linsesd meal, 1 . 1 lbs .67 2 .22 76 

/ V, Ear corn, 5 . lbs. Alfalfa hay in rack, . 27 lb . . . 64 1.77 37 

Both the gilts and the yearling 1 sows fed corn alone farrowed pigs 
lighter in weight and less vigorous than when the ration was properly 
balanced. Lot IV of the yearling sows ate so little alfalfa hay that it 
was insufficient to balance the corn allowance, as is shown by the weight 
of the pigs farrowed and the low percentage of strong pigs. The gilts 
fed clover or alfalfa hay made good gains and farrowed large, strong 
pigs. 

In 4 trials at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation 2 Snyder found 
that 340-lb. brood sows could be carried thru the winter satisfactorily 
on 1.1 lbs. of shelled corn daily per 100 lbs. live weight with alfalfa hay 
supplied in racks, the sows eating 0.70 lb. per head daily. The cost of 
wintering for these sows was less than when a mixture of half ground 
corn and half chopped alfalfa was fed. 

1014. The brood sow. — The age at which to breed young sows will 
naturally depend somewhat on the growth they have made. Seldom is 
it advisable to breed them until they are 8 months old, and many breeders 
prefer to wait until they are 10 to 12 months old. Whether to raise 1 
or 2 litters a year should be determined from local conditions, consider- 
ing the winter climate and the feeds available. "Where winters are long 
and severe and the sows and pigs can not be given the best of feed and 
care, it is best not to attempt to raise 2 litters a year. Under the proper 
conditions, especially where dairy by-products are available, 2 litters a 
year can be raised successfully even in the northern portion of the coun- 
try, the spring pigs coming in March or April and the fall pigs in Sep- 
tember or early October. 

According to Coburn, 3 young sows carry their pigs from 100 to 108 
days and old ones from 112 to 115, the average for all being 112 days. 

Likely sows that are kindly mothers should be retained for breeders 
as long as 5 or 6 years if possible. Iddings of the Idaho Station 4 found 

*Nebr. Bui. 147. 8 Swine in America. breeder's Gaz., 64, 1913, p. 241. 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 627 

that gilts bred at 8 mouths averaged 7.7 pigs per litter ; sows 24 months 
old averaged 9.6 pigs; and aged sows 10.6 pigs per litter. Carlyle 5 
found that 4- and 5-yr.-old sows bore 9 pigs to the litter on the average, 
the litter weighing 26 lbs., while l-yr.-old sows averaged less than 8 pigs, 
weighing but 15 lbs. From the records of 1,477 pure-bred sows of 8 
breeds Rommel found that on an average there were 9 pigs to the litter, 
50.1 per ct. males and 49.9 per ct. females. 

Tho young sows have smaller litters than mature sows, they usually 
raise a larger percentage of their pigs, for they are less clumsy. In trials 
covering 4 years at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation, 7 Snyder 
found that sows with their first litters farrowed 8.2 pigs on the average 
and raised 6.2 pigs. Old sows farrowed 11.1 pigs on the average, but 
raised only 6.5. 

A sow producing litters of less than 5 should be discarded, while one 
that can save and raise 8 pigs is a good producer. The pigs in a litter 
of 8 usually will make larger, more uniform pigs, and in most cases 
are more profitable to the farmer than abnormally large litters, small 
in average size and low in vitality. 

1015. At farrowing time. — Sows thin in flesh should have their feed 
gradually increased so as to be in good condition before farrowing. As 
this period approaches let the feed be both sloppy and limited in amount. 
Costiveness, common at this time, should be forestalled by feeding wheat 
bran, linseed oil meal, roots, or the finer parts of some legume hay, and 
by keeping the animals out of doors and forcing them to exercise. Ken- 
nedy 8 reports that in England sows are commonly given from 4 to 5 
oz. of epsom salts 2 days before farrowing. Nothing but lukewarm 
water should be given the sow during the 24 hours previous to farrow- 
ing unless she shows signs of hunger, in which case a thin, warm slop 
containing a little ground oats, wheat middlings, or linseed meal may be 
supplied. The desire of the sow to eat her young shows abnormal feed 
or care, or both, for such mothers are usually costive and feverish. "When 
trouble is apprehended Bell 9 recommends feeding about 3 lbs. of salt 
pork, cut in strips. Harbert would apply mucilage containing equal 
parts of a tincture of aloes and asafetida to the pigs with a sponge as 
soon as they are dry. Sows do not like this and let pigs so treated 
alone. It is far more rational to forestall such possible trouble by en- 
forcing exercise, giving coarse, bulky feeds, and especially in seeing that 
the bowels move freely so that the sows are not feverish at farrowing time. 
For 3 or 4 days after farrowing feed lightly with skim milk and oat or 
barley meal, linseed meal, wheat middlings, or bran in the form of a thin 
slop, warmed if the weather is cold. A week before farrowing, the sow 

8 Wis. Bui. 104. 

8 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Cir. 112. 

T Nebr. Bui. 147. 

S U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 77. 

'Breeder's Gaz., 51. 1907, p. 535. 



628 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

should be placed in the farrowing pen so that she will become accustomed 
to her surroundings before that event. 

The farrowing place should be comfortable, dry, well- ventilated, and so 
sheltered that a deep nest is not necessary to prevent the new-born pigs 
being chilled, for they may be crushed in a deep, bird-like nest. Long 
hay or straw is not suitable for bedding, for it may entangle the pigs. 
Cut straw or hay, chaff, and leaves are satisfactory, provided they are 
reasonably free from dust. A plank fastened with the edge against the 
Avail, placed about 8 inches from the floor and standing out 8 inches from 
the sides of the farrowing pen lessens the danger of the mother crush- 
ing her young. In the case of heavy, clumsy sows, separate the pigs 
from the dam by placing them in a chaff-lined box or barrel for a couple 
of days. Sows properly handled before farrowing will not usually resent 
such separation. The pigs will then be safe, and the attendant can pass 
them to the dam for nourishment at short intervals. A chilled pig may 
be revived by immersion in water as warm as the hand will bear. 

1016. Birth weight of pigs. — In a study by the senior author 10 at the 
Wisconsin Station each pig in 3 litters as soon as farrowed was tagged 
and weighed. The new-born pigs weighed from 1.3 to 3.1 lbs. each, the 
litters aggregating 18.7, 19.2 and 22.5 lbs. each. The first-farrowed pig 
was neither heavier nor stronger, and the last was neither lighter nor 
weaker than the others. The so-called "titman," or weakling, found 
in many litters, is probably such thru lack of food or other extraneous 
cause, for if given good food and care it not infrequently outgrows its 
mates. 

1017. Care of sow and litter. — Farrowing time over, the ration for 
the sow should be meager for a day or two, but as the milk flow becomes 
heavier, should gradually be increased. The coarse feeds, so useful at 
other times, must now largely give way to rich concentrates, such as skim 
milk, tankage, heavy flour middlings, ground oats, soybeans, cowpeas, 
and linseed meal, to furnish nitrogenous matter, and corn, barley, kafir, 
or milo meal in large proportion to furnish the carbohydrates. Water 
should be liberally added to form a thin slop. Sows with litters should 
be liberally fed, for at no other time will feed go so far or give such 
large returns. (914) Good mothers with large litters will usually lose 
flesh despite the most liberal feeding. 

1018. The sow as a milk producer. — Woll 11 found that a sow weigh- 
ing 438 lbs. gave 7.7 lbs. of milk in 1 day, consuming in that time 4 lbs. 
of corn meal, 4 lbs. of wheat middlings, and 8 lbs. of skim milk. Such 
findings show that sows good for breeding purposes rank with good dairy 
cows in their ability to convert feed into milk. (543-5) 

At the Wisconsin Station 12 Carlyle studied the milk of 12 sows of 3 
breeds. The pigs were kept from the dam except for short periods at 
2-hour intervals by da}' and 4 by night, when they were put with her 
to suckle. They were weighed collectively before and after that oper- 

"Wis. Rpt. 1897. "Wis. Rpt. 1897. "Wis. Bui. 104. 



PEED AND CARE OF SWINE G29 

ation, and the increase credited as milk drawn from the dam. With ex- 
t nine difficulty samples of milk were obtained for analysis. The average 
yield of milk of 4 sows of each breed during 84 days between farrowing 
and weaning, determined in the above manner, is given below: 

Yield of milk by sows between farrowing and. weaning 

Av. daily Av. total 

Wt. of Pigs in milk milk 

Breed sow littor yield yield 

Lbs. No. Lbs. Lbs. 

Berkshire 390 7 .7 6 .3 532 

Poland-/ Jhina 393 7.5 4.9 429 

Texas "Razorback" 247 6.3 5.2 434 

We learn that these sows gave from 4.9 to 6.3 lbs. of milk daily, the 
total for 84 days, by which time they went dry, ranging from 429 to 
532 lbs. A 4-yr.-old, 532-lb. sow with 10 pigs gave 669 lbs. of milk, 
while a 5-yr.-old, 490-lb. sow with 8 pigs gave only 337 lbs. Carlyle 
slates that some sows yield almost twice as much milk as others. 

1019. Composition of sow's milk. — On analysis the milk of the sows 
reported in the preceding article showed the composition recorded in 
the following table : 

Average composition of sow's mill: 

Casein and Milk Total Specific 

Breed Fat albumin Sugar Ash solids gravity 

Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Perct. 

Berkshire 7 .25 5 .74 5 .63 .97 19 .59 1 .040 

Poland-China 6 .79 5 .94 5 .74 .98 19 . 19 1 .041 

Texas ' ' Razorback ". . 6 . 64 6 . 50 5 . 56 1.01 19 . 70 1 . 043 

It is shown that in all constituents sow's milk is richer than that of 
the cow. (548) Woll 13 found the fat globules of sow's milk only one- 
fourth as large as those of cow's milk, but 8 times as numerous. (550) 

1020. Feeding the litters. — When 2 or 3 weeks old the unweaned pigs 
should be encouraged to eat with the mother by providing thin, sloppy 
food in a shallow, low-set trough. Because the sucklings cannot fully 
satisfy their hunger by such provision, there should be further provided 
a separate, low trough which cannot be reached by the dam. For young 
pigs dairy by-products, in combination with various ground grains and 
milling by-products, are easily the best of all feeds. For very young 
pigs there is nothing better among the grains than ground oats, with 
the hulls sieved or floated out, and red dog flour. Corn, barley, kafir, 
and milo meal, dark feeding flour, flour wheat middlings, and ground 
e i inner with the chaff removed, etc., may all be freely used for sows and 
pigs as the young things come on. Soaked whole corn thinly scattered 
over a feeding floor gives feed and enforces exercise. Pigs well fed 
before weaning grow faster and draw less on the sow — a matter of im- 
portance where the litters are large. 

Where 1 litter of pigs is raised a year, the pigs may run with their 

1 Wis. Rpt. 1897. 



630 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

dams 10 or 12 weeks, or the sow may be allowed to wean her pigs herself. 
However, when 2 litters are to be raised, the pigs must be weaned at 
the age of about 8 weeks. The sow should be separated from the pigs, 
and only returned 2 or 3 times long enough for them to empty the udders. 

1021. Exercise for young pigs. — Well-nurtured pigs, which often be- 
come excessively fat thru liberal feeding and lack of exercise in winter, 
may die unless forced to take abundant exercise. If sufficient exercise 
cannot be given, the danger may be averted by reducing the feed supply, 
but this checks growth. In the absence of more natural exercise the 
herdsman should turn the pigs out of doors 2 or 3 times a day and drive 
them about the yard. Selle 14 describes a means for exercising winter 
pigs as follows : Wagon loads of sods are placed in the cellar in the fall, 
and in winter these, along with bits of meat scrap or cracklings, are 
thrown into the pens. In searching for the cracklings the pigs get ex- 
ercise as well as some feed. 

On weaning, pigs of the same size should be placed in groups of not 
over 20 in order that each and all may receive the care and attention 
needed. Where large numbers of pigs of varying sizes range together, 
the weaker ones are at a disadvantage at the feed trough and are liable 
to permanent injury from lack of feed and rough treatment. 

1022. Shotes. — In summer shotes should range the pastures, getting 
part of their nourishment from succulent alfalfa, clover, vetch, or rape, 
or, if nothing better is at hand, from the grasses. Green herbage of 
the proper kind will a little more than maintain the animal, leaving 
available for growth all the feed supplied. To supplement the pasture 
2 lbs. or more of concentrates daily per 100 lbs. live weight should be 
fed, except where pasture is unusually cheap compared with grain, when 
no more than 1 lb. per 100 lbs. live weight may be the most economical. 
(984) To force shotes to forage the fields for their entire feed is unwise 
and expensive. They should gain at least half to three-quarters of a 
pound per day, and sufficient concentrates to produce this gain should 
be fed. In winter shotes should be liberally fed the finer parts of some 
legume hay, such as alfalfa or clover, and roots. These are not only 
the cheapest of feeds so far as they can be used, but they are helpful 
in developing a roomy digestive tract capable of utilizing a large amount 
of feed when the fattening period arrives. Legume hay also furnishes 
nitrogenous matter and lime, both essentials with these animals. But 
roughage alone is not sufficient for the growing pig, and therefore such 
coarse feed should be supplemented with a reasonable supply of rich 
concentrates containing but little woody fiber. Corn, barley, kafir, milo, 
and the other cereal grains should be given to furnish heat and lay on 
fat, while a supply of skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, soybeans, 
and other nitrogenous feeds will furnish the protein for muscle building. 

1023. The fattening period. — Having developed a strong framework 
of bone, ample lean-meat tissues, and a roomy, vigorous digestive tract, 
there now remains the final operation of laying on fat. If the pigs have 

"Wis. Farmers' Inst., Bui. 1894. 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 631 

been properly cared for up to this point this is the simplest and easiest 
part of the whole process. Fattening is best accomplished by restricting 
the amount of exercise, reducing the allowance of coarse feed, and giving 
all the palatable carbohydrate-rich concentrates, such as corn, barley, 
kafir, milo, emmer, etc., the pigs will consume, with sufficient protein- 
rich feeds to balance the ration. The feeder will gain much help from 
studying the results secured with the many successful rations fed in 
trials reviewed in the preceding chapter. Especially during the first 
part of the fattening period, considerable use can be made of legume 
hay or forage crops. If the most rapid fattening and the highest finish 
are desired, as fattening progresses the roughage should be almost en- 
tirely eliminated. Even with well-grown shotes, it is important that 
enough protein-rich feeds be supplied to balance the ration and stim- 
ulate the lagging appetite. (918) If the fattening period is short, only 
the small grains need be ground, but if the animals are to be carried 
to a heavy weight and be highly finished, it may be advisable to grind 
all grains in order that the consumption of feed may be as large as pos- 
sible without cloying the appetite. (920-1) 

If the shotes have been properly brought forward the fattening period 
should not exceed 8 weeks, unless the animals are to be made un- 
usually fat or there is a rising market which warrants continued feeding. 
After the first few weeks of heavy feeding more and more feed is required 
to produce a given gain, and this fact should always be remembered by 
the feeder. (913) All fattening animals should drink water freely, being 
forced to do so, if necessary, by placing it in their feed. (926) At all 
times coal ashes, wood ashes, lime, etc., should be accessible, as elsewhere 
recommended. (927) Fattening pigs should be fed twice daily, and pos- 
sibly 3 times toward the close of the period when on ground feed and 
getting little or no roughage. 

Since pigs infested with worms or lice do not make economical gains, 
the Avise feeder will keep his animals free from these pests. "When pigs 
are fed and housed in clean quarters, there should be but little trouble 
from these sources. Lice may be eradicated by using a dip of crude pe- 
troleum or one of the standard stock dips. For intestinal worms var- 
ious treatments are advised, including turpentine; charcoal and salt; 
charcoal, wood ashes, and salt; copperas; and lye. From trials at the 
Iowa Station, Evvard 15 recommends for a 50-lb. pig a dose of 2.5 grains 
santonin, 1 dram areea nut, 0.5 grain calomel, and 0.5 dram sodium 
bicarbonate. The amount should be doubled for a 100-lb. pig, increased 
3.5 times for a 200-lb. pig, and 5 times as much should be given to one 
weighing 300 lbs. Feed should be withheld at least 24 hours before 
giving the remedy, and the dose should be repeated in 8 or 10 days, to 
be sure that the worms are expelled. 

1024. Home markets. — With pork consumption increasing more rapidly 
than production, there have sprung up over our land good local markets 
for all manner of pork products, from the dressed carcass to sausages, 

"Information to the authors. 



632 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

hams, bacon, etc. Consumers are calling for leaner pork, and many 
farmers who are feeding pigs will find it to their advantage to supply the 
home demand for high-grade pork products. Knowledge of how to grow 
the pig economically on such roughages as the legume hays, roots, and 
rape is of great value in producing a high-grade product, especially 
with eastern farmers, who are unable to produce corn as cheaply as it 
is grown in the corn belt where the lard hog is still the favorite. In 
finishing pigs for local markets the farmer should study the demand and 
fatten his animals accordingly, bearing in mind that when the market 
does not give a premium for the thoroly fat pig it will pay him to save 
the expensive gains of the last part of the fattening period, which are 
needed to put on a high finish. (199, 913) 

American farmers should gain much help from studying the methods 
of the Danes, who grow no corn, yet lead the world in bacon production. 
This surprising fact is due to their wise use of dairy by-products, to 
their spirit of co-operation, and to the high degree of intelligence and 
skill they show in feeding and caring for their pigs. This knowledge 
is acquired thru their agricultural colleges and other educational insti- 
tutions, which are supported and directed by a wise and sympathetic 
government. The total area of Denmark is but little over one-fourth 
that of Iowa, yet measured in money this little country exports about 
one-sixth as much pork products, mostly bacon, as the entire United 
States. 

Most helpfully, local establishments are springing up in this country 
where pork products of the highest quality are being manufactured, 
and the success attained by some of these shows that expansion in this 
direction is possible, as it is also desirable. Since the pig, next to the 
cow, is the most economical four-footed farm animal for the production 
of human food, there is every reason to anticipate greatly increased inter- 
est in pork production in all the agricultural districts of our country. 



APPENDIX 



Table I. Average Percentage Composition of American Feeding 

Stuffs 

This table is an exhaustive compilation, made by the authors, of the 
analyses of feeding stuffs reported by the State Experiment Stations and 
the United States Department of Agriculture. The preparation of this 
table and Appendix Tables II and III has required the time of trained 
assistants equivalent to one person working steadily for three years, in 
addition to the supervision of the authors. The completeness of the 
data is evident from the fact that over 53,000 analyses have been gathered 
into this table. The value of the averages here given is shown by the 
large number of complete analyses combined for the leading feeding 
stuffs. For example, 5,335 complete analyses enter into the average for 
corn meal, 4,641 for standard wheat middlings, 7,742 for wheat bran, 
etc. Compared with former editions of this book, 270 more averages for 
different feeds are given, an increase of 80 per ct. "When possible sep- 
arate averages are given for high- and low-grade feeds of the same name, 
for forage crops at different stages of maturity and with different contents 
of water, etc. For reasons given in the text, averages for the various 
proprietary mixed feeds are not here given. (285) The figures for a 
few feeds, for which American analyses are not available, have been 
taken from Zusammensetzung der Futtcrmittel, by Dietrich and Konig. 
Where the scientific names of plants are given in the text, they are not 
repeated in this table, for they may be readily found by referring to 
the index. In other instances the scientific names of the plants are here 
given. 

This and the following tables are fully protected by copyright. 





Water 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


No. of 


Feeding stuff 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


anal- 
yses 


Concentrates and their By-fkoducts 

Corn and its products 

Dent com 

Flint corn 

Soft corn 


Per ct. 

10.5 

12.2 

30.6 

9.3 

9.4 

11.3 
10.0 
10.4 
10.1 
9.1 
10.6 


Per ct. 

1.5 
1.5 
1.0 
1.8 
1.6 

1.3 
1.5 

1.5 

2.6 
2.7 
1.2 


Per ct. 

10.1 
10.4 
7.4 
11.5 
12.1 

9.3 
2.0 

8.5 

10.6 

9.5 

7.8 


Per ct. 
2.0 

1.5 

1.2 
2.3 
2.0 

2.3 
31.8 
7.9 
4.4 
8.5 
1.0 


Per ct. 

70.9 
69.4 
56.0 
67.2 
69.7 

72.0 
54.3 
67.6 
64.3 
64.0 
76.1 


Per ct. 

5.0 
5.0 
3.8 
7.9 
5.2 

3.8 
0.4 
4.1 
8.0 
6.2 
3.3 


440 

52 

154 


Sweet corn, mature 


67 


Pop com 

Com meal or chop . . 


7 
5,335 


Com cob 


46 


Com-and-cob meal .... 




Hominv feed, high grade 

Hominy feed, low grade 

Hominv. pearled 


778 

6S 
5 



633 



634 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — con . 
Corn and its products — con. 

Gluten feed, high grade 

Gluten feed, low grade 

Gluten meal, high grade 

Gluten meal, low grade 

Germ oil meal, high grade 

Germ oil meal, low grade 

Corn bran 



Wheat and its products 

Wheat, all analyses 

Wheat, Atlantic states 

Wheat, Minn., N. D., S. D., Nebr., Kan. 
Wheat, Miss. Valley, except above states 

Wheat, Rocky Mountain states 

Wheat, Pacific states 

Winter wheat 

Spring wheat 

Durum wheat. 

Polish wheat 

Wheat flour, patent 

Wheat flour, graham 

Red dog flour 



Water 



Flour wheat middlings 

Standard wheat middlings (shorts) . 

Wheat bran, all analyses 

Wheat bran, winter 

Wheat bran, spring 

Wheat bran, low grade 

Wheat feed (shorts and bran) 

Wheat screenings 



Rye and its products 

Rye 

Rye meal or chop 

Rye flour 

Rye middlings 

Rye bran 

Rye feed (shorts and bran) . . . 

Oats and oat products 

Oats 

Oats, light weight 

Oat kernel, without hull 

Oat meal 

Ground oats, high grade 

Oat feed, low grade 



Oat middlings 

Oat bran 

Oat dust 

Oat hulls 

Com and oat feed 

Corn and oat feed, low grade 

Barley, its products, and emmer 

Barley 

Barley, bald 

Barley feed 



Per ct. 

8.7 
8.8 
9.1 
8.2 
8.9 
7.8 
10.0 



Ash 



Per ct. 

2.1 
1.1 
1.1 

1.5 

2.7 
3.3 
2.4 



10.2 
11.2 
10.4 
10.5 
8.5 
10.9 

10.9 
10.1 
10.4 
9.5 
12.3 
12.0 
11.1 

10.7 
10.5 
10.1 
10.6 
10.4 
10.0 
10.1 
10.2 



9.4 
11.0 
11.8 
11.4 
11.4 
11.5 

9.2 
8.7 
6.9 
7.9 
10.8 
10.2 

7.3 
6.4 
6.6 
6.8 
11.4 
9.5 

9.3 

9.3 

.10.2 



Crude 
protein Fiber 



Carbohydrates 



1.9 
1.8 

1.8 
1.8 
2.0 
1.9 

1.8 
2.0 
1.8 
2.3 
0.5 
1.5 
2.5 

3.7 
4.4 
6.3 
6.3 
6.3 
6.2 
5.2 
3.9 

2.0 
1.8 
0.8 
3.7 
3.5 
3.8 

3.5 
4.5 
2.2 
2.0 
3.3 
4.0 

3.2 
6.1 
7.0 
6.0 

2.8 
4.6 

2.7 
2.8 
4.2 



Per ct. 

25.4 

17.8 
35.5 
27.3 
22.6 
13.7 
9.7 

12.4 
11.7 
13.5 
12.3 
13.3 
9.9 

11.7 
12.5 
14.1 
20.3 
10.9 
13.7 
16.8 

17.8 
17.4 
16.0 
15.7 
15.7 
11.9 
16.8 
13.3 

11.8 
10.9 
7.9 
15.7 
15.3 
15.3 

12.4 
12.3 
14.3 
16.0 
12.1 
9.6 

16.3 

12.2 

12.6 

4.0 

9.6 

8.9 

11.5 
10.8 
12.7 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

7.1 
6.9 

2.1 
9.2 
9.0 

8.7 
9.8 

2.2 
2.0 
2.4 
2.2 
2.1 
2.7 

2.0 
2.7 
2.6 
2.0 
0.4 
1.9 
2.2 

4.7 
6.0 
9.5 
8.8 
10.2 
16.6 
7.6 
7.4 

1.8 
2.4 
0.4 
4.6 
4.0 
4.7 

10.9 

15.4 

1.4 

1.5 

9.9 

18.5 

4.6 
18.3 
18.7 
29.2 

7.4 
13:7 

4.6 
2.9 

7.8 



Per ct. 

52.9 

59.7 
47.5 
43.4 
46.0 
56.1 
62.4 

71.2 
71.3 
69.8 
71.2 
71.9 
72.6 

71.6 
70.5 
68.6 
64.2 
74.6 
68.8 
63.3 

58.1 

56.8 
53.7 
54.2 
52.6 
51.7 
55.7 
61.1 

73.2 
71.9 
78.0 
61.2 
62.7 
61.5 

59.6 

54.4 
67.1 
66.1 
59.2 
53.8 

61.8 
52.3 
49.9 
52.3 
65.0 
59.7 

69.8 
71.6 
61.7 



Fat 



Per ct. 

3.8 
5.7 

4.7 
10.4 
10.8 
10.4 

5.7 

2.1 

2.0 
2.1 
2.0 
2.2 
2.0 

2.0 
2.2 
2.5 
1.7 
1.3 
2.1 
4.1 

5.0 
4.9 
4.4 
4.4 
4.8 
3.6 
4.6 
4.1 

1.8 
2.0 
1.1 
3.4 
3.1 
3.2 

4.4 
4.7 
8.1 
6.5 

4.7 
3.9 

6.8 
4.7 
5.2 
1.7 
3.8 
3.6 

2.1 
2.6 
3.4 



298 

2 

13 



APPENDIX 



635 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — con. 
Barley, its products, and emmer — con. 

Barley shorts 

Barley bran 

Barley screenings 

Malt. 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Brewers' grains, dried (below 25% pro 

tein) 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Emmer (spelt) 

Emmer, without hulls 

Rice and its products 

Rough rice 

Polished rice 

Rice polish 

Rice bran, high grade 

Rice bran, low grade 

Rice meal 

Rice hulls 

Buckwheat ami its product* 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat flour 

Buckwheat middlings 

Buckwheat bran, high grade 

Buckwheat bran, low grade 

Buckwheat feed, good grade 

Buckwheat feed, low grade 

Buckwheat hulls 

The sorghum* 

Kafir grain 

Kafir-head chops 

Milo grain 

Milo-head chops 

Feterita grain 

Durra grain 

Shallu grain 

Kaoliang grain 

Sorghmn gram 

Broom-com seed 

Hog, or broom-corn, millet seed 

Foxtail millet seed 

Barnyard millet seed 

Pearl millet seed 

Cotton seed and its products 

Cotton seed 

Cottonseed kernel, (without hull) 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Cottonseed meal, prime 

Cottonseed meal, good 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed-hull bran 



Water 



Per ct. 

10.2 
6.6 

11.4 
5.8 
7.6 

7.5 

8.2 
75.9 

8.7 
10.5 

9.6 

12.3 

10.0 

10.1 

9.5 

9.5 

9.3 

12.1 
12.8 
12.0 
11.2 
10.1 
11.8 
11.9 
10.3 

11.8 
12.5 
10.7 
10.3 
10.8 
9.9 
9.7 

9.9 
12.7 
11.8 

9.1 
10.8 
10.2 

8.0 

9.4 
6.7 
7.5 
7.8 
7.9 



Ash 



Per ct. 

4.2 
5.7 
4.2 
2.9 
6.1 

3.5 

3.8 
1.0 
3.7 
1.5 

4.9 
0.5 
4.8 
9.7 

11.3 
9.1 

16.9 

2.1 
1.1 
4.8 
4.2 
3.1 
4.4 
3.2 
2.1 

1.7 
2.8 
2.8 
3.1 
1.5 
2.0 
1.6 

1.9 
1.9 

2.9 
3.3 
3.6 
5.6 
2.3 

4.6 
5.3 
6.2 
6.6 
6.4 
4.2 
4.9 
2.7 
2.5 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

12.9 
9.1 
11.5 
18.0 
26.4 

26.5 

23.1 

5.7 

11.9 

14.9 



7.6 
7.4 
11.9 
12.1 
10.9 
11.8 
3.3 

10.8 

7.9 
28.3 
22.3 
10.7 
19.3 
13.3 

4.4 

11.1 
9.7 
10.7 
10.0 
11.5 
10.1 
12.5 

10.5 
9.2 
10.2 
11.8 
12.1 
10.7 
11.7 

19.5 
32.8 
44.1 
39.8 
37.6 
26.1 
24.5 
4.6 
3.4 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 

10.1 

19.3 

9.5 

9.0 
12.6 

14.6 

15.0 
3.6 

10.1 
2.1 



9.3 

0.4 

1.9 

12.4 

15.8 

9.3 

35.4 

10.3 

0.6 

4.8 

7.1 

33.5 

17.9 

28.5 

43.7 



1.7 

1.5 
2.0 
8.2 
7.8 
8.4 
16.0 
2.3 

22.6 
3.1 
8.1 
10.1 
11.5 
24.0 
21.4 
43.8 
34.8 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

58.7 
56.5 
60.6 
60.6 
45.6 

41.0 

43.5 
12.1 

63.7 
68.5 



66.7 
79.0 
62.3 
44.3 
42.7 
48.7 
34.0 

62.2 
76.1 
42.7 
49.4 
39.9 
41.4 
39.7 
38.5 

70.1 
65.9 
70.5 
68.1 
71.7 
72.8 
71.1 

71.9 
70.8 
63.5 
64.7 
61.0 
52.8 
69.0 

24.9 
17.5 
25.0 
27.4 
28.4 
30.1 
34.6 
37.3 
49.7 



Fat 



Per ct. 



6.9 

6.4 
1.7 
1.9 
2.5 



1.9 
0.4 
9.1 

11.4 
9.8 

11.6 
1.1 



2.5 
1.5 

7.4 
5.8 
2.7 
5.2 
3.4 
1.0 

3.0 
2.7 
2.9 
2.6 
3.3 
3.5 
3.4 

4.3 
3.4 
3.4 
3.3 
4.1 
4.7 
6.7 

19.0 
34.6 
9.1 
8.3 
8'.2 
7.7 
6.3 
1.9 
1.2 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



7 
4 
4 
2 
253 

431 

139 

47 

37 

4 



10 

37 

1,013 

831 

475 

42 

15 

18 
11 
54 
12 
16 
18 
29 
15 

135 

21 

125 

40 

1 

5 

3 

12 

13 

4 

52 

28 

3 

1 

38 

8 

2,556 

1.322 

482 

64 

406 

66 

9 



636 



FEEDS AND FEED IXC 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Water 



Ash 



protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber N " free 
extract 



Fat 



Concentrates — con. 
Flax seed and its products 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Flax feed 

Flax screenings 

Leguminous seeds and their products 
Adzukibean, Phaseolus angularis. . . . 

Bean, navy 

Bean, navy, cull 

Cowpea 

Frijole, Phaseolus vulgaris 

Horse bean 



Per ct, 

9.2 

9.1 

9.6 
9.4 
8.6 

14.0 
13.4 
12.8 
11.6 
9.6 
12.6 

Jack bean, Canavalia ensiformis 11.5 

Mesquite bean and pod 6.1 

Pea, field 9.2 

Pea, garden 11 .8 

Pea meal j 10.9 

Pea bran ' 9 .9 

Pea hulls ! 7.2 

Peanut, with hull ! 6.5 

6.0 
4.0 
10.7 
5.6 
9.1 

9.2 

9.9 

11.8 



Per ct, 



Peanut kernel, without hull 

Peanut waste 

Peanut cake, from hulled nuts 
Peanut cake, hulls included. . 
Peanut hulls 



Sesbania macrocarpa 

Soybean 

Soybean meal, fat extracted 

Tepary, Phaseolus acutifolius, var. 

latifoliiis 

Velvet bean, seed 

Velvet bean, seed and pod 

Miscel. oil-bearing seeds and their products 

Cocoanut meal, low in fat 

Cocoanut meal, high in fat 

Palmnut cake 

Rapeseed cake 

Sesame oil cake 

Sunflower seed, with hulls 

Sunflower seed, without hulls 

Sunflower heads 

Sunflower seed cake 



Milk and its products 

< low's milk 

( tow's milk, colostrum 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, dried 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Mare's milk 

Ewe's milk 

Sow's milk 



9.6 

7 .7 
10.4 
10.0 

9.8 
6.9 
4.5 
7.3 
10.0 

86.4 
74.5 
90.1 
90.4 
8.3 

90.6 
93.4 
90.6 
80.8 
81.0 



4.3 


5.4 


5.6 


7.3 


8.2 


3.6 


3.6 


3.3 


3.4 


4.4 


3.8 


3.0 


4.5 


3.4 


3.0 


3.6 


5.9 


3.6 


4.1 


2 2 


5.4 


4.9 


4.5 


5.5 


3.3 


5.3 


5.4 


4.2 


2.6 


4.0 


4.9 


5.7 


4.3 


7.9 


10.7 


3.1 


3.8 


6.7 


4.2 


0.7 


1.6 


0.7 


0.7 


25.1 


0.7 


0.7 


0.4 


0.9 


1.0 



Per ct. 

22.6 
33.9 
36.9 
16.6 
15.4 

21 .0 

22.7 
22.1 
23.6 
24.6 
26.2 

23.8 
13.0 
22.9 
25^6 
23.8 
12.2 
6.9 

20.4 
26.8 
24.4 
47.6 
28.4 
7.3 

31.7 
36.5 
41.4 

22.2 

20.8 
17.1 

20.9 
20.4 
16.8 
31.2 
37.5 
16.1 
27.7 
12.6 
34.8 

3.5 

17.6 

3.8 

3.3 

36.6 

3.6 
0.S 
2.0 
6.5 
5.9 



Per ct, 

7.1 
8.4 

8.7 
11 .2 
15.5 

4.0 
5.8 
3.7 
4.1 
4.2 
7.1 

8.7 

26.6 

5.6 

4.4 

4.6 

35.3 

43.6 

16.4 

2.6 

6.2 

5.1 

23.4 

56.6 

13.5 
4.3 



3.4 

7.5 

14.3 

11.2 

8.0 

24.0 

11.3 

6.3 
27.9 

6.3 
24.4 
10.9 



Per ct. 

23.2 
35 .7 
36.3 
41.3 

40.5 

56.7 
53.0 
56.7 
55.8 
56.1 
49.4 

50.4 
46.7 
57.8 
53.6 
55.7 
35.6 
37.5 

16.4 
17.5 
26.6 
23.7 
27.0 
18.9 

38.0 
26.5 

28.7 

59.3 
51.0 

47.7 

45.3 
41.1 
35.0 
30.0 

21.7 
21.3 
16.3 
34.6 
21.8 

5.0 

2.7 



4 
25 

5 
4 
5 
4 
5 



Per ct. 

33.7 

7 .5 

2.9 

14.2 

11.8 

0.7 
1.5 
1.4 
1.5 
1.1 
0.9 

2.6 
3.1 
1.1 
1.6 
1.4 
1.1 
1.2 

36.2 
44.9 
33.4 

8.0 
11.1 

2.6 

4.3 
17.5 

7.4 

1.4 
6.4 
4.6 

8.1 

17.1 

9.5 

9.6 

14.0 
24.7 
41.4 
14.4 
IS. 3 

4.4 
3.6 
0.2 
0.9 
4.2 

0.1 
0.3 
1.1 
6.9 
6.7 



APPENDIX 



637 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



I eeding stuff 



\\ ater 



Ash 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



N-free 
extract 



Fat 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



Concentrates— con. 

Slaughter-house by-products 

Dried blood 

Fish meal, high in fat 

Fish meal, low in fat 

Fish-glue waste 

Fresh bone 

Meat-and-bone meal, 30-40% ash 

Meat-and-bone meal, over 40% ash 

Pork cracklings 

Poultry bone 

Tankage, over 60% protein 

Tankage, 55-60% protein 

Tankage, 45-55% protein 

Tankage, below 45% protein 

Miscellaneous concentrates 

Acom, kernel and shell 

Acorn, kernel 

Beet pulp, wet 

Beet pulp, dried 

Beet pulp, molasses- 

Bakery refuse 

Bread 

Cassava, dried 

Cassava starch refuse 

Chess, or cheat, seed 

Cocoa shells 

Corn, oat, and barley feed 

Distillers' grains, dried, from com 

Distillers' grains, dried, from rye 

Distillers' grams, wet 

Distillery slop, whole 

Distillery slop, strained 

Lamb's-quarter seed, Chenopodium album 
Molasses, beet 

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap 

Molasses feeds, below 10% fiber 

Molasses feeds, 10-15% fiber 

Molasses feeds, over 15% fiber 

Molasses-alfalfa feeds 

Molassine meal 

Mustard feed or bran 

Pigeon-grass seed 

Pigweed seed 

Potato flakes, dried 

Potato flour 

Starch feed, dry 

Starch feed, wet 

Starch refuse 

Dried Roughage 
Cured com and sorghum forage, etc. 

Com fodder (ears, if any, remaining), 
very dry, from bam or in arid districts 

Corn fodder, medium in water 

Corn fodder, high in water 



Per et. 

9.7 
10. S 
12.8 
14.0 
30.4 

6.0 
6.6 
5.0 
7.3 

7.4 

7.5 



6.5 

27.9 
34.4 
90.7 

8.2 
7.6 

8.3 
33.8 

5.6 
12.0 

7.7 
4.9 
9.7 

6.6 
7.2 
77.4 
93.8 
95.9 
9.8 
25.3 

25.8 
11.6 
11.7 

9.3 
13.5 
16.6 

5.7 

10.7 
6.3 
12.1 
10.6 
9.3 
66.6 
10.3 



9.0 
18.3 
39.3 



Per ct. 

3.3 
29.2 
32.6 
34.9 
21.1 

36.8 
45.8 
2.3 
61.7 
10.5 
13.6 
19.7 
22.6 

1.1 

1.4 
0.4 
3.5 
5.6 



3.5 

2.6 
3.9 
0.6 
0.3 
0.3 
3.0 
5.2 

6.4 
6.7 

7.2 
9.8 
9.2 
7.8 
6.2 

6.6 
4.2 
4.0 
2.4 
1.8 
0.3 
1.6 



6.5 
5.0 
3.6 



Per ct. 

82.3 
4S.4 
52.4 
39.1 
19.7 

39.8 
33.2 
56.4 
24.3 
63.1 
58.1 
51.7 
40.4 

3.4 
4.2 
0.9 
8.9 
9.5 

11.2 

7.9 

2.8 

0.8 

10.5 

15.4 

11.4 

30.7 
23.1 
4.5 
1.9 
1.4 
14.1 
3.5 

3.1 
13.4 
12.2 
13.7 
12.0 

8.8 
31.7 

14.4 
15.0 
7.1 
2.7 
15.4 
5.6 
6.3 



7.8 
6.7 
4.S 



Per ct. 



2.1 
1.6 



3.6 

4.9 
3.0 
3.7 

17.8 

2.1 
18.9 
15.9 

0.5 
0.7 
5.0 
6.1 
7.2 
16.5 
9.2 

11.6 

10.9 

2.S 

0.5 

0.2 

19.1 



9.8 
11.8 
18.6 
17.2 

6.4 
10.7 

17.2 
15.2 
2.9 
2.2 
7'2 
3.1 
7.3 



27.2 
22.0 
16.7 



Per ct. 



4.1 
3.8 

4.1 
2.7 
4.1 
3.6 
2.5 
2.9 
4.2 
9.9 

45.4 
54.6 
5.7 
59.6 
60.7 

65.1 
55.4 
84.1 
78.8 
68.6 
49.9 
61.7 

36.3 

47.1 
13.1 
2.9 
1.5 
46.2 
66.0 

64.7 
53.5 
52.9 
45.8 
46.7 
59.6 
34.1 

45.7 
52.5 
73.6 
81.3 
59.4 
21.1 
73.1 



47.3 
45.8 
34.2 



Per ct. 

0.9 

11.6 

2.2 

7^9 

25.0 

11.2 
10.0 
32.2 
3.1 
12.9 
13.0 
14.0 
17.0 

4.4 
5.4 
0.2 
0.9 
0.7 

9.7 
0.7 
0.5 
0.7 
1.9 
3.0 
4.5 

12.2 

7^8 
1.6 
0.6 
0.7 

7.8 



5.0 
4.2 
2.8 
1.4 
0.8 
11.6 

5.4 
6.8 
0.3 
0.8 
6.9 
3.3 
1.4 



2.2 
2.2 
1.4 



45 
6 
4 
1 
4 

59 
13 
5 
24 
42 
57 
53 
14 

1 

1 

10 

48 

21 

4 
2 
6 
1 
1 
21 
60 

114 
7 
3 
9 
8 
1 
5 

16 

171 

22 

11 

5 

3 

3 

3 
1 

2 
13 
19 



56 
59 
23 



038 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage — con. 
Cured corn and sorghum forage, 
etc. — con. 

Sweet com fodder 

Corn stover (ears removed), very dry. . 

Com stover, medium in water 

Corn stover, high in water 

Corn leaves 

Com husks 

Com stalks 

Com tops 

New com product 

Kafir fodder, dry 

Kafir fodder, high in water 

Kafir stover, dry 

Kafir stover, high in water 

Milo fodder, dry 

Milo fodder, high in water 

Milo stover, high in water 

Sorghum fodder, dry 

Sorghum fodder, high in water 

Sorghum bagasse, dried 

Durra fodder 

Broom-com fodder 

Japanese cane fodder 

Sugar-cane bagasse 

Hay from the grasses, etc. 
Bent grass, Canada, or blue joint, Cala 

niagrostis Canadensis 

Bermuda grass 

Black grass, J uncus Gerardi 

Bluegrass, Canada 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, all analyses 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, in milk 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, ripe 

Bluegrasses, native western 

Brome grass, smooth 

Bluestem grasses, Andropogon spp .... 

Buffalo grass, Bulbilis dactyloi des 

Bunch grasses, miscellaneous 

Carpet grass 

Chess, or cheat, Bromus secalinus 

Crab grass 

Crow-foot grass, Eleusine spp 

Fescue, meadow 

Fescues, native, Festnca spp 

Fowl meadow grass 

Foxtails, miscellaneous 

Gama grass, Tripsacum dactyloides 

Grama grasses, Bouteloua spp 

Hair grasses, miscellaneous 

Johnson grass 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, common, or Hungarian 

Millet, German 



Water 



Per ct 



12.3 
9.4 
19.0 
41.0 
23.4 
24.7 
17.7 

17.9 
9.2 
9.0 
28.3 
16.3 
27.3 
11.1 
39.1 

35.5 

9.7 

37.4 

11.3 

10.1 

9.4 

6.8 

10.2 



6.7 
9.7 
10.3 
10.7 
13.2 
12.4 

23.7 
8.1 
8.5 
6.9 
7.0 
7.0 
7.9 

8.4 
9.5 
9.5 

11.7 
4.9 

11.1 
6.8 



Ash 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. Per ct. 



9.0 
5.8 
5.5 
3.8 
6.2 
2.5 
5.2 

5.6 
4.0 
9.4 
3.3 
8.3 
7.3 
9.9 
3.1 

6.7 
7.8 
3.1 
2.9 
5.2 
5.7 
2.0 
5.6 



6.8 
7.6 
7.3 
5.8 
6.6 
5.9 

6.5 
8.0 
7.7 
5.5 

11.5 
9.2 

10.2 

7.9 
8.5 
7.9 
7.0 
5.8 
7.2 
10.1 



11.8 


6.2 


6.6 


9.0 


6.6 


6.8 


10.1 


7.5 


13.5 


8.2 


14.3 


6.3 


8.7 


6.9 



9.2 
5.9 

5.7 
3.9 
7.1 
2.9 

4.8 

5.6 

6.4 
8.9 
6.5 
5.1 
3.8 
12.0 
3.7 

2.3 
7.4 
3.9 
3.4 
6.4 
3.9 
1.4 
3.3 



7.6 
7.1 
7.5 
6.6 

8.3 

8.5 

6.1 
11.2 
9.9 
4.9 
7.0 
6.0 
7.0 

7.2 
8.0 
8.6 
6.8 
8.9 
9.8 
9.3 

6.7 
6.4 
8.3 
6.6 
8.3 
8.3 
8.0 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 



26.4 
30.7 
27.7 
20.1 
22.1 
24.9 
27.8 

27.4 
28.7 
26.8 
21.6 
27.4 
23.7 
18.4 
17.5 

20.6 
26.1 
17.8 
30.5 
24.1 
36.8 
20.6 
34.6 



34.7 
25.6 
25.1 

28.2 
28.3 
23.4 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. Per ct 



Fat 



25.4 
29.8 
31.3 
34.2 
26.1 
30.6 
31.8 

28.0 
28.7 
27.4 
30.4 
33.5 
28.8 
28.6 

30.4 

28.7 
31.2 
30.2 
27.6 
24.0 
27.3 



41.3 
46.6 
40.9 
30.2 
39.4 
44.2 
43.1 

42.0 
48.9 
43.1 
37.6 
41.2 
36.6 
44.1 
34.3 

34.1 
45.9 
35.0 
50.5 
51.4 
42.4 
67.3 
39.2 



41.8 
48.2 
47.3 
46.4 
40.7 
47.0 

35.3 

39.9 
40.2 
46.7 
46.6 
45.4 
40.9 

46.2 

42.9 
44.4 
42.1 
44.8 
40.4 
42.6 

43.1 
47.6 
44.9 
43.5 
40.8 
44.3 
46.5 



1.8 
1.6 
1.2 
1.0 
1.8 
0.8 
1.4 

1.5 
2.8 
2.8 
2.7 
1.7 
1.3 
4.5 
2.3 

0.8 
3.1 
2.8 
1.4 
2.8 
1.8 
1.9 
7.1 



2.4 
1.8 
2.5 
2.3 
2.9 
2.8 

3.0 
3.0 
2.4 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
2.2 

2.3 
2.4 
2.2 
2.0 
2.1 
2.7 
2.6 

1.8 
1.7 
2.2 
2.1 
1.6 
2.8 
2.6 



APPENDIX 



030 



T.\.hi,k I . Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Water 



Ash 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber N ; free + 
extract 



Fat 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



Dried Roughage — con. 

Hay from the grasses, etc. — con. 

Millet, hog, or broom-corn 

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail 

Millet, wild, or Indian 

Mixed grasses 

Mixed grasses, rowen 

Natal grass, Tricholaena rosea 



Panicularia 



Needle grasses, Stipa spp 
Nerved manna grass, 

nervata 

Oat grass, tall, or meadow oat grass, 

Arrhenatherum elatius 

Old witch grass, Panicum capillare 

Orchard grass 

Para grass 



Panic grasses, Panicum spp 

Prairie hay, western 

Quack, or couch grass, Agropyron repens . 

Rescue grass 

Red top, all analyses 

Red top, in bloom 

Reed bent grass, Calamagrostis pur- 
purascens 



Reed canary grass, Phalaris anmdinacea. 

Reed grasses, miscellaneous western 

Reed meadow grass, or manna, Panicu- 
laria Americana 

Rhode Island bent, Agrostis canina 

Rye grass, Italian 

Rye grass, perennial 

Rushes, western, Juncus spp 



Salt grasses, miscellaneous 

Sedges, western, Carex spp 

Sedges, eastern, Carex spp 

Spear grasses, Poa spp 

Swamp grasses 

Sweet vernal grass, Anthoxanthum oder- 

atum 

Teosinte 



Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, before bloom 

Timoth}', early to full bloom 

Timothy, late bloom to early seed 

Timothy, nearly ripe 

Timothy, rowen 

Wheat grass, common, Agropyron glau 
cum 

Wheat grasses, miscellaneous, Agropyron 
spp 

Wheat grass, western, Agropyron occi 
dentale 

Wild barley, or foxtail, Hordeumjubatum 

Wild oat, Avena fatua 

Wild rye, Elymus Canadensis 



Per ct. 

9.3 
12.8 

6.7 
12.8 
13.6 

9.8 

5.3 

6.2 

11.8 

7.1 

11.6 

9.8 

7.9 
6.5 
5.9 
9.8 
9.8 
8.0 



5.9 

9.6 
7.0 


6.7 
11.5 
11.4 
12.0 

5.7 


5.3 
5.2 
9.3 
5.5 

9.8 


9.3 
10.6 


11.6 
7.2 
12.8 
14.9 
12.5 
15.1 


7.3 


6.4 


5.9 

7.5 

7.9 

10.8 



Per ct. 

5.9 
9.0 
6.9 
5.6 

6.5 
5.0 

5.5 

8.5 

6.1 

10.1 

6.9 

6.6 

7.1 
7.7 
7.3 
8.1 
6.8 
8.1 

5.1 

7.9 
7.0 



9.7 


6.6 


7.5 


8.1 


7.6 


12.6 


6.8 


7.4 


5.8 


7.7 


9.3 


10.3 


4.9 


6.6 


4.6 


4.5 


4.3 


6.9 


6.9 


6.2 


7.0 


8.8 


6.4 


7.3 



Per ct. 
8.8 

6.7 
10.6 

7.6 
12.3 

7.4 



8.0 

S.O 

10.6 

7.9 

4.6 

8.3 
8.0 
7.3 



9.8 
7.4 
7.2 


10.2 


7.9 
6.2 


9.3 
6.6 
8.1 
9.2 
10.2 


8.1 

11.2 

6.1 

7.6 

7.7 


12.4 
9.1 


6.2 
9.8 
6.3 
5.5 
5.2 
14.4 


6.5 


7.1 


7.7 
7.0 
8.0 
7.1 



Per ct. 

21.3 

33 .0 
30.7 
28.8 
24.2 
36.8 

34.0 

28.6 

29.4 
24.3 
30.3 
33.6 

29.5 
30.5 
36.5 
24.6 

28.7 
29.9 

31.2 

29.0 
33.3 

29.5 

29.5 
27.8 
24.2 
29.2 

30.5 

28.2 
29.2 
30.0 
28.2 

21.7 
26.4 

29.9 
28.1 
29.5 
28.3 
30.7 
24.3 

27.4 

30.2 

32.7 
27.4 
30.1 
26.1 



Per ct. 

52.2 
36.8 
42.7 
42.7 
40.1 
39.2 

45.6 

46.8 

42.1 
45.7 
40.4 
44.5 

44.9 
44.7 
41.0 
44.5 
45.0 
44.7 

45.3 

42.9 
44.3 

42.9 
42.8 
43.3 
43.4 
45.5 

41.5 
46.3 
46.3 
49.0 
44.3 



42.7 
41.7 

45.0 
45.1 
44.2 
44.0 
45.1 
34.9 

49.4 

47.7 

44.4 
47.3 
44.8 
46.8 



Per ct. 

2.5 

1.7 
2.4 
2.5 
3.3 
1.8 

1.8 

1.9 

2.6 
2.2 
2.9 
0.9 

2.3 
2.6 
2.0 
3.2 
2.3 
2.1 

2.3 

2.7 
2.2 



1.9 
3.0 
1.9 
3.1 
1.8 

2.0 
2.3 
1.7 
2.1 
2.3 

4.6 
1.9 

2.5 
3.2 
2.6 
2.8 
2.2 
4.4 

2.5 

2.4 

2.3 
2.0 
2.8 
1.9 



6 

7 

359 

49 



13 
3 

46 
3 

21 
42 
4 
3 
40 
15 

3 

10 



7 

2 

7 

14 

28 

4 
45 

3 
33 

37 

2 

4 

221 

7 

50 

21 

28 

3 



19 

13 

5 

13 

10 



640 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage — con. 
Hay from the smaller cereals 

Barley hay, common 

Barley hay, bald 

Emmerhay 

Oat hay 

Rye hay, all analyses 

Rye hay, heading out to in bloom . 
Wheat hay 



Hay from the legumes 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Alfalfa, first cutting 

Alfalfa, second cutting 

Alfalfa, third cutting 

Alfalfa, fourth cutting 

Alfalfa, before bloom 

Alfalfa, in bloom 



Alfalfa, in seed 

Alfalfa, variegated, or sand lucerne 

Alfalfa meal 

Alfalfa leaves 

Alfalfa stems 

Bean, whole plant 

Beggarweed 



Clover, alsike, all analyses 

Clover, alsike, in bloom 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimson, or scarlet 

Clover, Egyptian, or berseem, Trifolium 

Alexandrinum 

Clover, mammoth red 

Clover, red, all analyses 

Clover, red, before bloom 

Clover, red, in bloom 

Clover, red, after bloom 

Clover, sweet, white 

Clover, sweet, yellow 

Clover, white 

Clover meal 



Clover rowen 

Cowpea, all analyses 

Cowpea, before bloom 

Cowpea, in bloom to early pod 

Cowpea, ripe 

Flat pea, Lathyrus silvestris, var. Wagneri 

Kudzu vine 

Lespedeza, or Japan clover 

Lupines, Lwpinus spp 

Pea, field 

I '( .• i . field, without peas 

Peanut vine, with nuts 

Peanut vine, without nuts 

Sanfoin, Ondbrychis viciaefolia 

Serradella 

Soybean hay 



Water 



Per ct. 

7.4 
8.7 
7.7 
12.0 
8.1 
8.2 
8.1 

8.6 
8.5 
7.3 
8.9 
16.0 
6.2 
7.5 

10.4 
15.2 
8.8 
6.6 
5.6 
12.6 
9.1 

12.3 
12.6 

7.0 
10.6 

7.5 
18.7 
12.9 

10.4 

13.9 

22 1 

8^6 

8.7 
8.1 
8.5 

14.8 
9.7 
7.8 

10.6 

10.0 
7.7 
7.1 

11.8 

7.8 

11.1 

9.4 

7.8 

21.5 

15.9 

9.7 

8.6 



Ash 



Per ct. 



8.6 
8.8 
9.0 
9.5 
7.8 
10.0 
10.0 

7.0 
8.3 
9.0 
13.6 
4.9 
3.5 
8.4 

8.3 

7.7 

10.8 

8.8 



9.5 
6.2 
7.1 

7.2 
7.4 
6.0 
7.2 
6.0 
8.0 
7.2 

7.3 
11.9 
17.3 
10 

6 

6 

6 

5 



7.9 
6.6 
6.8 
8.7 
7.1 
12.3 
8.6 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

7.0 
7.4 
10.0 
8.4 
6.7 
9.8 
6.2 

14.9 
13.9 
14.7 
14.6 
15.9 
22.0 
15.0 

12.2 

14 '2 
14.3 
22.5 
6.3 
22.5 
15.4 

12.8 
13.2 
19.2 
14.1 

14.4 
10.8 
12.8 



18 
13 
11 

1-1 
13 

16.2 
13.7 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



5 
3 
2 
5 
1 
7 
7 
1 

15.8 
15.1 

9.5 
13.3 

9.1 
10.5 
15.7 
16.0 



Per ct. 

29.7 
21.9 
33.6 
28.3 
37.5 
33.9 
24.7 

28.3 
30.9 
31.9 
28.4 
24.6 
20.5 
30.2 

27.6 
27.8 
30.1 
12.7 

54.4 
4.4 

27.5 

25.7 
26.4 
23.0 
27.3 

23.2 
27.0 
25.5 

18.3 
23.1 
21.9 
27.4 
38.8 
23.2 
25.9 

20.4 
22.5 
20.6 
21.0 
29.2 
27.7 
25.0 
25.9 

20.8 
24.5 
27.7 
24.3 
20.2 
19.7 
19.6 
24.9 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

47.3 
53.0 
37.3 
41.7 
40.5 
39.7 
52.6 

37.3 
36.2 
35.4 
36.8 
34.0 
37.1 
35.5 

40.3 
32.3 
35.8 
41.2 
27.9 
55.2 
37.3 

38.4 
37.0 
37.0 
36.9 

43.0 
34.2 
38.7 

41.8 
39.1 
33.8 
40.1 
31.5 
41.6 
42.4 

37.3 
34.0 
25.5 
36.4 
41.8 
32.0 
41.2 
41.6 

43.5 

37.9 
45.2 
37.4 
36.8 
44.2 
40.2 
39.1 



Fat 



Per ct. 

2.2 
2.1 
2.1 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.0 



2.5 
2.2 
2^0 
3.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.3 

2.5 
3.1 
3.0 
2.3 

2.4 
3.1 
3.1 



1.6 

2.9 
2.3 

3.7 
2.6 
2.6 
3.3 
2.5 
3.2 
3.2 
2.8 

3.3 
3.5 
1.6 
10.4 
3.7 
2.6 
2.5 
9. S 



APPENDIX 



041 



T.yiile 1. Werage percentage' composition of American feeding stuffs— continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Water 



Ash 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


14.8 


43.2 


3.0 


27.5 


38.4 


3.1 


26.2 


38.7 


2.5 


24.8 


31.6 


2.8 


26.5 


38.9 


1.6 


26.0 


39.8 


2.4 


28.5 


42.3 


2.8 


29.9 


40.8 


2.4 


27.9 


38.6 


2.9 


27.6 


32.0 


2.2 


25.6 


36.5 


2.6 


29.5 


32.4 


3.0 


27.2 


37.3 


2.5 


27.2 


34.4 


2.1 


36.0 


39.1 


1.5 


43.0 


35.1 


1.3 


42.5 


32.9 


3.2 


35.8 


39.7 


1.5 


36.3 


40.8 


2.4 


25.7 


46.3 


2.4 


33.5 


39.2 


1.4 


38.9 


46.6 


1.2 


37.4 


44.4 


1.5 


40.9 


34.6 


1.3 


28.0 


44.8 


1.4 


30.8 


42.9 


1.3 


38.8 


32.9 


1.5 


44.5 


33.6 


1.2 


36.4 


33.1 


1.4 


36.8 


37.2 


1.7 


23.0 


40.2 


3.2 


22.0 


40.1 


0.9 


46.5 


37.9 


2.4 


20.7 


42.5 


3.9 


22.0 


40.1 


4.3 


38.5 


35.4 


2.0 


24.5 


34.3 


2.4 


12.3 


33.2 


4.3 


8.7 


32.8 


3.1 


14.2 


24.5 


4.2 


12.8 


39.2 


3.3 


25.0 


32.1 


3.0 


22.6 


38.4 


1.5 


19.1 


46.8 


4.5 


20.2 


43.5 


3.3 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



Dried Roughage — con. 

Hay from the legumes — con. 

'Trefoil, yellow, or black medic, Medicago 

lupulina 

Velvet bean 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetch, kidney, Anthyttis vulneraria 

Vetches, wild 



Hay from mixed legumes and grasses 

Clover and mixed grasses 

Clover and timothy 

Clover mixed rowen 

Cowpeas and millet 

Peas and oats 

Peas, oats, and barley 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat 



Straw and chaff fro))) the cereals 

Barley straw 

Buckwheat straw 

Flax shives 

Millet straw 

Oat straw 



Oat chaff 

Rice straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw 

Wheat straw from rusted grain . 
Wheat chaff 



Legume strawi 

Bean 

Crimson clover 

Cowpea 

Horse bean 

Soybean 



Miscellaneous dry roughages 

Alfilaria, Erodium cicutarium 

Artichoke tops 

Brush feed 

Burnet, Sanguisorba minor 

Daisy, field 

Furze 

Greasewood 



Lamb's quarter 

Prickly comfrey 

Purslane 

Rape 

Russian thistle 

Saltbushes, Atriplex spp. . . 
Spurrey, Spergula arn nsis. 
Sweet potato vines 



Per ct. 



11.2 

7.2 
7.1 
12.3 
9.7 
6.6 



10.1 
12.2 
13.0 
9.7 
16.6 
16.5 
15.7 
15.0 



14.2 
9.9 

7.2 
14.2 
11.5 

8.2 
7.5 
7.1 
8.4 
8.1 
14.4 



10.5 
12.3 
8.5 
12.1 
11.9 



11.1 

25.8 
5.0 

11.1 
9.3 
5.5 
4.6 

9.7 

7.9 

11.9 

11.3 

5.8 

6.6 

7.9 

11.3 



Per ct. Per ct. 



10.9 
7.4 

8.2 

8.6 

11.2 

8.2 



6.4 

6.1 
5.8 
14.8 
7.3 
6.0 
6.7 
6.8 



5.7 
5.5 
7.0 
5.2 
5.4 

11.5 
14.5 
3.2 
5.2 
6.4 
7.2 



7.2 
7.0 
5.4 
8.4 
6.8 



11.4 

7.0 
2.8 
8.8 

10.2 
7.0 

14.4 

16.5 
22.0 
22.9 
14.5 
15.9 
17.4 
10.4 
9.2 



16.9 
16.4 
17.3 
19.9 
12.1 
17.0 



9.9 
8.6 
11.8 
13.7 
11.4 
12.6 
10.6 
14.5 



3.5 
5.2 
7.2 
3.6 
3.6 



7.3 

7.5 
6.8 
8.6 
5.6 



11.1 
4.2 
5.4 
13.0 
14.1 
11.6 
19.8 

24.0 
25.5 
22.3 
18.9 
18.2 
13.5 
11.3 
12.5 



2 
4 
3 

15 
4 

12 



34 
52 
11 

2 
30 

1 



97 
3 

11 
6 

41 

4 
13 

7 
27 



3 
1 
1 

5 
4 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
5 
1 
25 
7 
6 



042 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage 
Corn and the sorghums 

fodder, all analyses 

com fodder, all analyses 

com fodder, in tassel 

com fodder, in milk 

corn fodder, dough to glazing, 
com fodder, kernels glazed . . . 
corn fodder, kernels ripe 



Water 



Corn 
Dent 
Dent 
Dent 
Dent 
Dent 
Dent 

Flint corn fodder, all analyses 

Flint com fodder, in tassel 

Flint com fodder, in milk 

Flint com fodder, kernels glazed 

Flint com fodder, kernels ripe 

Sweet com fodder, before milk stage. . . 
Sweet com fodder, roasting ears or later 

Sweet com fodder, ears removed 

Sweet corn ears, including husks 

Com fodder, pop 

Com stover, green (ears removed) 

Corn leaves and tops 

Corn leaves 

Corn husks 



Com stalks, stripped 

Kafir fodder, all analyses ....... 

Kafir fodder, heads just showing . 

Milo fodder 

Sweet sorghum fodder 

Durra fodder 

Broom-com fodder 

Sugar cane 



Fresh green grass 
Bent grass, Canada, or bluejoint, Cala- 

■magrosiis Canadensis 

Bermuda grass 

Bluegrass, Canada 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, all analyses. 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, before heading. . . 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, headed out 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, after bloom 



Ash 



Bluegrasses, native 

I 'it une grass, smooth 

Brome grasses, miscellaneous 

Bluejoint gi'asses, western, Andropogon 

spp 

Bluestem grasses, Andropogon spp . . . 

Bunch grasses, miscellaneous 

Chess, or cheat, Bromus secalinus. . . . 

( 'rah grass 

Fescue, meadow 

Fescues, native, Festuca spp 

Guinea grass, Panicum maximum. . . . 

Grama grass, Bouteloua spp 

Johnson grass 

Meadow foxtail 



Per ct. 

78.1 
76.9 
85.1 
80.1 
74.9 
73.8 
65.2 

79.3 
89.4 
85.0 
79.0 
72.1 
90.0 
79.7 

78.5 
62.2 
83.1 
77.3 
84.1 
68.9 
63.5 

73.6 
76.4 
80.1 
77.3 
75.1 
77.6 
77.1 
78.3 



55.4 
66.8 
66.8 
68.4 
76.2 
63.6 
56.4 

54.7 
67.0 
63.7 

61.1 
68.4 
50.6 
60.4 

69.1 
69.5 
64.0 
71.5 
63.9 
70.9 
70.4 



Per ct. 

1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
1.4 

1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
1.1 
1.3 
1.0 
1.2 

1.3 
0.9 

1.0 
1.4 
1.2 
3.2 
1.5 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



4.1 
2.3 
2.6 

2.8 
2.7 



2.5 


2.9 


3.2 


2.8 


2.4 


4.2 


1.8 


4.3 


2.4 


2.5 


2.6 


2.5 


2.0 


2.7 



Per ct. 

1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1.6 

2.1 
2.0 

2.7 

1.9 
1.4 
1.5 
1.9 
2.4 
1.0 
1.9 

1.6 
3.8 
1.3 
1.3 
1.9 
3.2 
1.8 

1.3 
2.4 
1.6 
1.8 
1.5 
2.0 
2.0 
0.9 



4.1 
3.0 
3.0 
4.1 
5.3 
4.9 
3.4 

3.2 
4.2 
4.5 

2.6 
3.0 
4.3 
3.2 

2.7 
3.0 
3.5 
2.2 
3.3 
2.5 
3.6 



Per ct. 



N-free 
extract 



4.6 
3.2 
3.6 

4.2 
6.1 

2.5 
4.4 

5.6 
4.3 
6.0 
6.0 
4.4 
8.6 
11.9 

9.1 
6.6 
6.5 
7.0 
7.0 
0.2 
8.6 
6.2 



15.2 

8.0 

10.3 

8.7 

5.2 

10.9 

13.2 

15.0 

9.3 

11.9 

12.8 
10.5 
15.8 
13.0 

9.1 
10.1 
12.5 
10.9 
12.7 
9.3 
8.0 



Fat 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



Per ct. 

13.0 
13.9 
7.6 
11.7 
15.4 
16.2 
22.3 

12.6 
4.8 
8.6 

12.9 

17.0 
5.2 

12.2 

12.6 
26.2 

8.2 
13.6 

7.8 
15.4 
20.9 

14.5 
12.0 
10.1 
12.1 
14.0 
11.8 
10.1 
12.2 



20.0 
18.9 
16.1 
14.8 
9.3 
15.6 
21.6 

23.3 
15.1 
15.7 

19.8 
14.2 
23.9 
20.5 

13.8 
14.0 
16.7 
12.1 
16.7 
14.4 
14.1 



Per ct. 

0.6 
0.6 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
0.6 
1.0 

0.6 
0.4 
0.5 
0.9 
1.1 
0.3 
0.6 

0.4 
2.6 
0.4 
0.4 
0.6 
0.7 
0.4 

0.4 
0.7 
0.4 
0.4 
1.0 
0.6 
0.5 
1.0 



1.2 
1.0 
1.2 



1.3 
1.5 
1.0 

0.9 
1.5 
1.2 
1.1 

1.0 
1.0 

o.s 

0.7 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 



6 
33 
10 

1 

3 
14 

4 



APPENDIX 



G43 



Table I . Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Fresh gn < n grass — con. 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, common, or Hungarian 

Millet, hog, or broom-corn 

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail 

Mixed grasses, immature 

Mixed grasses, at haying stage 

Oat grass, tall, or meadow oat grass, Ar- 

rlu natherum elatins 

Orchard grass 

Para grass 

Quack grass, Agropyron repens 

Rescue grass 

Red top 

Reed canary grass, Phalanx arundinacea 
Reed meadow grass, or manna, Panicu- 

laria Americana 

Rhode Island bent grass, Agrosiis canina . 

Rowen, mixed 

Rye grass, Italian 

Rye grass, perennial 

Rushes, western, J uncus spp 

Sedges, western, Carex spp 

Spear grasses, miscellaneous 

Sweet venial grass, Anthoxanthum 

oderatum 

Teosinte 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, before bloom 

Timothy, in bloom 

Timothy, in seed 

Timothy, mountain, Phleum alpinum. 
■Wheat grasses, miscellaneous, Agropyron 

?PP 

Wild barley, or foxtail, Hordcum jubatum 

Wild oats, Avena falua 

Wild rye, Elymus Canadensis 

Green fodder from the smaller cereals 

Barley fodder 

Buckwheat, Japanese 

Oat fodder 

Oat fodder, S in. high 

Rye fodder 

Rye fodder, 5 in. high 

Wheat fodder, all analyses 

Wheat fodder, 5 in. high 

Green legumes 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Alfalfa, before bloom 

Alfalfa, in bloom 

Alfalfa, after bloom 

Beggarweed 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, alsike, in bloom 



Wilier 



Per et. 

78.7 
72.4 
75.3 
SI .3 
70.3 
69.2 

69.7 
70.8 
72.8 
75.0 
69.4 
60.7 

63.0 

69.3 
67.3 
71.8 
72.9 
73.4 

68.9 
61.5 
56.4 

68.8 
78.7 
62.5 
75.8 

67.9 
53.6 
62.5 

54.7 
64.3 
63.4 

76.7 

76.8 
63.4 
73.9 
87.0 
78.7 
81.9 
72.6 
75.8 

74.7 
80.1 
74.1 
70.2 
72.9 
75.7 
78.5 



Per ct. 

1.6 

2.1 
1.8 
1.6 
3.0 
1.8 

2.0 
2.5 
2.4 

2.5 
2.4 

2.7 

2.9 

2.5 
2.6 
2.4 
2.5 
2.4 

2.2 
3~2 



2.0 
2.0 
2.2 
1.7 

2.0 
2.3 
1.8 

3.2 
3.5 



2.1 
3.6 
2.1 
1.6 
1.7 
2 2 
27 
3.0 

2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
2.2 
3.2 
2.4 
2.2 



("rude 

pr< itein 



Per ct. 

1.7 
2.9 
2.0 
1.8 
5.1 
3.0 

2.6 
2.9 
1.7 
3.8 
3.8 
3.1 

3.6 

2~S 
2.9 
4.7 
3.1 
3.0 

3.4 
3.8 
3.3 

2.6 
1.7 
3.1 
2.5 

2.7 
3.1 
3.0 

4.0 
4.9 
2.6 
3.7 

3.3 
4.6 
3.2 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



4.5 
4.7 
4.4 
2.9 
4.2 
4.1 
3.5 



Per ct. 

0.7 
8.4 
7.4 
6.2 
6.3 
10.6 

10.5 
9.8 
9.2 
7.0 
8.6 

12.2 

10.9 

10.0 

10.6 

7.3 

6.8 

6.7 

9.8 
11.4 

14.7 

9.7 

6.7 

11.7 

7.3 

10.4 
15.3 
12.9 

15.7 

11.8 

8.6 

7 .5 

6.0 
8.0 
7.8 
1.7 
7.3 
2.0 
7.5 
3.9 

7.0 
4.2 
7.8 
12.8 
7.5 
6.5 
5.9 



N-free 

extract 



Per ot 

10.7 
13.3 
12.9 
8.8 
13.8 
14.1 

14.3 
12.9 
13.4 
10.5 
14.8 
20.2 

18.5 

14.8 
15.9 
12.3 
13.4 
13.2 

15.1 
19.0 
21.9 

15.9 
10.4 
19.3 
12.0 

16.1 
24.4 

18.8 

21.1 

14.1 
21.3 

8.9 

11.0 

19.5 

11.9 

4.0 

9.0 

6.5 

12.8 

10.1 

10.4 
7.9 
10.4 
11.3 
11.7 
10.7 
9.3 



Fat 



Per .-i 

0.6 
0.9 
0.6 
0.3 
1.5 
1.3 

Oil 

1.1 

0.5 
1.2 
1.0 
1.1 

1.1 

0.6 
0.7 
1.5 
1.3 
1.3 

0.6 
1.1 
1.0 

1.0 
0.5 
1.2 
0.7 

0.9 
1.3 
1.0 

1.3 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 

0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
0.7 
0.9 
0.8 
0.7 

1.0 
0.8 
0.. 8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
0.6 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



43 

19 

11 

5 

6 

7 

31 
57 

2 


s 

16 



6 
25 
25 

11 
15 
13 

6 
19 

88 
5 

15 

13 

3 

15 
9 
5 
5 

15 
1 

22 
1 

38 
1 

15 
1 

143 
11 

27 

6 

3 

17 

12 



644 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage- 
Green legumes — con. 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, mammoth red 

Clover, red, all analyses 

Clover, red, in bloom 

Clover, red, rowen 

Clover, sweet 



Clover, white 

Cowpeas 

Flat pea, Lathyrus silvestris, var . 
Jack bean, Canavalia ensiformis. 

Horse bean 

Lupines 

Peas, field, Canada 



Peas, field, miscellaneous 

Kudzu vine 

Lespedeza, or Japan clover . . . 
Sanfoin, Onobrychis viciae folia. 

Serradella 

Soybeans, all analyses 

Soybeans, in bloom 



Soybeans, in seed 

Trefoil, yellow, or black medic, Medicago 

lupulina 

Velvet bean 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, kidney, Anthyllis vulneraria .... 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetches, wild 



Mixed legumes and grassei 

Clover and mixed grasses 

Cowpeas and com 

Cowpeas and oats 

Cowpeas and sorghum 

Peas and millet 

Peas and barley 



Peas and oats 

Peas, oats, and rape . 
Soybeans and com . . 
Soybeans and kafir . 
Vetch and barley . . . 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat . . 



Water 



Roots, tubers, etc. 

Artichoke 

Beet, common 

Beet, sugar 

Carrot 

Cassava 

Chufa : 

Mangel 

Onion 



Per ct. 

79.2 
82.6 
74.9 
73.8 
72.5 
65.6 
75.6 

78.2 
83.7 
77.5 
76.8 
82.4 
82.6 
83.4 

81.2 
69.4 
63.4 
74.4 
79.8 
76.4 
79.2 

75.8 

77.3 
82.1 
79.6 
72.3 

81.8 
75.4 

72.7 
80.0 
78.2 
81.3 
80 .'3 
79.8 

77.4 
82.1 
76.2 
82.9 
80.0 
73.5 
77.3 

79.5 
87.0 
83.6 
88.3 
67.4 

79.5 
90.6 

87.6 



Ash 



Per ct. 



2.3 

1.7 
2.3 
2.1 
2.0 
2.5 
2.1 

2.7 
2.0 
1.6 
2.7 
2.0 
1.6 
1.6 

1.6 
2 .2 
3^5 
2.4 
3.0 
2.4 
2.3 

2.4 

2.3 
2.0 
2.1 
3.2 
2.2 
2.1 



1.6 
1.8 
2 2 
1.7 
2.6 
1.7 

2.0 

2.7 

1.7 

2.1 

1. 

2 



Crude 
protein 



2 
3 
1.6 



1.7 
1.5 
1.1 
1.2 
1.0 

0.4 
1.0 
0.5 



Per ct. 

5.1 
3.0 

4.0 
4.1 
4.1 
5.3 
4.4 

4.6 
3.0 
5.7 
5.2 
3.6 
3.4 
3.6 

3.2 
5.5 
6.7 
3.8 
2.9 
4.1 
3.9 

4.0 

4.5 
3.5 
3.8 
3.7 
4.2 



3.0 
2.1 
4.5 
1.5 
2.6 
3.6 

3.2 
3.1 

2.7 
2.0 
2.8 
3.8 
3.3 

2.0 
1 .6 
1.6 
1.2 
1.1 

0.7 
1 .4 
1.3 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 



9.1 

7.0 



6.4 



6.9 

8.5 
5.3 
5.7 
5.5 
6.6 
5.2 

6.3 
4.3 
5.4 
6.2 
6.5 
7.5 
7.1 

0.8 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.4 

2 2 
0^8 
0.7 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

7.8 

7.4 
11.0 
11.7 
12.1 
16.2 
10.2 

9.5 
7.0 
8.0 
8.4 
7.3 
7.2 
6.9 

8.1 
13.6 
14.7 
12.4 

8.8 
9.8 
8.2 

10.4 

9.5 
6.6 
8.5 

12.0 
6.3 

10.0 

13.3 
10.4 

8.5 
9.5 
6.6 

8.9 

10.1 
7.0 

13.2 
6.2 
9.0 

12.0 

10.1 

15.9 

8.9 

12.6 

8.0 
28.8 

10.5 
6.1 
9.6 



Fat 



Per ct. 



0.8 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 
0.5 
0.6 
0.5 

0.6 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
0.7 
1.0 
0.6 

1.0 

0.8 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 



0.9 
0.4 
0.9 
0.5 
1.3 
0.8 

1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
0.0 
0.5 
0.9 
0.6 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.3 

6.6 
0.1 
0.3 



APPENDIX 



645 



Table 1 . Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs— continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Roots, tubers, etc. — con. 

Parsnip 

Potato 

Rutabaga 

Sweet potato. . 

Turnip 

Miscellaneous green forages 

Alfilaria, Erodium dcuiarium 

Apple 

\pple pomace 

Burnet 

Cabbage 

Cabbage waste, outer leaves 

Cactus, cane, entire plant 

Cactus, cane, fruit 

Cactus, cane, stems 

Cactus, prickly pear 

Cactus, prickly pear, old joints 

Cactus, prickly pear, young joints . . . 

Kale 

Kohlrabi 

Melon, pie, or stock 

Mustard, white, Brassica alba 

Potato pomace, wet 

Prickly comfrey 

Pumpkin, field 

Purslane 

Rape 

Russian thistle 

Saltbush, Australian 

Saltbushes, miscellaneous 

Sugar beet leaves 

Sugar beet tops 

Sunflower, whole plant 

Turnip tops 

Sieage 
Silage from corn, the sorghums, etc 
Corn, well matured, recent analyses. . . 

Corn, immature 

Corn, early analyses 

Com, from frosted com 

Com, from field-cured stover 

Durra 

Kafir 

Sorghum, sweet , 

Japanese cane 

Sugar-cane tops 

Miscellaneous silage 

Alfalfa 

Apple pomace 

Barley 

Clover 

Com and clover 



Water 



Per ct. 
83.4 

78.8 
89.1 
68.8 
90.5 

83.7 
81.8 
76.7 
80.1 
91.1 
85.9 
89.6 

81.4 

78.3 
83.5 
83.6 
87.1 
88.7 
91.0 

93.9 
86.0 
91.7 
87.2 
91.7 
89.7 
83.3 

79.6 
76.7 
75.7 
88.4 
88.6 
76.3 
85.0 



73.7 
79.0 
76.9 
74.7 
80.4 

79.7 
69.2 
77.2 
77.6 
76.6 

75.4 
79.4 
75.0 
72.2 
71.4 



Ash 



Per ct. 

1.3 
1.1 

1.0 
1.1 

0.9 

3.0 
0.4 
1.0 
2.0 
0.8 
3.1 
1.7 



Crude 
proteiD 



3.8 
5.4 
5.1 
1.8 
2.0 
2.6 
3.0 



1.7 
1.4 
1.4 
1.8 
1.4 

1.9 

2.5 

1.6 

2.0. 

1.9 

2.9 
1.0 
2.6 
2.5 

2.2 



Per ct. 
1.7 

2.2 

i.2 

1.8 
1.4 

3.2 
0.5 
1.6 
3.0 
2.2 
2.7 
0.9 

1.5 

1.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.9 
2.4 
2.0 

0.7 
4.1 
0.7 
2.5 
1.4 
2.2 
2.9 

3.0 
3.7 
3.9 
1.9. 
2.6 
3.6 
2.8 



2.1 
1.9 
1.9 

2.2 
I A 

1.2 
1.8 
1.5 
1.5 
1.3 

3.5 
1.6 
2.6 
3.7 
3.3 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 

1.3 
0.4 
1.4 
1.3 

1.1 

2.9 
1.3 
4.6 
4.6 
0.9 
2.8 
1.1 

3.2 
3.4 
2.3 
2.5 



1.2 
1.5 
1.3 

1.4 
1.7 
0.9 
1.8 
1.3 
1.5 
2.6 



N-free 
extract 



6.3 
5.8 
6.2 
6.1 
6.3 

7.0 
9.9 
6.9 
8.6 
8.0 

8.2 
4.5 
9.4 
9.0 

7.7 



Per ct. 

11.9 
17.4 

7.0 
26.4 

5.9 

6.8 
15.6 
14.5 
9.6 
4.7 
5.1 
6.5 

10.4 
12.6 
9.7 
9.8 
7.8 
5.0 
4.3 

3.4 
5.5 
6.3 

5.9 
4.2 
4.4 

8.4 

8.3 
9.4 

10.8 
6.5 
5.3 

11.4 
7.3 



15.4 
11.3 
12.7 
14.4 

9.8 

9.5 
15.5 
11.9 

9.7 
11. S 

8.6 
12.2 

9.4 
11.5 
14.5 



Fat 



Per ct. 

0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.2 

0.4 
0.4 
1.6 
0.7 



0.8 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.1 

0.2 
0.6 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 
0.6 

0.5 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
2.1 
0.4 



0.8 
0.6 
0.9 
0.8 
0.7 

0.7 
1.1 
0.9 
0.6 
0.4 

1.4 
1.3 
1.0 
1.1 
0.9 



No. of 
anal- 
yses 



2 

465 
10 

145 
20 



9 
17 
3 
5 
2 
5 

35 
42 
94 
4 
5 
12 



2 

20 

4 

3 

37 

5 

7 
3 
5 
4 
3 
5 



121 
53 

372 
10 



3 

30 

1 

1 

2 
14 

2 

14 

1 



646 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table I. Average percentage composition of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Silage — con. 
Miscellaneous silage — con 

Corn and rye 

Com and soybean 

Cowpea 

Cowpea and soybean 

Field pea 

Grasses, mixed 

Millet 

Millet, barnyard, and soybean. . . 

Oat 

Oat and pea 

Pea-cannery refuse 

Rye 

Sorghum and cowpea 

Soybean 

Sugar beet leaves 

Sugar beet pulp 

Vetch 

Wet brewers' grains 





Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Carboh 


ydrates 


Fat 


No. of 


Water 


Fiber 


N-free 
extract 


anal- 
yses 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 




80.6 


1.4 


2.1 


7.2 


7.5 


1.2 


1 


75.3 


2.0 


2.5 


6.7 


12.5 


1.0 


15 


78.0 


2.2 


3.2 


6.3 


9.4 


0.9 


9 


71.5 


3.5 


3.4 


8.6 


11.9 


1.1 


2 


72.1 


2.6 


3.8 


7.8 


12.5 


1.2 


8 


69.3 


2.5 


2.3 


9.9 


14.6 


1.4 


5 


68.4 


3.4 


2.8 


9.7 


14.6 


1.1 


6 


79.0 


2.8 


2.8 


7.2 


7.2 


1.0 


9 


71.7 


1.9 


2.0 


9.8 


13.3 


1.3 


2 


72.5 


2.8 


3.8 


9.6 


10.0 


1.3 


6 


76.8 


1.3 


2.8 


6.5 


11.3 


1.3 




72.8 


2.1 


3.0 


9.8 


11.6 


0.7 


2 


67.7 


2.2 


2.4 


8.5 


18.2 


1.0 


8 


72.9 


3.5 


3.9 


8.1 


10.3 


1.3 


9 


77.0 


4.4 


2.8 


4.7 


10.6 


0.5 


2 


90.0 


0.3 


1.5 


3.1 


4.7 


0.4 


1 


69.9 


2.4 


3.5 


9.8 


13.4 


1.0 


6 


70.2 


1.2 


6.4 


4.5 


15.6 


2.1 


4 



APPENDIX 



647 



Table II. Average Digestibility op American Feeding Stuffs, with 
Additions from the German Tables 

The coefficients marked "H & M" in this table have been compiled 
by the authors from the digestion trials reported by the State Experi- 
ment Stations and the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Those marked "L" are from the compilation by Lindsey given in the 
Massachusetts (Hatch) Experiment Station Report for 1911, and un- 
published coefficients furnished by him for this edition. To render the 
table more complete, additions marked "M" have been made from the 
German tables given in Mentzel and Lengerke's Landwirtschaftliche 
Kalender for 1914. 



A. Experiments with Ruminants 



Feeding stuff 



Dry 
matter 



Crude 
protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



N-free 
extract 



Fat 



Au- 
thority 



Concentrates 
Grains, seeds, and (heir products 

Com meal 

Corn cob 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Hominy feed 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Germ oil meal 

Com bran 

Wheat, ground 

Durum wheat 

Flour wheat middlings 

Standard wheat middlings 

Wheat bran, av. of all trials 

Wheat bran, winter 

Wheat bran, spring 

Wheat bran, low grade 

Wheat feed 

Wheat screenings 

Rye meal 

Rye feed 

Oats 

Oat feed, low grade 

( (at middlings 

Oat hulls 

Barley 

Barley, ground 

Barley bran 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Emmer 

Rice meal 

Rice polish 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Buckwheat 



12 
3 
3 
9 
19 
10 
5 

6 
4 
2 
4 
6 
20 
3 

7 
3 
4 
4 
2 
3 
17 

14 
2 
1 

15 
2 
2 
5 

5 
15 
2 
4 
6 
2 
2 



Per ct. 

90 
54 

79 
83 
86 
88 
76 

71 

87 

82 

65 
64 

67 
62 
73 
63 

87 
82 
70 

50 
90 
54 
88 
89 

78 
61 

74 
82 
61 
16 
71 



Per ct, 

74 
19 

52 
66 
85 
85 
73 

60 

74 
78 
88 
77 
78 
78 

76 
63 

77 
72 
84 
80 
78 

72 
80 
50 
78 
88 
85 
77 

81 
80 
62 
67 
65 
10 
75 



Per ct. 

57 
60 

45 
76 
76 
55 
75 

71 

59 
40 
36 
30 
31 
28 

43 
2S 
36 



35 

40 
49 
60 
56 
70 
20 
87 

49 
64 

26 

25 

1 

24 



Per ct. 

94 
52 

88 
90 
88 
90 

78 

80 
93 
92 

88 
78 
72 
71 

74 
71 
76 
73 
92 
88 
81 

55 
85 
53 
92 
93 
86 
80 

57 
89 
92 
91 
79 
35 
76 



Per ct. 

93 
50 

84 
91 
85 
93 
96 

80 
72 
65 
86 
88 
68 
65 

62 
92 
87 
88 
64 
90 
87 

83 
93 

77 
78 
86 
87 
85 

89 
88 
91 

82 

77 

67 

100 



H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

L 

L 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 

M 



048 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — con. 
Grains, seeds, and their products — con. 

Buckwheat middlings 

Buckwheat bran 

Kafir, ground, with legume hay 

Kafir, in unbalanced ration 

Kafir heads, with legume hay 

Kafir heads, in unbalanced ration 

Milo maize, in unbalanced ration 



Millet seed, whole 

Millet seed, ground 

Cotton seed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cottonseed meal, choice and prime . 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed hulls 



Flaxseed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process .... 

Cowpea meal 

Horse beans 

Pea meal 

Pea hulls 

Peanut cake, from hulled nuts. 

Peanut cake, many hulls 

Soybeans, ground 

Soybean meal, fat extract cil . . 

Cocoanut cake 

Palmnut cake 

Rapeseed cake 

Sesame oil cake 

Sunflower seed cake 



Slaughter house and animal by-products 

Skim milk 

Dried blood 

Fish meal 

Flesh meal 



Miscellaneous court nivalis 

Beet pulp, dried 

Beet pulp, molasses- 

Cocoa shells 

Distillers' grains, largely from coin . 
Distillers' grains, largely from rye 

Molasses, cane, or black-strap 

Molasses feeds 



Dried Roughage 
Cured corn and sorghum forage 

( 'inn fodder, dent, mature 

( !om fodder, dent, in milk 

1 '011 1 fodder, southern den*, immature. 

( !orn fodder, flint, mature 

Corn fodder, flint, ears forming 



Dry 

matter 



6 

6 

2 

2 

15 

4 

34 

13 

7 
3 
4 
2 
30 
2 

4 

7 



30 
11 

4 
11 

3 



Per ct. 

74 
49 

50 

34 

80 



66 
56 

77 

56 

41 

77 
79 
81 

87 

87 



32 

88 

82 



98 
71 



75 
83 
58 
79 
58 
78 
68 



66 
63 
57 
70 
70 



Crude 
proteiu 



Per ct. 

87 

47 
81 
47 
63 



59 
71 

68 
47 
84 
81 
58 
6 

91 
89 

86 
82 
87 
83 
71 
90 

71 
84 
92 
90 
74 
81 
92 
92 

94 
84 
78 
93 

52 
62 
11 
73. 
59 
32 
61 



45 
50 
27 
64 
70 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct, 

32 
39 
55 
44 
61 
35 
100 

41 
53 
76 
66 
37 
48 
45 
47 

60 
57 
73 
64 
58 
26 
94 
9 

12 
81 
99 
23 
55 
8 
73 
26 



83 
80 
51 
95 



50 



63 
64 
59 
76 

72 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

86 

56 
92 

51 
SO 
36 
84 

84 
92 
50 
51 

75 
72 
61 
34 

55 

78 
87 
93 
91 
94 
90 
84 

49 

73 

100 

87 
93 
76 
71 

71 

98 



83 
91 
73 
81 
67 
90 
79 



Fat 



Au- 
thority 



Per ct. 
83 

56 
76 
51 
74 

40 
88 

80 
73 

87 
72 
95 
96 
90 
79 

86 
89 
95 
74 
83 
55 
73 
90 

90 
82 
68 
100 
100 
79 
94 
90 



98 

100 

98 



100 
95 
84 

100 



73 
66 
61 
71 
71 



76 
71 
67 



H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H & M 
H & M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
II & M 
L 

M 
II & M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 

H & M 

M 

M 

H&M 

M 
M 
H&M 
M 
M 
M 
M 



H & M 

H&M 

H&M 

M 



H&M 
H & M 
H&M 

L 

L 
H&M 
H & M 



APPENDIX 



049 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



oJ2 

. 03 



Dry 

matter 



Crude 

protein 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



N-frce 
extract 



Fat 



Au- 
thority 



Dried Roughage — con. 
Cured corn and sorghum forage — con 

Sweel corn fodder 

Corn stover 

Com leaves 

Com husks 

Corn stover, tops and leaves 

New corn product 

Kafir fodder 

Kafir stover 

Milo fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Sorghum bagasse 

Hay from the grasses, etc. 

Bermuda grass 

Black grass 

Bluegrass, Canada 

Bluegrass, Kentucky 

Brome grass 

Brome grass, western 

Buffalo grass 

Bunch grass, black 

Chess, or cheat 

Crab grass, ripe 

Fescue, meadow 

Johnson grass 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, Hungarian 

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail 

Mixed grasses, 8-10% protein 

Mixed grasses, low in protein 

Oat grass, tall 

Orchard grass 

Quack, or couch grass 

Para grass 

Prairie grass, western 

Red top 

Rush, Baltic 

Salt grasses 

Salt bushes 

Sedges, western 

Spear grasses 

Timothy, av. of all trials 

Timothy, in bloom 

Timothy, past bloom 

Wheat grasses, miscellaneous 

Wheat grass, western 

Han from the smaller cereals 
Barley 

<>at 

Hay from the legumes 

Alfalfa, av. of all trials 

Alfalfa, first cutting 

Alfalfa, second cutting 



5 

3 

20 

1 

9 
5 
2 
7 
11 
2 

3 
4 
1 
8 
2 
9 

4 
2 
2 
73 
34 
4 
3 

3 
3 
16 
3 

2 
5 
6 
2 
1 

58 
8 

17 
6 

10 

4 
22 

109 
53 
21 



Per ct. 

67 
57 
60 

60 

63 
59 
56 
52 

58 
61 

54 
56 
62 
56 
63 
60 



45 
53 
61 

57 

59 
65 
62 
61 

52 

58 

62 



60 
67 
54 
51 

62 
62 
55 
59 
52 
55 
64 

59 

54 

60 
59 
62 



Per ct. 

i;i 
37 
45 
19 
55 

60 
46 
34 
16 
38 
14 

52 
58 
43 
57 
51 
68 

54 
20 
42 
44 
52 
44 

61 
60 
63 
57 
50 
43 
60 



62 
74 
45 
75 

62 
62 
48 
57 
43 
62 
55 

65 
54 

71 
67 
76 



Per ct. 

74 
66 

69 
73 

71 

61 

60 
67 
51 

61 
64 



59 
70 
66 
59 
53 

61 
54 
46 
60 
67 
67 

64 
68 
67 
62 
55 
56 
61 

61 
53 
58 
61 
71 
59 
14 

70 
71 
50 
57 
46 
58 
69 

62 
52 

43 

42 
44 



Per ct. 

68 

59 
63 
66 

62 

66 
67 
60 
61 
63 
65 

51 
52 
62 
61 
64 
67 

60 
47 
49 
53 
59 
57 

56 
67 
59 
62 
59 
52 
56 

67 
47 
53 
63 
61 
53 
56 

65 
60 
62 
63 
59 
57 
63 

63 

56 

72 
72 
74 



Per ct. 

74 
62 
59 
36 
71 

83 
60 
75 
63 
65 
46 

42 
44 
37 
52 
39 
16 

45 
37 
32 
43 
54 
46 

47 
64 
46 
50 
49 
46 
55 

56 
45 
42 
53 
49 
35 
41 

42 
43 
50 
48 
51 
34 
41 

41 
61 

38 
38 
40 



H & M 
H&M 
H&M 
H & M 
H&M 

1 1 & M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

L 

M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 

L 

L 

L 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 



650 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs ■ — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Dried Roughage — con. 

Hay from the legumes — con. 

Alfalfa, third cutting 

Alfalfa, budded to full bloom 

Clover, alsike 

Clover, bur 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, red, av. of all trials 

Clover, red, in bloom 

Clover rowen 

Clover, sweet, white 

Clover, white 

Cowpea 

Lupine, wild 

Peanut vine 

Sanfoin 

Serradella 

Soybean 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, hairy 



Hay from mixed grasses and legumes 
Clover and mixed grasses, western . . . 

Clover and timothy 

Peas and oats 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat 



Rice straw 

Rye straw 

Soybean straw . 
Wheat straw . . 
Wheat chaff. . 



Fresh Green Roughage 



Corn fodder, dent, in milk. 

Corn fodder, dent, mature 

Corn fodder, flint, mature 

Corn fodder, sweet, in milk 

Com fodder, sweet, roasting ears . 

Sorghum fodder, all trials 

Sorghum fodder, in bloom 

Fresh green greisses and, cereals 

Barley 

Bluegrass, native 

Brome grass, western 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, Hungarian 

Mixed grasses, immature. 



. a 



Straw and cliaff 

Barley straw 7 

Flax shives 2 

Horse bean straw 5 

Oat straw 18 

Oat chaff 2 

6 
9 
4 

H) 
3 



Corn and the sorghums 

Corn fodder, dent, immature 14 

' 17 

23 

4 
2 
L2 
6 



Dry 

matter 



Per ct. 

58 
60 
56 

62 
59 

62 

61 
66 
59 
68 

60 



60 
65 

67 

68 
55 

62 
58 
66 



45 



54 



68 
70 
69 
69 

77 

65 



53 
60 
70 
63 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

70 
70 
62 
81 
69 
59 

62 
65 

75 
73 

68 

75 

72 
70 
75 
73 
67 
79 

55 
47 
73 
65 
74 

25 
81 
49 

28 
38 

22 
23 
50 
23 
26 



66 
62 
54 

52 
78 
62 
44 
47 

71 
64 
68 
60 
64 
70 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per ct. 

40 
43 
48 
64 
47 
54 

53 
47 
34 
61 
47 
56 

52 
36 
50 
57 
57 
59 

72 
51 
58 
55 
65 

54 
26 
43 
60 
45 

59 
55 
38 
50 
39 



65 
64 
59 
75 
75 
60 
55 
62 

59 
45 
53 
69 
70 
66 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 
70 

72 
64 
76 
65 
66 

68 
63 

72 
70 
68 
75 

72 
74 
63 
64 
72 
71 

70 
60 
61 
59 

68 

53 
43 

68 
51 
49 

46 
39 
66 
37 
33 



71 
77 
75 
71 
81 
77 
73 
75 

72 
60 
67 
70 
67 
75 



Fat 



Au- 
thority 



Per ct. 

42 
39 
43 
5 
44 
57 

54 
60 
31 
51 
39 
57 . 

SO 
66 
65 
44 
64 
67 

70 
45 
59 
55 
64 

39 
93 

57 
39 

48 

23 
36 
60 
31 
43 



86 
76 
75 
66 
74 
75 
64 
70 

56 
50 
16 
62 
62 
62 



H & M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 

M 

M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 

H&M 
M 
M 
M 
M 



L 

L 

L 

L 

H&M 
H & M 

L 

L 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
M 



APPENDIX 



651 



Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs ■ — continued. 



Fe< ding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Fresh green grasses and cereals — con. 

Mixed grasses, late in season 

Oat fodder 

Orcluvrd grass 

Red top 

Rye fodder 

Timothy 

Green legumes 

Alfalfa 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, red 

Clover rowen 

Cowpea 

Lupine 

Pea, field, Canada 

Sanfoin 

Soybean, all trials 

Soybean, in bloom 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, hairy 

Mixed legumes and grasses 

Peas and barley 

Peas and oats 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat 

Roots and tubers 

Beet, sugar 

Carrot 

Mangel 

Potato 

Rutabaga 

Turnip 

Miscellaneous green forages 

Cabbage 

Cabbage waste, outer leaves 

Cactus, prickly pear 

Kale 

Pumpkin 

Rape 

Silage 

Corn, dent, mature 

Corn, dent, immature 

Clover 

Corn and soybean 

Cowpea 

Kafir, well matured 

Millet, barnyard, and soybean 

Oat and pea 

Sorghum, well matured 

Soybean 

Vetch 



Dry 

matter 



Crude 
protein 



3 




2 


74 


3 


63 


2 


61 


3 




2 


66 


2 




4 


68 


2 


68 


8 


63 


2 




23 


64 


2 




2 


62 


14 


71 


4 




10 


70 


3 


67 


5 


69 


30 




5 


86 


6 


84 


30 




2 


87 


10 




4 


93 


2 


74 


4 


65 


4 


68 


7 


81 


4 


86 


27 


66 


17 


64 


5 


43 


S 


69 


4 


60 


3 


55 


4 


59 


2 


65 


3 


57 


7 


56 


2 1 


63 



Per ct. Per ct 



56 
73 
60 
61 
79 
48 



74 

77 
67 
62 
76 
75 

81 
73 
77 
77 
71 
83 



75 

74 
75 
74 



76 
59 
51 
SO 
73 



86 
64 
50 
81 

77 
89 



51 
53 
34 
63 

57 

57 
75 

66 
56 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber N ; frcu ( 
extract 



Per ct, 

62 
55 
60 

61 
80 
56 



42 
56 
53 
53 
60 
56 

49 
42 
45 
47 
44 
64 



52 
59 
68 
68 



34 

100 



74 
51 

100 
78 
47 
59 
61 
87 



65 
68 
48 
62 
52 

57 
69 
61 
58 
53 
63 



Per ct, 

61 
63 

55 
62 
71 
66 



74 
78 
65 
81 

76 

74 
78 
75 
71 
76 
77 



68 
68 
68 
73 



97 
94 
94 
90 
95 
92 

99 

84 
81 
76 
89 
92 



71 
66 
45 
77 
73 

62 
59 
67 
64 
65 
67 



Fat 



Au- 
thority 



Per ct. 

46 
70 
54 

50 
74 
53 



38 
66 
65 
61 
59 
57 

54 
67 
53 
50 
59 
72 



59 
64 
47 

57 



100 



84 



56 
37 
68 
66 
92 
49 



82 
71 
45 
83 
63 

50 
72 
75 
56 

57 

77 



M 
H & M 

M 

M 
H&M 
H&M 



H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
L 

H&M 

M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 



H&M 
H&M 
H&M 
H&M 



M 

L 

H&M 

M 
H&M 

M 

L 

L 
H&M 
H&M 

L 
H&M 



L 

L 

H&M 
H & M 
H&M 

L 

L 
H&M 

L 

L 
H&M 



652 FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Table II. Average digestibility of American feeding stuffs — continued. 



B. Experiments with Horses 



Feeding stuff 



Corn 

Corn meal 

Oats 

Timothy hay 

Meadow hay, excellent 
Meadow hay, good. . . 
Meadow hay, poor — 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay, red 



Dry 

matter 



2 

2 

34 

2 

4 

14 

12 

6 

5 



Per ct. 
74 

88 
44 



Crude 
protein 



Per ct. 

58 
76 
80 
21 
03 
58 
55 
73 
56 



Carbohydrates 



Fiber 



Per et. 



29 
43 

48 
39 
38 
46 
37 



N-free 
extract 



Per ct. 

83 
96 
75 
47 
65 
58 
52 
70 
63 



Fat 



Per et. 

48 
73 
71 
47 
22 
18 
29 
14 
29 



Au- 
thority 



H&M 
H&M 

M 
H & M 

M 

M 

M 

M 

M 



G. Experiments with Calves 



Whole milk 

Pasteurized whole milk 


13 
9 
3 
3 




94 
93 
87 
95 




98* 
98* 
98* 
98* 


97 
96 
95 


H&M 
H & M 


Cooked whole milk 

Skim milk 


H&M 
H&M 



D. Experiments with Swine 



Shelled com 

Ground com 

Com-and-cob meal 

Wheat 

Red dog flour 

Wheat middliaigs (shorts) 

Wheat bran 

Barley 

Rye 

Sorghum seed 

Broom-com millet seed . . 

Rice 

Pea meal 

Linseed meal, old process 

Soybean meal 

Skim milk 

Dried blood 

Tankage 

Pork cracklings 

Potato 

* Assumed. 



33 


87 


75 


44 


92 


64 


47 


87 


76 


46 


93 


64 


1 


76 


76 


28 


84 


82 


2 




80 


60 


83 


70 


2 


87 


88 






36 


9 


82 


83 


30 


86 


83 


2 


66 


75 


39 


66 


72 


29 




77 


12 


89 


44 


4 




84 


10 


94 


41 


9 




60 


20 


83 


72 


1 


73 


68 


33 


92 


59 


2 




86 




100 


70 


11 




90 


70 


96 


49 


9 


78 


85 


16 


S2 


70 


5 




84 


30 


100 


84 


5 




100 




100 


100 


1 


72 


72 




92 




5 




71 




100 


100 


20 


100 


94 






100 


4 


97 


84 




98 





H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 
M 
M 
M 
H&M 
M 
M 

H&M 
H&M 
H&M 

M 
H & M 
H & M 

L 



APPENDIX 



653 



Table III. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constit- 
uents in American Feeding Stuffs 

The data for the digestible nutrients in this table are derived by 
combining the data in the two preceding tables, according to the method 
described in Article 69 of the text. Where no digestion coefficients are 
available for any feed, the digestion coefficients for a similar feed have 
been used and that fact indicated by an asterisk. The total digestible 
nutrients given in the fifth column is the sum of the digestible crude 
protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the digestible fat X 2.25. 
(69-70) For the convenience of the student and farmer in computing 
rations, the sixth column, showing the nutritive ratio of each feeding 
stuff, has been added to the table. 

The fertilizing constituents given are mostly from an exhaustive com- 
pilation by the authors of the analyses reported by the State Experiment 
Stations, and the United States Department of Agriculture. A few 
values have been taken from Mentzel and Lengerke's, Lanclwirtsehaft- 
liche Kalcndcr for 1914, and other sources. 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Total 



Nutritiye 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Concentrates 
Com and its products 

Dent corn 

Flint com 

Soft com 

Sweet com * 

Pop com * 

Com meal or chop 



Corn cob 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Hominy feed, high grade. . 
Hominy feed, low grade * . 

Hominy, pearled * 

Gluten feed, high grade . . . 

G hit en feed, low grade *. . 
Gluten meal, high grade. . 
( ! hi ten meal, low grade * . . 
( renn oil meal, high grade . 
Germ oil meal, low grade * 
Com bran 



Wheat aiid its products 

Wheat, all analyses 

Wheat, Atlantic states 

Wheat, Minn., N. D., S. D., Nebr., 

Kan 

Wheat, Miss, valley, except 

above states 

Wheat, Rocky Mountain states.. . 
Wheat, Pacific states 



Lbs. 

89.5 
87.8 
69.4 
90.7 
90.6 
88.7 

90.0 
89.6 
89.9 
90.9 
89.4 
91.3 

91.2 
90.9 
91.8 
91.1 
92.2 
90.0 

89.8 
88.8 

89.6 

89.5 
91.5 
89.1 



Lbs. 

7.5 
7.7 
5.5 
8.5 
9.0 
6.9 

0.4 
6.1 
7.0 
6.3 
5.8 
21.6 

15.1 
30.2 
23.2 
16^5 
10.0 
5.8 



9.2 

8.7 

10.0 

9.1 
9.8 
7.3 



Lbs. 

67.8 
66.1 
53.3 
64.5 
66.7 
69.0 

47.3 
63.7 
61.2 
64.1 
72.1 
51.9 

57.8 
43.9 
44.1 
42.6 
50.3 
56.9 



67.5 
67.5 

66.3 

67.5 

6S.1 
69.1 



Lbs. 



4.6 
4.6 
3.5 
7.3 
4.8 
3.5 

0.2 
3.7 
7.3 
5.6 
3.1 
3.2 

4.8 
4.4 
9.7 
10.4 
10.0 
4.6 

1.5 
1.4 

1.5 

1.4 
1.6 
1.4 



Lbs. 

85.7 
84.2 
66.7 
89.4 
86.5 
83.8 

48.1 
78.1 
84.6 
83.0 
84.9 
80.7 

83.7 
S4.0 
89.1 
82.5 
82.8 
73.1 



80.1 
79.4 

79.7 

79.8 
81.5 
79.6 



1: 

10.4 
9.9 

11.1 
9.5 
8.6 

11.1 

119.2 
11.8 
11.1 

12 2 

13 !6 
2.7 

4.5 
1.8 
2.8 
4.0 
7.3 
11.6 

7.7 
8.1 

7.0 

7.8 
7.3 
9.9 



Lbs. 

16.2 
16.6 
11.8 
18.4 
19.4 
14.9 

3.2 
13.8 
17.0 
15.2 
12.5 
40.6 

28.5 
56.8 
43.7 
36.2 
21.9 
15.5 

19.8 
18.7 

21.6 

19.7 
21.3 

15.8 



Lbs. 

6.9 
6.8 
5.4 



6.1 

0.7 
5.8 
12.4 
12.5 
2.3 
6.2 



8.6 
8.5 

8.6 

8.5 
8.7 
8.5 



Lbs. 

4.0 
3.9 
3.1 



6.6 
6.3 
9.5 
9.6 
1.6 
2.3 

2.3 
1.2 
1.2 
2.5 
2.5 
5.4 



5.3 
5.2 

5.2 

5.2 
5.4 

5.2 



054 



■'!>:i>S AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents— conlinvi 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 1 1 — 
100 lbs. | Crude 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Fat 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Phos- 
phoric Potash 
acid 



Concentrates — con. 
Wheat and its products — co: 

Winter wheat 

Spring wheat 

Durum wheat 

Polish wheat * 

Wheat flour, patent * 

Wheat flour, graham * 

Red dog flour * 



Flour wheat middlings 

Standard wheat middlings (si 
Wheat bran, all analyses . . . 

Wheat bran, whiter 

Wheat bran, spring 

Wheat bran, low grade * . . . 
Wheat feed (shorts and bran) 
Wheat screenings 



orts) 



Rye and its products 

Rye 

Rye meal or chop 

Rye flour * 

Rye middlings * 

Rye bran * 

Rye feed (shorts and bran) . . 

Oats and oat products 

Oats 

Oats, light weight * 

Oat kernel, without hull * . . 

Oat meal * 

Ground oats, high grade * . . 
Oat feed, low grade 



Oat middlings 

Oat bran * 

Oat dust * 

Oat hulls 

Corn and oat feed, high grade * . . 
Corn and oat feed, low grade *. . . 

Barley, its products, and emmer 

Barley 

Barley, bald *....: 

Barley feed * 

Barley shorts * 

Barley bran 

Barley screenings * 

Malt* 



Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Brewers' grains, dried, below 25^ 

protein * 

Brewers' grains, wet * 

Emmer (spelt) 

Emmer, without hulls * 



Lbs. 

89.1 
89.9 
S9.6 
90.5 
87.7 
88.0 
88.9 

89.3 
89.6 
89.9 
89.4 
89.6 
90.0 
89.9 
89.8 

90.6 
89.0 

88.2 
88.6 
88.6 
88.5 

90.8 
91.3 
93.1 
92.1 

89.2 
89.8 

92.7 
93.6 
93.4 
93.2 

88.6 
90.5 



90.7 
90.6 
89.8 
89.8 
93.4 
88.6 
94.2 

92.4 
92.5 

91.8 
24.1 
91.3 

89.5 



Lbs. 

8.7 
9.2 
11.0 
15.0 
8.1 
12.1 
14.8 



15.7 
13.4 
12.5 
12 2 
11.9 

7.5 
12.9 

9.6 

9.9 

9.2 

6.6 

12.6 

12 2 

12.2 

9.7 
9.6 
11.4 
12.8 
9.4 
6.9 

13.0 
8.8 
9.1 
2.0 
7.3 
6.0 



9.0 

8.4 

10.8 

11.0 

7.7 

8.3 

15.8 

20.3 
21.5 

18.7 
4.6 
9.5 

11.9 



Lbs. 

67.8 
67.2 
64.2 
60.9 
69.6 
61.2 
56.5 

52.8 
46.2 
41.6 
40.9 
43.3 
41.4 
45.1 
47.3 

68.4 
67.6 
72.0 
55.5 
56.6 
55.8 

52.1 
49.5 
57.7 
56.9 
51.4 
37.0 

54.9 
36.1 
34.9 

45.2 
60.6 
52.4 

66.8 
67.5 
54.6 
52.5 
52.4 
47.7 
62.7 

47.4 
30.5 

32.1 

8.7 

63.2 

62.3 



Lbs. 

1.4 
1.6 
1.6 

1.2 
0.9 

1.8 
3.5 

4.3 
4.3 
3.0 
2.9 
3.0 
3.3 
4.0 
3.6 

1.2 
1.3 
0.7 
3.1 

2.8 
2.9 

3.8 
4.1 
7.5 
6.0 
4.1 
3.2 

6.3 

3.9 
4.3 
1.3 
3.4 
3.1 

1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
3.4 
2.4 
2.5 
3.2 

1.3 
6.1 

5.7 
1.5 
1.7 
2.2 



Lbs. 

79.7 
80.0 
78.8 
78.6 
79.7 
77.3 
79.2 

78.2 
69.3 
60.9 
59.6 
62.0 
56.3 
67.0 
65.0 

81.0 

79.7 
80.2 
75.1 
75.1 
74.5 

70.4 
68.3 
86.0 
83.2 
70.0 
51.1 

82.1 
53.7 
53.7 
50.1 
75.6 
65.4 

79.4 
80.4 
72.2 
71.2 
65.5 
61.6 
85.7 

70.6 
65.7 

63.6 
16.7 
76.5 
79.2 



8.2 
7.7 
6.2 
4.2 
8.8 
5.4 
4.4 

4.0 
4.2 
3.9 
3.9 
4.2 
6.5 
4.2 
5.8 



7.2 
7.7 
11.2 
5.0 
5.2 
5.1 

6.3 
6.1 
6.5 
5.5 
6.4 
6.4 

5.3 
5.1 
4.9 
24.1 
9.4 
9.9 



2.5 
2.1 

2.4 
2.6 
7.1 

5.7 



Lbs. 

18.7 
20.0 
22.6 
32.5 
17.4 
21.9 
26.9 

28.5 
27.7 
25.6 
25.1 
25.1 
19.0 
26.9 
21.3 

18.9 
17.4 
12.6 
25.1 
24.5 
24.5 

19.8 
19.7 
22.9 
25.6 
19.4 
15.4 

26.1 
19.5 
20.2 
6.4 
15.4 
14.2 

18.4 
17.3 

20.3 
20.6 
14.6 
18.4 
28.8 

42.2 
42.4 

37.0 

9.1 

19.0 

23.8 



Lbs. 

8.5 
8.6 
8.6 
8.6 
2.0 
6.4 
20.0 

2i". i 

29.5 
29.3 
29.4 
29. 
21.9 
7.4 

7.3 
8.3 

5.6 

15.4 

5.6 

8.1 
8.2 



8.0 
5.9 

12.7 



2.1 
7.5 
5.7 

S.5 
12.8 
'9.7 

9.5 

16.5 
9.9 

9.8 
2.4 
7.6 



APPENDIX 



655 



TabIiE III . Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continued. 



Feeding staff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude ; Carbo- I 
protein 'hydrates. 



Concentrates — con. 
Rice and its products 

Rough rice * 

Polished rice * 

Rice polish 

Rice bran, high grade 

Rice bran, low grade 

Rice meal 

Rice hulls 



Buckwheat and its products 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat flour * 

Buckwheat middlings 

Buckwheat bran, high grade . 
Buckwheat bran, low grade ; 
Buckwheat feed, good grade 
Buckwheat feed, low grade * 
Buckwheat hulls * 



The sorghums, etc. 

Kafir grain 

Kafir-head chops 

Milo grain * 

Milo-head chops * 

Feterita grain * 

Durra grain * 

Shallu gram * 



Kaoliang grain * 

Sorghum grain * 

Broom-com seed * 

Hog, or broom-corn, millet seed . . 

Foxtail millet seed 

Barnyard millet seed * 

Pearl millet seed 



Cotton seed and its products 

Cotton seed 

Cottonseed meal, choice 

Cottonseed meal, prime 

Cottonseed meal, good * 

Cold-pressed cottonseed cake . 

Cottonseed feed 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed-hull bran * 

Flaxseed and its pivducts 

Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process 

Linseed meal, new process 

Flax feed * 

Flax screenings * 

Leguminous seeds and their 
products 

Adzuki bean * 

Bean, navy * 



Lbs. 

90.4 

87.7 
90.0 
89.9 
90.5 
90.5 
90.7 

87.9 

87.2 
88.0 
88.8 
89.9 
88.2 
88.1 
89.7 

88.2 
87.5 
89.3 
89.7 
89.2 
90.1 
90.3 

90.1 
87.3 
88.2 
90.9 
89.2 
89.8 
92.0 

90.6 
92.5 
92.2 
92.1 
92.1 
91.7 
90.3 
91.6 



90.8 
90.9 
90.4 
90.6 
91.4 



86.0 
86.6 



Lbs. 

4.7 
4.6 
8.0 
7.9 
7.1 
7.3 
0.3 



8.1 
5.9 
24.6 
10.5 
2.4 
9.1 
3.7 
0.4 

9.0 
6.1 
8.7 
6.3 
9.3 
8.2 
10.1 

8.5 
7.5 
8.3 
8.4 
8.6 
7.6 
8.3 



13.3 
37.0 
33 .4 
31.6 
21.1 
14.2 
0.3 
0.2 



20.6 
30.2 
31.7 
12.0 
11.1 



17.4 
18.8 



Lbs. 

64.6 

72.8 
57.2 
38.1 
37.7 
48.1 
12.3 



49.7 
58.0 
38.3 
30.4 
21.4 
30.2 
24.0 
13.9 



65.8 
56.6 
66.2 
58.1 
66.6 
67.9 
66.3 

67.0 
66.2 
62.9 
63.7 
60.6 
57.0 
64.7 

29.6 
21.8 
24.3 
25.6 
33.2 
30.7 
33.3 
33.3 



17.0 
32.6 
37.9 
34.2 
35.1 



54.3 
51.3 



Lbs. 

1.7 
0.4 

7.5 

8.8 

7.5 

10.6 

0.7 



2.3 
2.0 
2.2 
1.9 
2.5 
2.7 
2.6 

3.3 
2.6 
2.6 
2.4 
3.0 
3.4 
4.9 

16.5 
8.6 
7.9 

7.8 
7.4 
5.7 
1.5 
0.9 



29.0 

6.7 

2.8 

12.5 

10.4 



0.4 
0.8 



Total 



Lbs. 

73.1 

78.3 
82.1 
65.8 
61.7 
79.2 
14.2 

63.4 
67.3 
76.6 
48.1 
27.6 
45.8 
32.4 
15.9 

80.0 
66.7 
79.9 
68.7 
81.5 
82.2 
82.2 

82.9 
79.5 
77.0 
77.5 
76.0 
72.2 
84.0 

80.0 

78.2 
75.5 
74.8 
70.9 
57.7 
37.0 
35.5 

102.8 
77.9 
75.9 
74.3 
69.6 



72.6 
71.9 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1: 

14.6 

16.0 

9.3 

7.3 

7.7 

9.8 

46.3 

6.8 



10 

2 
3 
10 

4 

7 
38 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



7.9 
9.9 
8.2 
9.9 
7.8 
9.0 
7.1 

8.8 
9.6 
8.3 
8.2 
7.8 
8.5 
9.1 



5.0 
1.1 
1.3 
1.4 
2.4 
3.1 
122.3 
176.5 



4.0 
1.6 
1.4 
5.2 
5.3 



3.2 

2.8 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs 



12.2 

11.8 
19.0 
19.4 
17.4 
18.9 
5.3 



17.3 
12.6 
45.3 
35.7 
17.1 
30.9 
21.3 
7.0 

17.8 
15.5 
17.1 
16.0 
18.4 
16.2 
20.0 

16.8 
14.7 
16.3 
18.9 
19.4 
17.1 
18.7 



31.2 
70.6 
63.7 
60.2 
41.8 
39.2 
7.4 
5.4 

36.2 
54.2 
59.0 
26.6 
24.6 



33.6 
36.3 



4.9 
1.7 

30.8 

22.2 
22.6 

6.9 



10.0 
4.4 

23.4 

16.5 
9.4 

11.0 
8.4 
5.7 



o ./ 
7 '.8 



7.2 
4.6 



15.0 

26.7 
26.6 
26.6 

14.7 
3.6 



15.0 
17.0 
17.7 

3.5 



2.6 
0.6 
11.7 
12.0 
12.2 

2.2 

7.0 
1.9 
11.S 
10.0 
9.1 
7.9 
8.2 
8.6 

3.1 
4.3 



3.3 

5.2 
3.7 



15.0 
18.1 
18.0 
18.0 

14.7 

12.8 



9.5 
12.7 
13.0 

12.6 



13.7 



656 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continued. 



Feeding staff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude I Carbo- 
protein .hydrates 



Fat 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Concentrates — con. 

Leguminous needs and their 

products — con. 

Bean, navy, cull * 

Cowpea 

Frijole * 

Horse bean 

Jack bean * 

Pea, field 

Pea, garden 

Pea meal 

Pea bran * 

Pea hulls 

Peanut, with hull * 

Peanut kernel, without hull * . . . . 

Peanut waste * 

Peanut cake, from hulled nuts. . . . 

Peanut cake, hulls included 

Peanut hulls * 

Sesbania macrocarpa * 

Soybean 

Soybean meal, fat extracted 

Tepary * 

Velvet bean, seed * 

Velvet bean, seed and pod * 

Miscel. oil-bearing seeds anil their 
products 

Cocoanut meal, low in fat 

Cocoanut meal, high in fat 

Palmnut cake 

Rapeseed cake 

Sesame oil cake 

Sunflower seed, with hulls * 

Sunflower seed, without hulls *.. . . 
Sunflower seed cake 

Milk and its products 

Cow's milk 

Cow's milk, colostrum 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, dried * 

Buttermilk * 

Whey* 

Slaughter house by-products 

Dried blood 

Fish meal, high in fat 

Fish meal, low in fat 

Fish-glue waste *...*. 

Fresh bone * 

Meat-and-bone meal, 30-40% 

ash * 

Meat-and-bone meal, over 40% 

ash* 



Lbs. 



87.2 
88.4 
90.4 
87.4 
88.5 
90.8 
88.2 

89.1 
90.1 
92. S 
93.5 
94.0 
96.0 
89.3 

94.4 
90.9 
90.8 
90.1 

88.2 
90.5 

88.3 
87.7 



90.4 
92.3 
89.6 
90.0 
90.2 
93.1 
95.5 
90.0 

13.0 
25.5 
9.9 
9.6 
91.7 
9.4 
6.6 

90.3 

89.2 
87.2 
86.0 
69.6 

94.0 

93.4 



Lbs. Lbs. 



18.3 
19.4 
20.4 
22.8 
20.7 
19.0 
21.2 

19.8 
8.7 
4.9 
18.4 
24.1 
22.0 
42.8 

20.2 
0.4 
27.6 
30.7 
38.1 
18.4 
18.1 
14.9 



18.8 
18.4 
12.4 
25.3 
34.5 
13.5 
23.3 
32.0 

3.3 
16.5 
3.6 
3.1 
34.4 
3.4 
0.8 

69.1 
37.8 
40.9 
30.5 
18.3 

37.0 

30.9 



54.3 
54.5 
53.8 
49.1 
50.9 
55.8 
51.5 

53.6 

65.2 
74.7 
15.3 
14.9 
22.9 
20.4 

16.0 
33.0 

42.4 
22.8 
33.9 
56.6 
50.8 
51.7 



42.0 
37.6 
45.8 
23.7 
20.0 
38.1 
17.0 
18.3 

4.9 
2.6 
5.1 
4.6 
25.3 
4.9 
4.7 



Lbs. 



0.8 
1.1 

0.6 
0.7 
2.2 
0.6 
0.9 

0.8 

0.8 

0.9 

32.6 

40.4 

30.1 

7.2 

10.0 
2.1 
3.6 

14.4 
5.0 
0.8 
5.3 
3.8 



8.1 
17.1 
9.5 
7.6 
13.2 
20.3 
33.9 
16.5 

4.3 
3.5 
0.2 
0.9 
4.1 
0.1 
0.3 

0.9 

11.6 

2.2 

7.9 

24.5 

11.0 

9.8 



Lbs. 



74.4 
76.4 
75.6 
73.5 
76.6 
76.2 
74.7 

75.2 
75.7 
81.6 
107.1 
129.9 
112.6 
79.4 

58.7 
38.1 
78.1 
85.9 
83.2 
76. S 
80.8 



79.0 
94.5 
79.6 
66.1 

84.2 
97.3 
116.6 

87.4 

17.9 
27.0 
9.1 
9.7 
68.9 
8.4 
6.2 

71.1 
63.9 
45.9 
48.3 
73.4 

61.8 

53.0 



3.1 
2.9 

2.7 



2.8 
7.7 
1.6 
4.8 
4.4 
4.1 
0.9 

1.9 
94.2 
1.8 
1.8 
1.2 
3.2 
3.5 
4.0 



3.2 
4.1 
5.4 
1.6 
1.4 
6.2 
4.0 
1.7 

4.4 
0.6 
1.5 
2.1 
1.0 
1.5 
6.8 

0.03 
0.7 
0.1 
0.6 
3.0 

0.7 

0.7 



Lbs. 



35.4 
37.8 
39.4 
41.9 
38.1 
36.6 
41.0 

38.1 
19.5 
11.0 
32.6 
42.9 
39.0 
76.2 

45.4 
11.7 
50.7 
58.4 
66.2 
35.5 
33.3 
27.4 



33.4 
32.6 
26.9 
49.9 
60.0 
25.8 
44.3 
55.7 

5.6 
28.2 
6.1 
5.3 
58.6 
5.8 
1.6 

131.5 

77.4 
83.8 
62.6 
31.5 

63.7 

5.31 



Lbs. 

10.1 
12.4 

8.4 

9.2 
3.1 

7.6 
10.1 

11.6 

i'i 

13.7 



12.5 
7.8 
11.0 
20.3 
33.2 
12.2 

21.6 

1.9 
6.6 
2.2 
2.2 

1.7 
1.2 

4.9 
140.0 



APPENDIX 



657 



'I 'able 111. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continued. 



Feeding stuff 



Concentrates — con. 
SlaughL r house by-products — con. 

Pork cracklings * 

Poultry bone * 

Tankage, over 00', protein *. . . . 

Tankage, 5.5-00% protein * 

Tankage, 45-55% protein * 

Tankage, below 45% protein *. . 

Miscellaneous concent rales 

Acorn, kernel and shell * 

Acorn, kernel * 

Beet pulp, wet * 

Beet pulp, dried 

Beet pulp, molasses- 

Bakery refuse * 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Lbs. 



Bread * 

Cassava, dried * 

Cassava starch refuse * 

Chess, or cheat seed * 

Cocoa shells 

Corn, oat, and barley feed * . 

Distillers' grains, dried, from corn 
Distillers' grains, dried, from rye 

Distillers' grains, wet * 

Distillery slop, whole * 

Distillery slop, strained * 

Lamb's-quarter seed * 

Molasses, beet * 

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap . .y. 

Molasses feeds, below 10% fiber 
Molasses feeds, 10-15% fiber. . 
Molasses feeds, over 15% fiber * 

Molasses-alfalfa feeds * 

Molassine meal * 

Mustard feed or bran * 

Pigeon-grass seed * 

Pigweed seed * 

Potato flakes, dried * 

Potato flour * 

Starch feed, dry * 

Starch feed, wet * 

Starch refuse * 



Dried Roughage 

Cured com and sorghum forage, etc. 

Corn fodder (ears, if any, remain- 
ing), very dry, from barn or in 
arid districts 

Corn fodder, medium in water .... 

Corn fodder, high in water 

Sweet com fodder 

Coin stover (ears removed), very 
dry 



95.0 
02.7 
92.0 
92.5 
92.5 
93.5 

72.1 
65.0 
9.3 
91.8 
92.4 
91.7 

66.2 
94.4 
88. 
92.3 
95.1 
)0.3 

93.4 

92.8 
22.0 
6.2 
4.1 
90.2 
74.7 

74.2 
88.4 
88.3 
90.7 
86.5 
S3. 4 
94.3 

89.3 
93.7 

87.9 
89.4 
90.7 
33.4 

89.7 



91.0 
81.7 
00.7 
87.7 

90.6 



Crude \ Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



8.5 
10.8 
3.6 
1.4 
11.2 
4.1 
4.6 



3.5 
3.0 

2.2 
5^9 



Lbs. Lbs. 



52.4 

22.0 
58.7 
54.0 
4S.1 
37.6 

2.3 
2.9 
0.5 
4.6 
5.9 
8.3 

5.8 
1.4 
0.5 
6.2 
1.7 
9.1 
y 

22 4 
13" 6 
3.3 
1.4 
1.0 
10.2 
1.1 

As 

8.2 
7.4 
8.4 
8.5 
5.4 
22.8 



Fat 



Lbs. 





32.0 




3.0 




12.6 




12.7 




13.7 




16.7 


36.2 


3.8 


27.3 


4.7 


6.5 


0.2 


65.2 


0.8 


68.0 


0.6 


60.8 


7.0 


51.9 


0.5 


77.4 


0.2 


56.4 


0.6 


60.6 


1.5 


44.8 


3.0 


59.9 


4.0 


40.4 


11.6 


38.0 


6.6 


13.3 


1.5 


2.8 


0.6 


1.4 


0.7 


40.6 


6.9 


59.4 




58.2 




47.2 


5.0 


47.7 


4.2 


45.5 


2.8 


41.0 


0.5 


50.3 


0.8 


28.7 


10.2 


45.4 


4.3 


43.8 


6.0 


67.2 


0.2 


73.9 


0.4 


55.0 


6.6 


20.0 


3.1 


66.1 


1.3 


51.7 


1.5 


47.3 


1.5 


35.5 


1.0 


47.6 


1.3 


47.8 


1.0 1 



Lbs. 

125.8 

29.4 
87.0 
82.6 

78.9 



47.1 

40.8 
7.4 
71.6 
75.3 
84.9 

58.8 
79.2 
58.3 
70.2 
53.3 
78.0 

88.9 
66.4 
20.0 
5.6 
4.0 
66.3 
60.5 

59.2 
06.6 
64.5 
60.2 
50.0 
57.5 
74.5 

63.6 
68.1 
71.2 
76.2 
81.0 
31.1 
73.6 



5S.G 
53.7 
39.9 
56.4 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phorio Potash 
acid 



1: 

1.4 
0.3 
0.5 
0.5 
0.0 
1.0 

19.5 
13.1 
13.8 
14.6 
11.8 
9.2 

9.1 

55.6 

115.6 

10.3 

30.4 

7.6 

3.0 
3.9 
5.1 
3.0 
3.0 
5.5 
54.0 

Z58.2 
7.1 
7.7 
0.2 
5.0 
9.0 
2.3 

0.5 

5.3 

18.8 

53.4 

6.2 

6.6 

15.0 



15.7 

16.9 

17.1 

8.6 



Lbs. 

90.2 
38.9 
101.0 
93.0 
82.7 
64.6 

5.4 

6.7 

1.4 

14.2 

15.2 

17.9 

12.6 
4.5 
1.3 
16.8 
24.6 
18.2 

49.1 

37.0 

7.2 

3.0 

2.2 

22 !e 

5.0 

5.0 
21.4 
19.5 
21.9 
19.2 
14.1 
50.7 

23.0 

24.0 
11.4 

4.3 
24.0 

9.0 
10.1 



12.5 

10.7 

7.7 

14.7 

9.4 



Lbs. 



6.1 

55.8 

101.5 
135.7 



0.4 
2.4 
1.5 



2.0 

0.6 

13.4 

6.8 
8.3 
1.6 
1.3 

6.5 

2.4 
8!4 

8.4 



2.2 
0.8 
2.9 



3.7 
3.3 
2.5 

4.0 

4.5 



Lbs. 



5.5 



0.7 
3.8 
18.1 



1.2 
2.8 
26.6 

1.7 * 

2.4 
0.4 
0.7 



56.3 

31.6 
20.6 
20.6 



y 



0.7 
0.2 
1.5 



9.9 
8.9 
6.6 
11.8 

12.9 



658 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continued. 



Feeding staff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
protein 



Carbo- 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Dkied Roughage — con. 

Cured corn and sorghum forage, 

etc. — -con. 

Corn stover, medium in water 

Com stover, high in water 

Corn leaves 

Com husks 

Corn tops 

New corn product 



Kafir fodder, dry 

Kafir fodder, high in water .... 

Kafir stover, dry 

Kafir stover, high in water 

Milo fodder, dry 

Milo fodder, high in water 

Milo stover, high in water * . . . 

Sorghum fodder, dry 

Sorghum fodder, high in water . 

Sorghum bagasse, dried 

Durra fodder * 

Broom-com fodder * 

Japanese cane fodder * 

Sugar-cane bagasse * 



Hay from the grasses, etc. 
Bent grass, Canada, or blue joint * 

Bermuda grass 

Black grass 

Bluegrass, Canada 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, all analyses. 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, in milk 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, ripe 

Bluegrass, native western * 

Brome grass, smooth 

Bluestem grasses * 

Buffalo grass 

Bunch grasses, miscellaneous .... 

Carpet grass * 

Chess, or cheat 



Crab grass 

Crow-foot grass * 

Fescue, meadow 

Fescues, native * 

Fowl meadow grass * . . . 
Foxtails, miscellaneous * . 
Gama grass * 



Grama grasses * 

Hair grasses, miscellaneous * . . . 

Johnson grass 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, common, or Hungarian . 

Millet, German * 

Millet, hog, or broom-com * . . . 
Millet, pearl, or cat-tail 



Lbs. 



81.0 
59.0 
76.6 
75.3 

82.1 
90.8 

91.0 
71.7 
83.7 
72.7 
88.9 
60.9 
64.5 

90.3 
62.6 

88.7 
89.9 
90.6 
93.2 
89.8 

93.3 

90.3 

89.7 
89.3 
86.8 
87.6 
76.3 

91.9 
91.5 
93.1 
93.0 
93.0 
92.1 
91.6 

90.5 
90.5 

88.3 
95.1 
88.9 
93.2 

88.2 

93.4 
93.4 
89.9 
86.5 
85.7 
91.3 
90.7 
87.2 



2.1 
1.4 
3.2 
0.6 
3.1 
3.8 



0.6 
0.4 

2.8 
1.5 
0.5 
1.0 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 

4.6 
3.7 
4.4 
2.8 
4.7 
4.8 
3.5 

6.4 
5.0 
2.4 
3.8 
1.2 
3.1 
3.0 

3.5 
3.8 
3.5 



3.2 
4.2 
2.9 
5.1 
5.0 
4.8 
5.3 
4.2 



42.4 
31.1 
40.1 
47.3 
45.5 
49.8 

45.0 
38.2 
43.1 
37.8 
36.3 
29.8 
31.3 

44.8 
32.9 
52.3 
43.6 
44.6 
55.0 
47.6 

44.6 
37.9 
39.4 
48.5 
43.5 
44.1 
38.3 

44.0 
44.2 
44.6 
43.9 
37.9 
44.6 
35.5 

40.0 
40.0 
45.2 
48.9 
43.0 
48.0 
40.5 

41.9 
41.9 
45.0 
40.5 
46.0 
49.7 
49.5 
43.8 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


0.7 


46.1 


0.6 


33.9 


1.1 


45.8 


0.3 


48.6 


1.1 


51.1 


2.3 


58.8 


1.7 


52.9 


1.6 


44.8 


1.3 


47.7 


1.0 


41.3 


2.8 


44.5 


1.4 


33.6 


0.5 


32.8 


2.0 


52.1 


1.8 


38.4 


0.6 


54.2 


1.8 


48.6 


1.1 


47.7 


1.2 


58.2 


3.3 


55.5 


1.3 


52.1 


0.8 


43.4 


1.1 


46.3 


0.9 


53.3 


1.5 


51.6 


1.5 


52.3 


1.6 


45.4 


1.6 


54.0 


0.9 


51.2 


0.8 


48.8 


0.8 


49.5 


0.7 


40.7 


1.0 


49.9 


0.7 


40.1 


1.0 


45.7 


0.9 


45.8 


1.1 


51.2 


1.1 


56.0 


1.4 


52.3 


1.7 


57.4 


0.8 


45.7 


0.7 


46.7 


0.9 


48.1 


1.0 


50.1 


0.8 


47.4 


1.8 


55.0 


1.7 


58.3 


1.6 


58.4 


0.8 


49.8 



21.0 
23.2 
13.3 
80.0 
15.5 
14.5 

11.9 
13.9 
27.1 
30.8 
22.4 
55.0 
81.0 

17.6 

24.6 

107.4 

47.6 

78.5 

115.4 

110.0 

10.3 
10.7 

9.5 
18.0 
10.0 

9.9 
12.0 

7.4 
9.2 
19.3 
12.0 
32.9 
15.1 
12.4 

12.1 
11.1 
13.6 
11.2 

7.6 

9.2 

12.4 

13.6 
10.5 
16.3 
8.3 
10.0 
11.1 
10.0 
10.9 



Lbs. Lbs 



9.1 
6.2 

11.4 
4.6 
9.0 

10.2 

14.2 

10.4 
8.2 
6.1 

19.2 
5.9 
3.7 

11.8 
6.2 
5.4 

10.2 
6.2 
2.2 
5.3 

12.2 
11.4 
12.0 
10.6 
13.3 
13.6 
9.8 

17.9 
15.8 

7.8 
11.2 

9.6 
11.2 
11.5 

12.8 
13.8 
10.9 
14.2 
15.7 
14.9 
10.7 

10.2 
13.3 

10.6 
13.3 
13.3 
12.8 
14.1 
10.7 



4.0 11.5 
8.3 



4.0 
2.0 
4.5 
5.4 



4.2 



6.6 
9.0 

4.6 



5.5 
3.6 
3.5 

4.4 



APPENDIX 



659 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Feeding stiff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crnde 


Carbo- 


Fat 


protein 1 hydrates 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


6.4 


49.5 


1.5 


4.3 


44.3 


1.2 


7.0 


39.9 


1.6 


3.7 


37.9 


O.S 


3.9 


43.9 


0.8 


4.0 


41.4 


0.8 


3.4 


38.4 


1.2 


6.5 


41.1 


1.0 


4.7 


41.1 


1.6 


2.3 


38.7 


0.4 


4.7 


46.1 


1.2 


4.0 


41.4 


1.1 


4.2 


49.7 


1.1 


5.0 


43.0 


1.2 


4.6 


45.9 


1.2 


4.5 


46.4 


1.1 


6.1 


44.4 


1.3 


4.5 


44.6 


1.4 


3.1 


42.8 


0.9 


4.6 


39.8 


0.8 


4.1 


45.0 


1.6 


3.9 


40.7 


1.0 


4.4 


39.0 


1.6 


7.5 


48.5 


0.9 


3.6 


40.0 


0.7 


6.9 


49.8 


1.0 


2.7 


41.8 


0.6 


4.7 


50.7 


0.9 


3.5 


40.1 


0.8 


7.1 


39.9 


2.3 


5.6 


40.2 


0.9 


3.0 


42.8 


1.2 


4.7 


42.0 


1.6 


3.6 


44.7 


1.2 


2.4 


39.0 


1.4 


2.2 


40.7 


1.1 


8.2 


35.8 


2.1 


4.0 


44.0 


0.8 


4.4 


44.7 


0.8 


4.2 


50.5 


0.9 


4.0 


48.4 


1.1 


3.8 


42.8 


1.4 


4.0 


47.3 


1.1 


4.6 


48.2 


0.9 


4.8 


47.0 


0.9 


6.5 


44.3 


0.9 


4.5 


38.1 


1.7 


2.9 


41.1 


1.1 



Total 



Nutritive 

ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in WOO lbs. 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phorio 
acid 



Potash 



Dried Roughage — con. 
Hay from the grasses, etc. — con. 

Millet, wild, or Indian * 

Mixed grasses 

Mixed grasses, rowen. ^r. 

Natal grass * 

Needle grasses * 

Nerved manna grass * 

Oat grass, tall, or meadow oat grass 

Old witch grass * 

Orchard grass 

Para grass 

Panic grasses * 

Prairie hay, western 

Quack grass 

Rescue grass * 



Red top, all analyses 

Red top, in bloom 

Reed bent grass * 

Reed canaiy grass * 

Reed grasses, miscellaneous 

western * 

Reed meadow grass, or manna *. 
Rhode Island bent grass * 

Rye grass, Italian * 

Rye grass, perennial * 

Rushes, western 

Salt grasses, miscellaneous 

Sedges, western 

Sedges, eastern * 

Spear grasses 



Swamp grasses * 

Sweet vernal grass * 

Teosinte * 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, before bloom 

Timothy, early to full bloom . . 

Timothy, late bloom to early 

seed 

Timothy, nearly ripe 

Timothy rowen * 

"Wheat grass, common * 

Wheat grasses, miscellaneous. . , 

Wheat grass, western 

Wild barley, or foxtail * 

Wild oat* 

Wild rye* 



Hay from the smaller cereals 

Barley hay, common 

Barley hay, bald 

Emmer hay * 

Oat hay 

Rye hay, all analyses * 



Lbs. 

93.3 

87.2 
86.4 
90.2 
94.7 
93.8 
88.2 

92.9 

88.4 
90.2 
92.1 
93.5 
94.1 
90.2 

90.2 
92.0 
94.1 
90.4 

93.0 
93.3 

88.5 

88.6 
88.0 
94.3 
94.7 
94.8 
90.7 
94.5 

90.2 
90.7 
89.4 
88.4 
92.8 
87.2 

85.1 

87.5 
84.9 
92.7 
93.6 
94.1 
92.5 
92.1 
89.2 

92.6 
91.3 
92.3 
88.0 
91.9 



Lbs. 

59.3 
51.3 

50.5 
43.4 
49.6 
47.2 
44.5 

49.8 
49.4 
41.9 
53.5 
47.9 
56.4 
50.7 



53.2 
53.4 
53.4 
52.3 

47.9 
46.2 
52.7 

46.8 
47.0 
58.0 
45.2 
58.9 
45.9 
57.4 

45.4 
52.2 
47.8 
48.5 
50.3 
51.0 

44.6 

45.4 

48.7 
49.8 
50.9 
56.7 
54.9 
49.8 
53.8 

54.8 
53.8 
52.8 
46.4 
46.5 



1: 

8.3 
10.9 

6.2 
10.7 
11.7 
10.8 
12.1 

6.7 
9.5 
17.2 
10.4 
11.0 
12.4 
9.1 

10.6 

10.9 

7 

10.6 

14.5 

9.0 

11.9 

11.0 
9.7 
6.7 

11.6 
7.5 

16.0 

11.2 

12.0 
6.4 
7.5 

15.2 
9.7 

13.2 

17.6 

19.6 
4.9 
11.4 
10.6 
12.5 
12.7 
12.1 
12.4 

10.9 

10.2 

7.1 

9.3 

15.0 



Lbs. 

17.0 
12.2 
19.7 
11.8 
12.5 
12.8 
12.8 

17.0 
12.6 
7.4 
13.3 
12.8 
11.7 
15.7 

11.8 
11.5 
16.3 
12.6 

9.9 
14.9 
10.6 

13.0 

14.7 
16.3 
13.0 
17.9 
9.8 
12.2 

12.3 

19.8 
14.6 
9.9 
15.7 
10.1 



8.3 
23.0 
10.4 
11.4 
12.3 
11.2 
12.8 
11.4 

11.2 

11.8 
16.0 
13.4 
10.7 



Lbs. 



6.3 



8.0 
5.0 



Lbs. 



16.4 
16.6 



16.4 
19*4 

18.8 

ik.9 

17.6 



9.3 



18.5 
42.6 
13.6 



19.5 



32.7 
17.0 



GGO 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilising constituents— cow. 



reeding staff 



_ , . Digestible nutrients in 1W . 

KuirffiT* 

: 



Ferriiizinj constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Jrade tarbo- 



Tota] 



Pi s- 

. nhoric Potash 
6™ 



Sitro- 



Dried Roeghage — con. Lbs. 
Hay from the -smaller cereals — con. 

Rveliav. heading out to in bloom* 91 .8 

Wheat nay* 91-9 

Hay from the lea 

Alfalfa, all analyses 91 .4 

Alfalfa, first cutting 91 .5 

Alfalfa, second cutting 92.7 

Alfalfa, third cutting 91.1 

Alfalfa, fourth cutting * S4 .0 

Alfalfa, before bloom * 93 .8 

Alfalfa, in bloom 92.5 

Alfalfa, in seed * S9.6 

Alfalfa, variegated, or sand I - 

ceme * 84 . S 

Alfalfa meal* 91.2 

Alfalfa leaves * 93 A 

Alfalfa stems * 94.4 

Bean, whole plant * v " I 

Beggarweed * 

Clover, alsike, all analyses 37.7 

Clover, alsike, in bloom S7 .4 

Clover, bur 93.0 

Clover, crimson, or scarlet S9 .4 

Clover, Egyptian, or berseem * . . . 92 . 5 

Clover, mammoth red * 81 .3 

Clover, red, all analyses ........ 87 1 

Clover, red, before bloom * 89 .6 

Clover, red, in bloom 86.1 

Clover, red, after bloom * 77 .9 

Clover, sweet, white 91 .4 

Clover, sweet, vellow * 91 .3 

Clover, white/. 91.9 

Clover meal * 91 .5 

Clover rowen 85 . 2 

Cowpea, all analyses V. 90 . 3 

Cowpea, before bloom * 92 . 2 

Cowpea, in bloom to early pod *. . . S9 . 4 

Cowpea. ripe * 90 .0 

Flat pea* 92.3 

Kudzu vine * 92 . 9 

Lespedeza. or Japan clover * 88 .2 

Lupines ' 92.2 

Pea, field 88. 9 

Pea, field, without peas * 90 .6 

Peanut vine, with nuts 92.2 

Peanut vine, without nuts 78 .5 

Sanfoin 84 . 1 

Serradella 90.3 

Soybean hay 91 .4 

Trefoil, yellow, or black medic *. . SS .8 

Velvet bean * 92 . S 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



6.4 46.0 
4.0 4S.5 



10.6 
9.3 
11.2 
10.2 
11.1 
15.4 



39.0 
39.0 
40.2 
37.1 
33.6 
35.5 



1.1 

0.S 

0.9 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.7 
1.6 



10.5 3S.5 0.7 50.6 
8.5 39.2 1.0 49.9 



54.9 
54.3 

51.6 
49.7 
53.0 
49.1 
46.3 
54.5 



7.6 
12.6 

3.9 
4.3 
3.7 
3.8 
3.2 
2.5 



4.9 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

15.7 

9.9 



10.1 35.2 0.S 47.1 3.7 

10.2 3S.7 0.S 50.7 4.0 
15. S 35.1 1.3 53. S 2.4 



l.S 
16.4 
11.6 

7.9 

8.2 
15.6 

9.7 

S.5 
6.4 
7.6 

11.6 
S.l 
6.8 

10.9 

10.0 
11.8 
S.l 
10.7 
13.1 
17.8 
12.6 

6.9 
18.4 

11.4 

S.6 

11.8 

12.2 

7.7 



46.9 
37.8 
36.2 
36.9 
36.4 
42.8 
36. S 

40.9 
37.2 
39.3 
38.1 

38. S 
34.1 
3S.2 

35.9 

43.3 
42.0 
33.1 
33.7 
27.0 
34.6 

42.1 
37.3 
39.8 
41.1 
44.3 
40.1 
47.0 



9.6 


39.6 


6.6 


37.0 


7.4 


39.8 


11.8 


35.1 


11.7 


39.2 


12.0 


37.5 


12.0 


40.3 



0.4 
0.8 
0.7 
1.1 
1.3 
0.2 
1.0 

1.4 
1.8 
1.8 
1.9 
1.8 
2.6 
0.7 

0.5 
1.5 
1.3 
2.2 
1.0 
1.0 
1.3 

1.0 
1.7 
1.2 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
0.9 



49.6 
56.0 
49.4 
47.3 
47.5 
58.8 
4S.7 

52.6 
47.6 
50.9 
54.0 
50.9 
46.7 



26.6 
2.4 
3.3 
5.0 
4.8 
2.S 
4.0 

5.2 
6.4 
•5.7 
3.7 
5.3 
5.9 



23. S 
22 2 
23.5 
23.4 
25.4 
35.2 

24.0 
19.5 

22.7 
22. 9 
36.0 

10.1 
36.0 
24.6 
20.5 
21.1 
30.7 
22.6 

23.0 
17.3 
20.5 
29.9 
21.0 
IS. 6 



5.4 22.3 

5.4 22.3 

5.4 22.6 

5.3 22.2 

4.9 20.5 



5.4 22.3 



9.4 
7.0 



6.1 



50.7 


3.7 


23.2 


47.0 


3.7 


21.4 


58.5 


4.0 


25.9 


53.0 


5.5 


21.9 


48.8 


3.6 


26.4 


49.0 


2.7 


30.9 


47.0 


1.6 


41.9 


50.1 


3.0 


29.6 



4.0 
6.6 

5.2 

4.0 



27.9 
17.4 



22.4 

24.7 
S.7 
16.3 
22.1 
15.4 
11.0 
12.6 

201) 

17.2 



9.6 41.3 



51.2 
59.5 
53.9 
52.2 
60.4 
56.6 
56.7 

67.9 
50.4 
51.0 
50.5 
53.6 
52.0 



6.4 
2 2 
3.7 
5.1 
4.1 
3.6 
6.4 



3.3 
3.6 



16.2 






36.3 


6.9 


24.3 


26.7 






19.4 


10.3 


20.7 


25.3 






24.2 


6.7 


12.4 


15.2 






21.3 






14.6 


2 2 


13.9 


16.8 


4.6 


13.1 


25.1 


10.3 


15.1 


25.6 


6.S 


23.3 


27.0 


5.7 


S.l 


26.2 


5 .5 


26.5 



APPENDIX 



661 



Taulk III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



tadng itet 



, , , Direstible nutrients in 1C " 

lotai drr _ - . ... 

matter ii Kntrmre 



Fertilizing constitnents 
in 1000 lbs. 



100 lbs. Crude Carbo- | 
1 protein hydrates 



Fat 



:-•;: 



gen 



Phos- I 

phorie , Potash 
acid I 



Dried Ri eon. 



Lbs 



Lbs. Lbs. ' Lbs. Lbs. 



Hay J con. 
itch, common 

■teh, hairy 87.7 

'teh. kidney * 90.3 

itches, wOd * 93.4 

m mixed legunu < 

gro- 
over and mixed grasses v 

over and timothy ^7 ~- 

aver mixed rowen * v " 

w-peas and millet * 90. 3 



11.6 42.8 

15.7 37.1 
8.1 43.1 

11.4 43.5 



4.7 
4.0 
7 7 
9.3 



as and oats - 

as, oats, and barley * S3 .5 9.2 

teh and oats 84.3 6 .9 37 .0 

teh and wheat 85.0 10.7 41.1 



39.9 
39.7 

37.4 
34.7 

37.1 
36.9 



mpcmdchafffrom 

rlev straw 8a - 

ckwheat straw * 90 . 1 

l\ shives . - 

Uet straw * 85 8 

t straw v - 



t chaff 

« straw 

e straw 

teat straw 

leat straw from rusted grain *. 
leat chaff 

in* 

mson clover * 

wpea * 

rsebean 

,-bean 

Miscellaneous dry roughages 

ilaria * 

ichoke top? * 

ish feed * 

met * 

isy. field * 

rze * 

?asewood * 



ckly comfrey * . . . 

rslane *. . . . 

F** 

ssian thistle * . . . . 

tbushes* 

irrey * 

eet potato vines * . 



91.8 

_ i 

91.6 
91.9 



89. 5 

91.5 
87 

88 : 



SS.9 

74.2 

95.0 

SS 

90.7 

94.5 

95.4 

92.1 
38 I 
88 7 
94.2 
93.4 
92.1 
88 7 



0.9 40.2 

4.2 26.3 

" - 25.2 

1.0 41.7 

1.0 42.6 

2.2 34.3 

0.9 37.8 

0.7 39.6 

7 35.1 

2.0 33.3 

1.1 25.7 



3.6 
3.8 

3.4 
4.2 
2.8 



6.3 

2.7 
1.2 
7.4 
S.O 
2.7 
14. S 



42.4 
36.5 
39.1 
3S.2 
38.5 



39.7 
50. S 
37 3 
39.2 
5 I 
32.3 
22 



10.1 
7.9 

6.0 



24.7 
41.5 

37.1 



22.7 37.7 
34.9 

47.2 
5.1 31.4 



58 
57 

" 

. i 58 



1.3 
1.1 
1.7 
0.9 

1.5 
1.8 

1.4 
1.3 



47.5 
46.2 
4S.9 
46.0 

48.8 
50.1 
47.1 
54.7 



0.6 42.5 

1.2 33.2 

3.0 " - 

0.6 44.1 

0.9 45.6 



1.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.4 
0.6 



0.7 
0.9 
0.7 
0.8 
1.0 



1.7 

0.3 

7 

2.0 
2 2 
0^6 
1.0 



39.2 
39.4 
41.2 
36.9 
36.2 
28.2 



47.6 
42.3 
44.1 
44.2 

43.5 



49. S 
54.2 
40.1 



1: 



Lbs. 



4.0 27.7 
2.6 31.8 

19.4 

4.1 27.2 



9.1 

10.6 
5.4 
3.9 

4.9 
4.4 

5.S 
4.1 



15. S 
13. S 
IS. 9 
21.9 

IS. 2 
20.2 
17.0 
23.2 



46.2 5.6 
6.9 8.3 
5.5 11 



43.1 

44.6 

16.8 
42. S 
57.9 
51.7 
17.1 
24.6 



12.2 
10.1 

12.0 

9.5 

14.5 



6.9 

19.1 
32.4 



51.1 


5.9 


51 .5 


5.4 


36.4 


12.5 


39.6 


1.7 


63.8 


1.8 


59.4 


2.0 


67.6 


3.0 


39.2 


6.7 


36.2 


2.6 


56.2 


6.1 


46.7 


6.8 



5.S 
5.S 

9.4 
6.2 

4.S 

5.0 

13.9 

6.7 



11.7 
12.0 
10.9 
13. S 
9.0 



17.8 

6.7 
S.6 
20. S 
22.6 
18.6 
31.7 

40.8 
35.7 
30.2 
29.1 
21.6 
18.1 
20.0 



Lbs. Lbs. 

7.9 18.6 

10.3 26.2 
13.4 



4.1 20.0 
4.7 19.0 



6.6 16.4 
6.0 12 .7 



1.8 
1.3 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 

1.3 
1.4 

1.3 

4.0 



4.2 



12.0 
11.3 

10.5 
17.3 
15.0 

4.5 

15.4 
7.9 
7.4 

S.4 



13.6 



3.0 20.3 
1.2 8.9 



2.9 10.5 

10.3 47.7 

4.2 26.1 

6.5 24.4 

5.4 - 



8.6 96.7 
12.6 4 - 

13.6 56.5 



5.4. 16.4 



062 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Fat 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 



Fresh Green Roughage 
Com, the sorghums, etc. 

Corn fodder, all analyses * 

Dent com fodder, all analyses .... 

Dent corn fodder, in tassel 

Dent com fodder, in milk 

Dent com fodder, dough to 
glazing * 

Dent corn fodder, kernels glazed . . 
Dent com fodder, kernels ripe. . . . 

Flint com fodder, all analyses 

Flint com fodder, in tassel * 

Flint corn fodder, in milk * 

Flint corn fodder, kernels glazed. . . 

Flint com fodder, kernels ripe 

Sweet com fodder, before milk 

stage * 

Sweet com fodder, roasting ears or 

later 

Sweet corn fodder, ears removed * . 

Sweet com ears, including husks * . 

Corn fodder, pop * 

Corn stover, green (ears re- 
moved) * 

Corn leaves and tops * 

Corn leaves * 

Corn husks * 

Kafir fodder, all analyses * 

Kafir fodder, heads just showing *. 

Milo fodder * 

Sweet sorghum fodder 

Durra fodder * 

Broom-corn fodder * 

Sugar cane * 

Fresh green grass 

Bent grass, Canada, or blue- 
joint * 

Bermuda grass * 

Bluegrass, Canada * 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, all anal- 
yses * 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, before head- 
ing * 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, headed 
out * 

Bluegrass, Kentucky, after 
bloom * 

Bluegrasses, native 

Brome grass, smooth * 

Brome grasses, miscellaneous 

Blue joint grasses, western * 

Bluestem grasses * 



Lbs. 

21.9 
23.1 
14.9 
19.9 

25.1 

26.2 
34.8 
20.7 
10.6 
15.0 
21.0 

27.9 

10.0 

20.3 
21.5 

37.8 
16.9 

22.7 
15.9 
31.1 
36.5 

23.6 
19.9 

22.7 
24.9 
22.4 
22.9 
21.7 



44.6 
33.2 
33.2 

31.6 

23.8 
36.4 

43.6 

45.3 
33.0 
36.3 
38.9 
31.6 



Lbs. 

1.0 
1.0 
1.1 
1.0 

1.3 

1.1 
1.5 
1.0 
0.9 
0.9 
1.0 

1.2 

0.8 

1.2 
1.0 

3.0 
0.8 

0.5 
1.3 
2.1 
1.0 

1.1 
0.8 
0.8 
0.7 
0.9 
0.9 
0.4 



2.0 
1.4 
1.3 

2.3 

3.7 

2.8 

1.9 

2.0 
2.9 
3.1 
1.7 
1.9 



Lbs. 

12.8 

13.7 

8.2 

12.1 

15.4 

15.8 
21.1 

12.4 
5.5 
8.9 

12.3 

16.6 

6.1 

12.0 
13.1 

24.4 
9.9 

12.0 

8.4 

16.5 

22.7 

12.4 
11.6 
12.7 
14.1 
12.0 
12.1 
12.3 



21.7 
17.0 
17.2 

14.8 

10.4 
16.7 

21.9 

20.7 
15.0 
16.8 
17.6 
13.2 



Lbs. 

0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.5 

0.7 

0.4 
0.8 
0.4 
0.3 
0.4 
0.6 

0.7 

0.2 

0.4 
0.3 

1.9 
0.3 

0.2 
0.5 
0.6 
0.3 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 
0.6 



0.6 
0.5 
0.4 

0.6 

0.8 
0.7 

0.7 

0.0 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 



Lbs. 

14.7 
15.6 
10.0 
14.2 

18.3 

17.8 
24.4 
14.3 
7.1 
10.7 
14.7 

19.4 
7.3 

14.1 

14.8 

31.7 
11.4 

12.9 
10.8 
20.0 
24.4 

14.4 
13.1 
14.2 
16.2 
13.8 
13.7 
14.1 



25.1 
19.5 
19.4 

18.5 

15.9 
21.1 

25.4 

24.1 

18.3 
20.3 
20.2 
16.9 



1: 

13.7 

14.6 

8.1 

13.2 

13.1 

15.2 
15.3 
13.3 
6.9 
10.9 
13.7 

15.2 

8.1 

10.8 
13.8 

9.6 
13.2 

24.8 
7.3 
8.5 
.4 



23 



12.1 
15.4 
16.8 
22.1 
14.3 
14.2 
34.2 



11.6 
12.9 
13.9 

7.0 

3.3 

6.5 

12.4 

11.0 
5.3 
5.5 

10.9 
7.9 



Lbs. 

3.0 
3.0 
2.6 

2.6 

3.4 

3.2 
4.3 
3.0 

2.2 
2.4 
3.0 

3.8 

1.6 

3.0 
2.6 

6.1 
2.1 

2.1 
3.0 
5.1 

2.9 

3.8 
2.6 
2.9 
2.4 
3.2 
3.2 
1.4 



6.6 
4.8 
4.8 

6.6 

8.5 

7.8 

5.4 

5.1 
6.7 
7.2 

4.2 
4.8 



APPENDIX 



663 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Feeding stuff 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Fresh green grass — con. 

Bunch grasses * 

Chess or cheat * 

Crab grass * 

Fescue, meadow * 

Fescues, native * 

Guinea grass * 

Grama grass * * 

Johnson grass * 

Meadow foxtail * 

Millet, barnyard 

Millet, common, or Hungarian. . . . 

Millet, hog, or broom-corn * 

Millet, pearl, or cat-tail * 

Mixed grasses, immature 

Mixed grasses, at haying stage . . . 
Oat grass, tall, or meadow oat 

grass * 

Orchard grass 

Para grass * 

Quack grass * 

Rescue grass * 

Red top 

Reed canary grass * 

Reed meadow grass * 

Rhode Island bent grass * 

Rowen, mixed 

Rye grass, Italian * 

Rye grass, perennial * 

Rushes, western * 

Sedges, western * 

Spear grasses, miscellaneous * . . . . 

Sweet vernal grass * 

Teosinte * 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, before bloom * 

Timothy, in bloom 

Timothy, in seed 

Timothy, mountain * 

Wheat grasses, miscellaneous * . . . 

Wild barley* 

Wild oats* 

Wild rye* 

Green fodder from (he smaller cereals 

Barley fodder 

Buckwheat, Japanese * 

Oat fodder 

Oat fodder, 8 in. high * 

Rye fodder 

Rye fodder, 5 in. high 

Wheat fodder, all analyses * 

Wheat fodder, 5 in. high * 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Lbs. 

49.4 
39.6 
30.9 
30.5 
36.0 
28.5 
36.1 

29.1 
29.6 
21.3 
27.6 
24.7 
18.7 
29.7 

30.8 

30.3 

29.2 
27.2 
25.0 
30.6 

39.3 

37.0 
30.7 
32.7 
28.2 
27.1 
26.6 

31.1 
38.5 
43.6 
31.2 
21.3 
37.5 
24.2 

32.1 
46.4 
37.5 
45.3 
35.7 
36.6 
23.3 

23.2 
36.6 
26.1 
13.0 
21.3 
18.1 
27.4 
24.2 



Digestible nntrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Lbs. 

2.8 
1.5 
1.3 
1.6 

1.8 
1.1 

2.1 

1.2 
2.1 
1.0 
1.9 
1.3 
1.1 
3.6 

1.7 

1.1 
1.7 
0.8 
2.2 

2.6 

1.9 
1.7 
1.3 
1.4 
3.3 
1.8 
1.7 

2.5 
2.4 
2.0 
1.5 
1.0 
1.5 
1.8 

1.3 
1.5 
1.4 
2.2 
2.4 
1.5 
2.1 

2.3 
2.2 
2.3 
3.4 
2.1 
5.1 
2.8 
5.1 



Lbs. 

21.4 
20.8 
14.2 
15.0 
18.2 
14.1 
15.7 

14.7 
13.9 
12.1 
14.8 
13.8 
10.4 
14.5 

15.2 

13.3 

13.0 
14.0 
11.3 
14.5 

20.0 
18.3 
15.4 
16.4 
14.0 
12.7 
12.5 

16.2 
20.3 
23.6 
16.1 
11.9 
19.3 
13.8 

16.4 

24.7 
19.6 
24.1 
15.9 
18.7 
10.4 

11.5 
17.4 
11.8 

4.1 
12.2 

6.2 
15.1 
10.3 



Fat 



Total 



Lbs. 

0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 

0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.6 
0.4 
0.2 
0.9 

0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.3 
0.7 
0.2 

0.6 
0.6 
0.3 
0.4 
0.9 
0.7 
0.7 

0.3 
0.5 
0.4 
0.5 
0.3 
0.6 
0.4 

0.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.7 
0.7 
0.5 

0.4 
0.5 
0.8 
0.5 
0.5 
0.7 
0.6 
0.5 



Lbs. 

25.6 
23.7 
16.6 
17.7 
20.9 
16.1 
18.7 

17.0 
17.4 
14.0 
18.1 
16.0 
11.9 
20.1 

18.3 

15.3 
16.1 
15.5 
15.1 
17.5 

23.3 
21.4 
17.4 
18.7 
19.3 
16.1 
15.8 

19.4 
23.8 
26.5 
18.7 
13.6 
22.2 
16.5 

18.8 
27.8 
22.1 
27.4 
19.9 
21.8 
13.6 

14.7 
20.7 
15.9 
8.6 
15.4 
12.9 
19.3 
16.5 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1: 
8.1 

14.8 
11.8 
10.1 
10.6 
13.6 
7.9 

13.2 
7.3 

13.0 
8.5 

11.3 
9.8 
4.6 

9.8 

12.9 
8.5 

18.4 
5.9 

5.7 

11.3 

11.6 

12.4 

12.4 

4.8 

7.9 

8.3 

6.8 
8.9 
12.2 
11.5 
12.6 
13.8 
8.2 

13.5 

17.5 
14.8 
11.5 

7.3 
13.5 

5.5 

5.4 
8.4 
5.9 
1.5 
6.3 
1.5 
5.9 
2.2 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Lbs. 

6.9 
5.1 
4.3 
4.8 
5.6 
3.5 
5.3 

4.0 
5.8 
2.7 
4.6 
3.2 
2.9 
8.2 

4.8 

4.2 
4.6 
2.7 
6.1 
6.1 

5.0 
5.8 
4.5 
4.6 
7.5 
5.0 
4.8 

5.4 
6.1 
5.3 
4.2 
2.7 
5.0 
4.0 

4.3 
5.0 
4.8 
6.4 
7.8 
4.2 
5.9 

5.3 

7.4 
5.1 
7.8 
4.2 

10.4 
5.8 

10.4 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Lbs. 



2.9 
2.2 
1.8 



1.4 
1.2 
1.2 
1.9 
2.1 

2.5 

1.8 
2.1 



1.9 

2.3 
2.3 

2.2 

2.0 
2.0 
2.2 



1.6 

2.0 
2.0 
1.8 



1.3 
2.0 
1.8 

1.5 

i'.9 



Potash 



Lbs. 



7.7 
10.8 
7.0 



6.2 
6.9 
5.7 
10.3 
7.9 

6.4 

8.4 
9.5 



5.3 

8.4 
9.8 

8 '.6 
7.5 

7.5 
9.2 



8.0 
6.4 
9.3 
6.7 



6.8 
9.3 

7.7 

4.9 
7.2 



604 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
protein 



Carbo- 



Fat 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 



Fresh Green Roughage — con 
Green legumes 

Alfalfa, all analyses 

Alfalfa, before bloom * 

Alfalfa, in bloom * 

Alfalfa, after bloom * 

Beggarweed * 

Clover, alsike * 

Clover, alsike, in bloom * 

Clover, bur * 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, mammoth red * 

Clover, red, all analyses 

Clover, red, in bloom * 

Clover, red, rowen 

Clover, sweet * 

Clover, white * 

Cowpeas 

Flat pea * 

Jack bean * 

Horse bean * 

Kudzu vine * 

Lespedeza or Japan clover * . . . . 

Lupines 

Peas, field, Canada 

Peas, field, miscellaneous * 

Sanf oin 

Serradella * 

Soybeans, all analyses 

Soybeans, in bloom * 

Soybeans, in seed * 

Trefoil, yellow, or black medic *. . 

Velvet bean * 

Vetch, common 

Vetch, kidney * 

Vetch, hairy 

Vetches, wild * 

Mixed legumes and grasses 

Clover and mixed grasses * 

Cowpeas and com * 

Cowpeas and oats * 

Cowpeas and sorghum * 

Peas and millet * 

Peas and barley 

Peas and oats 

Peas, oats, and rape * 

Soybeans and corn * 

Soybeans and kafir * 

Vetch and barley * 

Vetch and oats 

Vetch and wheat 



Lbs. 

25.3 
19.9 
25.9 
29.8 
27.1 
24.3 

21.5 
20.8 
17.4 
25.1 
26.2 
27.5 



17. G 
30.6 
36.6 

17.4 
16.6 

18. S 

25.6 

20.2 



23.6 


20.8 


24.2 


22.7 


17.9 


20.4 


27.7 


18.1 


24.6 


27.3 


20.0 


21.8 


IS. 7 


19.7 


20.2 


22.6 


17.9 


23.8 


17.1 


20.0 


26.5 


22.7 



Lbs. 

3.3 
3.5 
3.3 
2.1 
3.1 
2.7 

2.3 
3.4 
2.3 

2.7 
2.7 
2.7 

3.3 
3.3 
3.1 
2.3 
4.6 
4.0 

2.8 
4.2 
4.5 
2.6 
2.9 
2.6 

2.S 
2.1 
3.2 
3.0 
3.1 
3.3 

2.7 
2.7 
2.6 
3.5 
4.2 

2.2 
1.3 
3.3 

0.7 
1.9 

2.7 

2.4 
2.3 
1.7 
0.9 
2.1 
2.8 
2.4 



Lbs. 

10.4 
7.5 
10.8 
13.5 
11.6 
11.8 

10.4 
8.2 
S.l 
12.4 
13.0 
13.8 

15.4 
10.3 
9.6 
8.0 
9.1 
9.2 

7.4 
13.9 
17.1 

8.0 
7.1 
8.6 

12.3 
8.9 

10.2 
8.5 

10.7 
9.2 

7.2 
8.9 

12.8 
8.1 

12.1 

14.1 
11.4 

9.1 
10.0 

8.4 
8.8 

10.6 
7.3 
13.6 
7.9 
10.5 
13.3 
12.2 



Lbs. 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 

0.4 
1.1 
0.4 
0.3 
0.6 
0.7 

0.8 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 
0.4 
0.3 

0.3 
0.5 
0.6 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 

0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.3 
0.5 
0.3 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 

0.6 
0.3 
0.6 
0.3 
0.8 
0.5 

0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.2 
0.4 
0.3 



Lbs. 

14.6 
11.7 
14.8 
16.0 
15.1 
15.4 

13.6 
14.1 
11.3 

15.8 
17.1 

18.1 

20.5 
14.3 
13.8 

11.0 
14.6 
13.9 

10.9 
19.2 
23.0 
11.3 
10.7 
11.9 

16.2 
12.1 
14.5 
12.2 
14.9 
13.2 

10. S 
12.3 
16.1 
12.5 
17.2 

17.7 
13.4 
13.8 
11.4 
12.1 
12.6 

14.4 
10.7 
16.7 
9.7 
13.0 
17.0 
15.3 



1: 

3.4 

2.3 
3.5 
6.6 
3.9 

4.7 

4.9 
3.1 
3.9 
4.9 
5.3 
5.7 

5.2 
3.3 
3.5 

3.8 
2.2 
2.5 

2.9 
3.6 
4.1 
3.3 

2.7 
3.6 

4.8 
4.8 
3.5 
3.1 
3.8 
3.0 

3.0 
3.6 
5.2 
2.6 
3.1 

7 .0 

9.3 
3.2 
15.3 
5.4 
3.7 

5.0 
3.7 
S.8 
9.8 
5.2 
5.1 
5.4 



Lbs. 

7.2 
7.5 
7.0. 
4.6 
6.7 
6.6 

5.6 
8.2 
4.8 
6.4 
6.6 
6.6 

8.5 
7.0 
7.4 
4.8 
9.1 
8.3 



Lbs. 



1.5 



1.7 

2.7 
1.8 



2.0 
1.3 



2.0 
1.3 

1.8 



5.S 


1.2 


8.8 




10.7 




5.4 


0.9 


5.8 


1.1 


5.1 


1.2 


6.1 


1.4 


4.6 


1.3 


6.6 


1.8 


6.2 




6.4 




7.2 




5.6 


1.3 


6.1 


1.6 


5.9 




6.7 


1.4 


S.2 


1.7 


4.8 




3.4 




7.2 




2.4 




4.2 




5.8 


1.6 


5.1 


1.7 


5.0 


1.0 


4.3 


1.1 


3.2 




4.5 




6.1 


1.6 


5.3 





6.3 



APPENDIX 



665 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude Carbo- 
protein hydrates 



Fat 



Total 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 


Phos- 




phoric 


gen 


acid 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


3.2 


1.4 


2.6 


1.0 


2.6 


0.8 


1.9 


1.1 


1.8 


1.0 


1.1 




2.2 


0.4 


2.1 


0.9 


2.7 


1.3 


3.5 


1.2 


1.9 


1.2 


2.9 


0.9 


2.2 


1.3 


5.1 




0.8 


0.3 


2.6 


0.6 


4.8 


2.1 


3.5 


0.7 


4.3 




1.4 


0.3 


2.4 




2.4 


0.8 


1.3 


0.7 


1.0 


0.6 


1.4 


0.5 


3.8 




3.2 




1.1 




6.6 




1.1 


1.3 


4.0 


1.8 


2.2 


0.9 


3.5 


1.0 


4.6 


1.1 


4.8 




5.9 


3.4 


6.2 




3.0 


1.2 


4.2 


1.0 


5.8 




4.5 


1.5 


3.4 


1.6 


3.0 


1.2 


3.0 


1.4 


3.5 


1.5 


2.2 





Potash 



Fresh Green Roughage — con. 
Roots and tubers 

Artichokes * 

1 Jeet, common * 

Beet, sugar 

■>! 

( lassava * 

Chufa* 

Mangel 

Onion * 

Parsnip * 

Potato 

Rutabaga 

Sweet potato * 

Turnip 

Misa Uaneous green forages 

Alfilaria :!: 

Apple * 

Apple pomace * 

Burnet * 

Cabbage 

< Jabbage waste, outer leaves 

Cactus, cane, entire plant * 

Cactus, cane, fruit * 

Cactus, cane, stems * 

Cactus, prickly pear 

Cactus, prickly pear, old joints * . . 
Cactus, prickly pear, young 

joints * 

Kale 

Kohlrabi * 

Melon, pie, or stock * 

Mustard, white * 

Potato pomace, wet * 

Prickly comfrey * 

Pumpkin, field 

Purslane * 

Rape 

Russian thistle * 

Saltbush, Australian * 

Saltbushes, miscellaneous * 

Sugar beet leaves * 

Sugar beet tops * 

Sunflower, whole plant * 

Turnip tops * 

Silage 
Silage from corn, the sorghums, etc. 
Corn, well matured, recent 

analyses 

Com, immature 

Corn, early analyses 

Com, from frosted corn * 

Corn, from field-cured stover *. . . . 



Lbs. 

20.5 
13.0 
16.4 
11.7 

32.6 
20.5 

9.4 
12.4 
16.6 
21.2 
10.9 
31.2 

9.5 

16.3 
18.2 
23.3 
19.9 
8.9 
14.1 
10.4 

18.6 
21.7 
16.5 
16.4 

12.9 
11.3 

9.0 

6.1 
14.0 

8.3 
12.8 

8.3 
10.3 

16.7 
20.4 
23.3 
24.3 
11.6 
11.4 
23.7 
15.0 



26.3 
21.0 
23.1 
25.3 
19.6 



Lbs. 

1.0 
0.9 
1.2 
0.9 
0.6 
0.4 

0.8 
0.8 
1.3 
1.1 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 

2.2 
0.4 
1.2 
2.7 
1.9 
1.7 
0.4 

0.8 
0.8 
0.4 
0.3 

0.4 
1.9 

1.7 
0.5 
3.6 
0.4 
2.2 
1.1 
2.0 

2.6 
2.2 
2.8 
2.9 
1.2 
1.7 
2.2 
1.8 



1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.2 

0.5 



Lbs. 

14.6 
9.1 

12.6 
8.6 

26.4 

10.2 

6.4 

9.6 

12.5 

15.8 
7.7 

24.2 
6.0 

7.0 
15.6 
15.6 
12.8 
5.6 
6.5 
5.8 

9.9 

11.8 

8.9 

9.1 

6.9 
4.7 

5.6 
3.9 
6.5 
6.0 

7.0 
4.5 
5.4 

10.0 
7.6 
5.9 
6.6 
6.3 
5.4 

10.7 
7.3 



15.0 
11.4 
12.6 
13.7 
9.9 



Lbs. 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
3.3 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.1 
0.3 
0.3 
0.2 

0.2 
0.2 
0.8 
0.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0.5 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 

0.3 
0.3 

0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.5 
0.1 

0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
1.3 
0.1 



0.7 
0.4 
0.6 
0.6 
0.4 



Lbs. 

15.8 
10.2 
14.0 
9.9 
27.4 
18.0 

7.4 
10.8 
14.7 
17.1 

9.4 
25.8 

7.4 

9.6 

16.4 

18.6 

16.2 

7.9 

8.4 

6.4 

11.8 

13.3 

9.7 

9.8 

8.0 
7.3 

7.5 
4.8 
10.8 
6.6 
9.4 
6.7 
7.6 

13.3 

10.2 
9.1 
9.7 
7.7 
7.3 

15.8 
9.3 



17.7 
13.3 
15.0 
16.3 
11.3 



1: 

14.8 
10.3 
10.7 
10.0 
44.7 
44.0 



8.2 
12.5 

10 

1! 



.3 

.5 

8.4 

27.7 
6.4 

3.4 

40.0 

14.5 

5.0 

3.2 

3.9 

15.0 

13.8 
15.6 
23.2 
31.7 

19.0 

2.8 

3.4 
8.6 
2.0 
15.4 
3.3 
5.1 
2.8 

4.1 
3.6 
2.2 
2.3 
5.4 
3.3 
6.2 
4.2 



15.1 
12.3 
14.0 
12.6 
21.6 



Lbs. 

4.9 
8.5 
3.2 
2.7 
4.0 

2.2 
2.2 
4.9 
5.3 
5.0 
5.1 
2.9 



1.6 
1.5 

8.8 
2.9 

2.1 

4.8 
4.3 
4.0 

3.3 



3.0 
9.5 
3.2 
11.3 

3.9 
14. i 

5.5 

6.4 

5.2 



4.4 
3.5 
3.9 

4.3 



666 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — con. 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 
matter in 
100 lbs. 



Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. 



Crude 
protein 



Carbo- 



Fat 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Fertilizing constituents 
in 1000 lbs. 



Nitro- 
gen 



Phos- | 

phoric ' Potash 
acid I 



Silage — con. 

Silage from corn, the sorghums, 

etc. — con. 

Durra * 

Kafir 

Sorghum 

Japanese cane * 

Sugar-cane tops * 

Miscellaneous silage 

Alfalfa* 

Apple pomace * 

Barley * 

Clover 

Corn and clover * 

Corn and rye * 

Corn and soybean 

Cowpea 

Cowpea and soybean * 

Field pea * 

Millet* 

Millet, barnyard, and soybean. 

Mixed grasses * 

Oat* 

Oat and pea 

Pea-cannery refuse * 

Rye * 

Sorghum and cowpea * 

Soybean 

Sugar beet leaves * 

Sugar beet pulp * 

Vetch 

Wet brewers' grains * 



Lbs. 



20.3 
30.8 
22.8 
22.4 
23.5 

24.6 
20.6 
25.0 
27.8 
28.6 
19.4 

24.7 
22.0 
28.5 
27.9 
31.6 
21.0 

30.7 
28.3 
27.5 
23.2 
27.2 
32.3 

27.1 
23.0 
10.0 
30.1 

29.8 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



0.6 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 

1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.3 
2.1 
1.1 

1.6 
1.8 
1.9 
2.8 
1.6 
1.6 

1.3 
1.5 

2.8 
1.6 
2.4 
0.9 

2.6 
2.1 
0.8 
2.0 
5.2 



9.9 
15.3 
11.6 
11.2 
12.2 

7.8 
15.0 
12.0 

9.5 
15.9 
10.0 

13.8 
10.1 
13.2 
13.1 
15.3 
9.2 

15.0 
13.8 
12.6 
11.6 
16.1 
16.6 

11.0 
10.0 
6.5 
15.2 
11.1 



0.4 
0.6 
0.5 
0.3 

0.2 

0.6 
0.6 
0.8 
0.5 
0.7 
1.0 

0.8 
0.6 
0.7 
0.9 
0.8 
0.7 

0.6 
0.9 
1.0 
0.8 
0.5 
0.6 

0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.8 
1.9 



11.4 
17.5 
13.3 
12.5 
13.1 

10.4 
17.3 
15.8 
11.9 
19.6 
13.3 

17.2 
13.3 
16.7 
17.9 

18.7 
12.4 

17.7 
17.3 
17.6 
15.0 
19.6 
18.9 

15.2 
13.0 
8.0 
19.0 
20.6 



18.0 
20.9 
21.2 
19.8 
25.2 

7.7 
18.2 
6.9 
8.2 
8.3 
11.1 

9.8 
6.4 
7.8 
5.4 
10.7 
6.8 

12.6 

10.5 

5.3 

8.4 

7.2 

20.0 

4.8 
5.2 
9.0 
8.5 
3.0 



Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 



1.9 
2.9 

2.4 
2.4 
1.9 

5.6 
2.6 
4.2 
5.9 
5.3 
3.4 

4.0 



6.7 

3.2 
6.1 
4.5 
4.8 
3.8 

6.2 
4.5 
2.4 
5.6 
10.2 



1.5 



0.8 



1.6 

1.8 
1.7 
2.9 



1.7 
1.7 

1.7 



1.9 



2.2 



4.5 
3.8 
5.6 
2.3 



7.0 
6.9 



APPENDIX 



GG7 



Table IV. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 

The Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards have been fully discussed in 
a preceding chapter. (156-8, 168, 187-8) It is there pointed out that we 
now have more accurate data on the nutrient requirements of various 
classes of animals than was possessed by scientists when these standards 
were formulated. For students and stockmen who desire to compute 
rations substantially in accordance with the "Wolff-Lehmann system, but 
taking into consideration the results of recent feeding trials at the 
Experiment Stations, the authors have drawn up the "Modified Wolff- 
Lehmann Feeding Standards" given in Appendix Table V. The Wolff- 
Lehmann Standards, as last presented by Lehmann in the Mentzel and 
Lengerke Agricultural Calendar for 1896, are here given, however, 
because historically this table is worthy of a place in any book on the 
feeding of farm animals, and further because no matter what line one 
may ultimately follow in these matters, he should know and understand 
the teachings of Wolff and Lehmann. 

The standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lacta- 
tion period with animals yielding milk of average composition. The 
standards for growing animals contemplate only a moderate amount of 
exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent — mostly non-nitrogenous 
nutrients — to the ration. If no exercise is taken, deduct 15 per cent 
from the standard. The standards are for animals of normal size. Those 
of small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in 
some cases to 0.3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non- 
nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of 
animals. 



Animal 



Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight 





Digestible nutrients 


Dry 

matter 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


18 

22 
25 
28 


0.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 


8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 


0.1 

0.3 
0.5 
0.8 


11.8 

7.7 
6.5 
5.3 


30 
30 
26 


2.5 
3.0 

2.7 


15.0 
14.5 
15.0 


0.5 
0.7 
0.7 


6.5 
5.4 
6.2 


25 

27 
29 
32 


1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


0.3 
0.4 
0.5 
0.8 


6.7 
6.0 

5.7 
4.5 


20 
23 


1.2 
1.5 


10.5 
12.0 


0.2 
0.3 


9.1 
8.5 



/. Oxen 

At rest in stall 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

..'. Fattening cattle 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

3. Milch cows, yielding daily 
11 .0 pounds of milk. . 
16.6 pounds of milk . . 
22 .0 pounds of milk . . 
27 .5 pounds of milk . . 

4-. Sheep 

Coarse wool 

Fine wool 



668 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table IV. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards for farm animals — continued. 





Per day per 1,000 lbs 


live weight 




Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 


Animal 


Crude | Carbo- 
protein; ."-y' 
, drates 


Fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


5. Breeding ewes 

With lambs 


Lbs. 
25 

30 
28 

20 
24 
26 

22 

36 
32 
25 

23 
24 
27 
26 
26 

23 

24 
25 
24 
24 

25 
25 
23 

22 
22 

26 
26 
24 
23 

22 

44 
35 
32 

28 
25 

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 


Lbs. 
2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 

2.0 
2.5 

2.5 

4.5 
4.0 

2.7 

4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

4.2 
3.5 

2.5 
2.0 
1.8 

3.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 

4.4 
3.5 
3.0 

2.2 
2.0 

7.6 
4.8 
3.7 
2.8 
2.1 

7.6 
5.0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 


Lbs. 
15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 

13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 

13.0 
12.8 
13.2 
12.5 
12.0 

15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 

10.8 

15,5 
15.0 
14.3 
12.6 
12.0 

28.0 
22.5 
21.3 
18.7 
15.3 

28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 


Lbs. 
0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 
0.6 
0.8 

0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0,4 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

0.9 
0.7 
0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

1.0 
0.7 
0.4 
0.3 
0.2 

1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 


1: 
5.6 


6. Fattening sheep 

First period 


5.4 


Second period 


4.5 


7. Horses 


7.0 


Medium work 


6.2 




6.0 




6.6 


9. Fattening swine 


5.9 




6.3 




7.0 


10. Growing cattle, dairy breeds 

Age in Av. live wt. 
months per head, lbs. 

2- 3 . .150 


4.5 


3- 6 . .300 


5.1 


6-12 .500 


6.8 


12-18 700 

18-24 900 


7.5 
8.5 


11 . Growing cattle, beef breeds 

2- 3 . .160 


4.2 


3- 6 . .330 


4.7 


6-12 . .550 


6.0 


12-18 .750. . 


6.8 


18-24 • -950 


7.2 


12. Growing sheep, wool breeds 

4-6 .60 


5.0 


6- S .75 


5.4 


8-11 SO 


6.0 


11-15 90 

15-20 100 


7.0 

7 .7 


1.3. Groining sheep, mutton breeds 

4-6 ... 60 : 


4.0 


6- 8 . 80 


4.8 


8-11 ..100.. 


5.2 


11-15 .120.. 


6.3 


15-20 150. . 


6.5 


14. Growing swine, breeding stock 

2-3 .50 


4.0 


3- 5 . .100. . 


5.0 


5- 6 .120. . 


6.0 


6- 8 . .200 


7.0 


IS. Growing, fattening swine 

2-3 50 

3-5 100 


7.5 

4.0 
5.0 


5- 6. . . .150 


5.5 


6- 8. . . .200 


6.0 


9-12 300 


6.4 



APPENDIX 



6G9 



Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm 

Animals 

It has been pointed out on previous pages that the recent investigations 
of the experiment stations of this and other countries have shown that the 
original Wolff-Lehmann standards are in many instances inaccurate. 
(187-90) To provide a means by which rations can be computed sub- 
stantially in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann system, while taking 
into consideration the results of the recent scientific work on live stock 
feeding, the following standards are presented. The recommendations for 
dairy cows are based on the standards of Haecker and Savage. (182, 184. 
186) The standards for growing, fattening steers are hitherto unpub- 
lished recommendations by Haecker, based upon his extensive investiga- 
tions at the Minnesota Station. (123) In the recommendations for 
fattening lambs the Bull-Emmett standards have been chiefly used. (175) 
The standards for the other classes of farm animals are based upon studies 
by the authors, of feeding trials at the various experiment stations, and 
upon the standards of Kellner, Armsby, and Pott. The method of com- 
puting rations in accordance with these standards has been fully ex- 
plained in the text. (190, 193-5) 

In most instances a minimum and a maximum are indicated for dry 
matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. As has 
been pointed out in the text (146), when protein-rich feeds are cheaper 
than carbonaceous feeds, somewhat more digestible crude protein may be 
supplied than is stated in the standards. This will narrow the nutritive 
ratio beyond the limits here indicated. On the other hand, the amount of 
protein should not fall much below the lower amount indicated. 

These recommendations are presented, not as final, arbitrary standards, 
but as approximations, based on the older standards, on the data of recent 
experimental trials, and on the rations which have given excellent results 
in practice. It is hoped that in the present form they may be helpful 
until future investigations have thrown further light upon the nutrient 
requirements of the various classes of farm animals. Modified standards 
are not presented for growing dairy cattle, growing sheep, and growing 
pigs (breeding stock) on account of the lack of sufficient data. 



Digestible crude j Total digestible 
protein nutrients 



Dairy cows 

For maintenance of 1000-lb. cow . . 
To allowance for maintenance add: 

For each lb. of 2.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 3.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 6.0 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk 

For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


0.700 


7.925 


0.045-0.053 


0.256 


0.047-0.057 


0.286 


0.049-0.061 


0.316 


0.054-0.065 


0.346 


0.057-0.069 


0.376 


0.060-0.073 


0.402 


0.064-0.077 


0.428 


0.067-0.081 


0.454 


0.072-0.085 


0.482 


0.074-0.089 


0.505 



670 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The amount of dry matter to be fed daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight to 
dairy cows may range from 15.0 lbs. or even less with dry cows to 30.0 lbs. 
with cows yielding 2.0 lbs. of butter fat per head daily. Cows producing 
1.0 lb. of fat per head daily should receive about 21.0 to 25.0 lbs. of dry 
matter daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. The nutritive ratio may readily 
be found by computation; for example, a 1,200-lb. cow yielding daily 30.0 
lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk will require for maintenance and production 2.31 
to 2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and 18.99 lbs. total digestible 
nutrients. The nutritive ratio should hence not be wider than 1:6.1 to 
1:7.2. 





Actual, per head daily 


Per 1000 lbs. live weight 




Live weight 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible 
crude 
protein 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible 
crude 
protein 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 


tritive 
ratio 


2. Gi'owing, fattening steers 
100 lbs." 


Lbs. 

1.41 
3.11 

4.81 
6.40 
8.00 

8.87 

9.72 
10.83 
11.95 
12.95 
13.94 
15.83 

17.13 
18.17 
19.66 
19.92 
20.76 


Lbs. 

0.32 
0.49 
0.67 
0.74 
0.80 
0.84 

0.87 
0.96 
1.04 
1.13 
1.22 
1.41 

1.61 

1.78 
1.80 
1.73 
1.84 


Lbs. 
1.66 

2.58 
3.48 
4.42 
5.36 
5.87 

6.32 

7.23 
7.88 
8.55 
9.25 
10.35 

11.43 
12.22 
13.51 
13.91 

11.71 


Lbs. 

14.1 

20.7 
24.0 
25.6 
26.7 
25.3 

24.3 
24.1 
23.9 
23.6 
23.2 
22.6 

21.4 
20.2 
19.7 
18.1 
17.3 


Lbs. 

3.2 
3.3 

3.4 
3.0 

2.7 
2.4 

2.2 
2ll 
2.1 
2.0 
2.0 
2.0 

2.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 


Lbs. 

16.6 
17.2 
17.4 
17.7 
17.9 
16.8 

15.8 
16.1 
15.8 
15.6 
15.4 
14.8 

14.3 
13.6 
13.5 
12.6 
12.3 


1 : 

4 ? 


150 lbs 


4 ?, 


200 lbs 


4 1 


250 lbs 


4 9 


300 lbs 


5 6 


350 lbs 


6 


400 lbs 


6 2 


450 lbs 


6 7 


500 lbs 


6 5 


550 lbs 


6 6 


600 lbs. 


6 7 


700 lbs... 


6 4 


800 lbs 


6 2 


900 lbs 


5.8 


1000 lbs 


6 5 


1100 lbs.. 


6 9 


1200 lbs 


7.2 



On comparing the foregoing standards for growing, fattening steers 
with the original Wolff -Lehmann standards for growing beef cattle, it 
will be seen that for the later stages of growth these standards are some- 
what lower in dry matter and digestible nutrients. The standards here 
given for steers weighing 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. are markedly lower in dry 
matter and digestible nutrients than the original Wolff -Lehmann stand- 
ards for fattening cattle. They are also lower than the following 
standards for fattening 2-yr.-old steers on full feed, which contemplate 
the feeding of all the concentrates the steers will eat. Tho cattle fed as 
indicated in the preceding standards will not make maximum gains, the 
gains are produced with a smaller amount of feed than if a heavier 
ration were fed. For example, 1,000-lb. steers fed by Haecker according 
to this system until they reached a weight of 1,200 lbs. required only 
8.0 lbs. of total digestible nutrients per pound of gain. 



APPENDIX 



671 





Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight 




Animal 


Dry 

matter ■ 


Digestible 

crude 

protein 


Total 
digestible 
nutrients 


Nutritive 
ratio 


3. Fattening 2-yr.-old steers on 
full feed 

Second 50-60 days 

Third 50-60 days 

4- Ox at rest in stall 


Lbs. 

22.0-25.0 
21.0-24.0 
18.0-22.0 
13.0-21.0 
14.0-25.0 

13.0-18.0 
15.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 
18.0-26.0 

15.0-22.0 
18.0-22.0 

27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27 .0-31 .0 

18.0-23.0 
20.0-26.0 
23.0-27.0 

46.2-51.0 

37.0-40.8 
32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
25.5-28.1 
22.4-24.8 
20.0-24.0 


Lbs. 

2.0-2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 
0.6-0.8 
0.7-0.9 

0.8-1.0 
1.1-1.4 
1.4-1.7 
2.0-2.2 

1.2-1.5 
1.6-1.8 

3.1-3.3 
2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 

1.1-1.3 
1.4-1.6 
2.6-2.9 

7.8-8.5 
5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
3.0-3.4 
2.6-2.9 
2.4-2.7 


Lbs. 

18.0-20.0 

17.0-19.5 

16.0-18.5 

8.4-10.4 

9.0-12.0 

7.0- 9.0 
10.0-13.1 
12.8-15.6 
15.9-19.5 

9.0-12.0 
11.0-13.0 

19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 

11.0-13.0 
12.0-14.0 
18.0-20.0 

41.0-45.4 
32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 
25.8-28.5 
22.7-25.0 
20.0-22.0 
18.0-21.0 


1: 

7.0- 7.8 

7.0- 7.8 

7.0- 7.8 

10 0-16 


5. Wintering beef cows in calf. . . 

6. Horses 

Idle 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

7. Brood mares suckling foals, 

but not at work 

8. Growing colts, over (J months. . 

9. Fattening lambs 


10.0-15.0 

8.0-9.0 
8.0-8.5 
7.8-8.3 
7.0-8.0 

6.5-7.5 
6.0-7.0 


Weight 50-70 lbs 

Weight 70-90 lbs 

Weight 90-110 lbs 

10. Sheep, maintaining mature 

Coarse wool 

Fine wool 


5.0-6.0 
6.7-7.2 
7.0-8.0 

8.0-9.1 
7 5-8 5 


11. Breeding ewes, with lambs. 

12. Fattening pigs 

Weight 30-50 lbs 


5.6-6.5 
4 0-4 5 


Weight 50-100 lbs.. . 


5 0-5 6 


Weight 100-150 lbs 

Weight 150-200 lbs 

Weight 200-250 lbs 

Weight 250-300 lbs 

13. Brood sows, with pigs 


5.5-6.2 
6.2-7.0 
6.5-7.3 

6.7-7.5 
6.0-7.0 



072 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Table VI. Mineral Matter in 1,000 Lbs. of Representative Feeding 

Stuffs 

The data presented in the following table have been compiled from 
analyses by the American Experiment Stations, especially the analyses 
reported by Forbes in Ohio Bulletin 255, supplemented by others from 
German sources. 



Feeding stuff 



Corn 

Gluten feed 

Wheat 

Wheat flour 

Red dog flour 

Standard wheat middlings 

\ Wheat bran 

Oats 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, dried .... 

Rough rice 

Polished rice 

Rice polish 

Kafir grain 

Cottonseed meal 

Linseed meal, old process . 

Bean, navy 

Cowpea 

Soybean 

Skim milk 

Whey 

Beet pulp, dried 

Distillers' grains, dried 

from com 

Corn stover 

Sorghum fodder 

Bluegrass hay 

Timothy hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Red clover hay 

Cowpea hay 

Soybean hay 

Wheat straw 

Mangel 



Potash 
K O 



Lbs. 
4.0 



11.8 
16.2 

5.6 
18.3 

0.9 

2.6 
0.6 

11.7 
3.1 

18.1 

12.7 
13.7 
14.9 
24.7 
1.7 

2.6 
3.8 

1.7 

12.9 

25.3 
21.0 
13.6 
22.3 
16.3 

41.3 
23.3 

7.4 
2.2 



Soda 
Na 2 



Lbs. 
0.4 
5.7 
1.6 
1.5 



1.4 
2.4 
2.3 
1.1 
3.5 

1.0 
0.4 
1.5 
0.8 
3.5 



0.4 

2.2 

1.9 
6.5 



1.7 
4.3 



Lime 
CaO 



Lbs. 
0.2 
3.5 
0.6 
0.3 
1.7 

0.8 
0.9 
1.4 
2.1 
2.2 

0.2 
0.1 
0.4 
0.2 
3.6 

5.1 
2.8 
1.4 
2.9 

1.8 

0.6 
9.2 

0.6 
6.6 

3.9 

4.3 

2.5 

19.5 

16.0 

25.4 

17.2 

2.9 

0.2 



Mag- 
nesia 

MgO 



Lbs. 
1.8 
3.6 
2.2 
0'3 
4.8 

5.4 
7.3 
2.0 
3.0 
2.6 

1.2 
0.4 
10.9 
2.1 
8.6 



0.1 
4.2 



2.9 
3.6 
1.7 
5.9 
4.5 

16.2 

10.3 

1.0 

0.7 



Iron 
oxide 



Fe 2 3 



Lbs. 
0.11 

0.23 



0.34 
0.38 
0.95 
0.39 

0.31 



0.84 
1.44 



0.71 

0.79 

0.37 
1.68 
0.67 



0.26 
0.08 



Sul : 

phuric 
acid 

S0 3 



Lbs. 

3.8 
14.6 
5.4 
3.6 
6.5 

5.8 
6.7 
4.9 
20.0 
9.7 



2.6 

4.2 

4.1 

12.4 

10.2 
4.8 
0.0 



11.7 
4.3 



3.8 
0.6 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

P2O5 



Lbs. 
6.9 
6.2 
8.6 
2.0 

20.0 

21.1 
29.5 

8.1 
16.5 

9.9 

4.9 
1.7 

30.8 
5.7 

26.7 

17.0 

7.8 

10.1 

13.7 

2.2 

1.2 
2.4 

6.8 
4.5 

2.3 
5.4 



9.6 
6.8 
1.3 
0.4 



Silica 
Si0 2 



Lbs. 
0.3 

0.4 



0.3 
12.5 
13.5 
12.3 

41.6 



5.5 
6.9 



9.0 

9.1 

5.9 

14.2 
8.1 
1.7 



28.4 
0.2 



Chlorin 
CI 



Lbs. 

0.65 
0.90 
0.82 
0.70 
1.40 



0.90 
0.70 
3.60 
0.58 

0.02 
0.36 
1.34 
1.04 
0.39 

0.86 
0.40 
0.40 
0.28 
0.91 

1.18 
0.43 

0.60 

2.87 

5.60 
2.15 
1.83 
4.74 
2.39 

1.49 
0.75 
1.98 
1.58 



APPENDIX 



G73 



Table VII. Weight of Various Concentrates. 

In computing rations for farm animals it is desirable to know the 
weight per quart, or the bulk, of the different concentrates. The following 
table, compiled from Massachusetts Bulletin 136 by Smith and Perkins, 
Louisiana Built tin Hi by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin 141 by Jones, 
Haworth. Culler, and Summers is therefore presented. 



Feeding a1 nil' 



Whole corn 

Com meal 

( !om-and-cob meal 

Hominy feed 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Germ oil meal 

Com bran 

Wheat 

Wheat, ground 

Flour wheat middlings 

Standard wheat middlings. . . 

Wheat bran 

Wheat feed (shorts and bran) 
Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye meal 

Rye middlings 

Rye bran 

Rye feed (shorts and bran) . . , 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Oats ground 

Oat feed 

Oat middlings 

Oat hulls 

Barley 

Barley meal 

Malt sprouts. 



One 

quart 
weighs 



Lbs. 
1.7 



1.7 
1.4 
0.5 
1.9 

1.7 

1.2 
0.8 
0.5 
0.6 
1.0 

1.7 
1.5 
1.6 
0.8 
1.3 

1.0 
1.7 
0.7 
0.8 
1.5 

0.4 
1.5 
1.1 
0.6 



One 
pound 
meas- 
ures 



Qts. 
0.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.9 
0.8 

0.6 
0.7 
2.0 
0.5 
0.6 

0.8 
1.3 
2.0 
1.7 
1.0 

0.6 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 

0.8 

1.0 
0.6 
1.4 



Feeding stuff 



Brewers' grains, dried 

Millet, foxtail 

Rice polish 

Rice bran 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat flour 

Buckwheat middlings 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat hulls 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Flaxseed 

Linseed meal, old process 
Linseed meal, new process . . . 

Flax feed 

Flax screenings 

Beans, navy 

Cowpeas 

Peas, field 

Soybeans 

Cocoanut meal 

Cocoanut cake 

Sunflower seed 

Beet pulp, dried 

Distillers' grains, dried 

Molasses, cane, or blackstrap 

Molasses feed 

Alfalfa meal 



One 

quart 
weighs 



Lbs. 
0.6 
1.6 
1.2 
0.8 
1.4 

1.6 
0.9 
0.6 

0.5 
0.8 

1.5 
0.3 
1.6 
1.1 
0.9 

0.8 
1.1 
1.7 
1.7 
2.1 

1.8 
1.5 
1.3 
1.5 
0.6 

0.6 
3.0 
0.8 
0.6 



One 

pound 
meas- 
ures 



Qts. 
1.7 
0.6 
0.8 
1.3 
0.7 

0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.0 
1.3 

0.7 
3.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.1 

1.3 
0.9 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 

0.6 
0.7 
0.8 

0.7 

1.7 

1.7 
0.3 
1.3 
1.7 



INDEX 



The References are to Pages 



Abomasum, IS 

Absorption of nutrients, 32-3 

Acid, effect of, on digestibility of feed, 52 

Acid in gastric juice, 20, 28 

Acorns, 188 

effects on pork, 188 
Adulteration of feeds, 190 
Aftermath, 219 
Age, influence on digestibility, 52 

gain of pigs, 568-70 
sheep, 512 
steers, 432-6 
milk yield of cows, 346 
Age to breed heifers, 427 
mares, 321 
sows, 626 
Air, heat carried off by expired, 57 

required by farm animals, 67 
Albumin in milk, 77, 344, 346 
Alfalfa, 223-9 

compared with other forages, 224 
types of, 228 

value of different cuttings, 225, 371 
Alfalfa feed, 229 
Alfalfa hay, 224-6 

cut at various stages, 50 
for brood sows, 622, 625 
calves, 420 
cows, 370-3 
ewes, 551 
horses, 314-6 
pigs, 226, 621-3 
sheep, 533-5 
steers, 467-70, 490, 491 
ground, see Alfalfa meal 
in place of concentrates for cows, 371-3 
losses of feeding value in hay-making, 

218,220, 225 
loss of leaves in hay-making, 220 
making, 218-21 

yield compared with corn crop, 224 
Alfalfa meal, 229 

for cows, 229, 374 
horses, 315 
sheep, 515 
vs. wheat bran for cows, 374 
Alfalfa pasture, 226 
for cows, 373 

horses, 226, 316 
pigs, 610-1 
sheep, 226, 545 
Alfalfa silage, 228, 258 
Alfalfa soilage, 227, 266 
Alfalmo, 229, 304 
Alimentary tract, 17 
Alsike clover, see Clover, alsike 
Amber cane, 202 
Amids, 6 

digestion of, 28 
in corn crop, 12 
in various feeds, 62 
use by animals, 62 
Amino acids, 6, 27 

absorption of, from intestine, 33 
Amylase, 23 
Amylopsin, 23 
Anabolism, 31 
Animal, as a machine, 103 

composition of, 14-7 
influence of kind on digestibility, 52 
nitrogen and mineral matter in, 16 
not a heat machine, 104 



Animals, checking growth of, 99 

nutrients stored by young, 70 
Animals and plants compared, 16 
Apples, 247 

for pigs, 247 
Apples and corn silage compared, 247 
Apple pomace, 247 
Apple pomace silage, 258 

for cows, 383 
Armsby's energy values for feeds, 120 
Artichokes, 244 

for horses, 317 
pigs, 619 
Ash in bodies of farm animals, 16 

in corn crop at different stages, 12 

in corn kernel, 152 

in feeds, how determined, 9 

retained and voided by farm animals, 273 

see Mineral matter 
Ashes, wood, for farm animals, 66 
Assimilation of food, energy lost in, 47 
Available energy, 45 

Baby beef, 504-6 
Bacon, soft, 585 
Bacon hogs, 582 

see Pigs 
Bacon production, 584 
Bacteria, action in digestion, 22, 27 
Bagasse, sorghum, for silage, 203, 258 
Balanced ration, 17 

see Ration 
Bamboo leaves for horses, 299 
Barium salts, cause of loco poisoning, 252 
Barley, 161 

for calves, 414 
cows, 360 
horses, 303 
pigs, 590, 615 
sheep, 525, 529 
steers, 454 
see Cereals 
Barlev and bv-products in brewing, 161 
Barley feed, 164 
Barley hay, 210 
Barley pasture, 210 
Barley soilage, 210 
Barley straw, 216 
Barrows and sows, gains of, 583 
Beans, castor, 252 
field, 180 

for horses, 305 
pigs, 605 
sheep, 180 
produce a soft pork, 180, 605 
horse, see Horse bean 
hyacinth, 238 
moth, 238 

table, see Beans, field 
velvet, see Velvet bean 
Bean straw for sheep, 216-7, 535 
Beef, baby, 504-6 

effects of cottonseed meal on, 174 
feed consumed in producing, 432-5 
Beef calves, see Calves, beef 
Beef cattle, see Steers 

fattening caWes, 433-5, 504-6 
yearlings, 433-5, 506 
2-yr.-olds, 433-5, 506 
raising, 484-492 
summer care of, 484, 489 
wintering, 484-6, 489-92 



674 



INDEX 



675 



Beef cows, sec Cows, beef 
Beef production, 430-506 
cost of, 433-5, 497 

labor cost of, 497 
methods of, 501-6 
Beet, mangel, sec Mangel 
stock, for steers, 481 
sugar, see Sugar beet 
Heel Leaves and tops, 186, 243 

silage from, 243, 258 
Beet molasses, see Molasses, beet 
Beet pulp, dried, 185 
lor cows, 301 
horses, 305 
sheep, 530 
steers, 458 
Beel pulp, molasses, 186 
for cows, 361 
horses, 304 
sheep, 530 
Beef pulp, wet, 184 
for cows, 386 
horses, 318 
pigs, 618 
sheep, 544 
steers, 457 
Heel pulp silage, 1S5, 25S 
Beet tops, 186 
Beggar weed, 238 
Bermuda grass, 211 

rootstocks for pigs, 212 
Bermuda hay for cows, 379 
horses, 310 
steers, 211 
Bile, 23 

Blanketing horses, 296 
Bloat, in cattle, cause of, 22 

how prevented, 226, 232 
Blood, circulation of, 31 

influence of light on, 74 
Blood meal, or dried blood, 184 
for calves, 416 
cows, 369 
horses, 309 
pigs, 602 
sheep, 533 
Blood of pigs, influence of corn feeding on, 

92-6 
Bluegrass, Canada. 211 

Kentucky, 205 
Bluegrass pasture vs. rape for lambs, 546 
Bluegrass hay for sheep, 536 
Body, growth, under scant feeding, 96 
Body of horse, energy expended in lifting, 289 
Body temperature of farm animals, 54 
Body waste, disposal of, 28, 34 
Bonavist, 238 

Bone, increase of, in young animals, 76, 81 
Bone ash for farm animals, 66 

pigs, 81-2 
Bone meal, 184 

for calves, 416 
foals, 326 
pigs, 573 
Bones, brittle because lacking lime, 64 
of pigs, influenced by feed, 92-6 
strengthened bv calcium phosphate, 
66, 81. 573 
Bran, see "Wheat bran, Rice bran, etc. 
Bran disease. 157 
Bread, 157, 270 

for horses, 157, 270 
Breed, influence of, on digestibility, 52 

value in beef production, 439-44 
Breed tests of cows, 391-3 

sheep, 509-10, 554 
steers, 439-45 
swine, 582-3 
Brewers' grains, dried, 163 
for cows, 363 
horses. 30(3 
pigs. 163 
sheep, 532 
steers, 466 
pentosans in, 163 



Brewers' grains, wet, 163 

for cows, 163 
British feeding trials with sheep, 538 
steers, 482 
Brome grass, 208 
Brome hay for horses, 310 
Brood mare, see Mare, brood 
Brood sow, see Sow 
Broom-corn seed, 170 
Buckwheat, 171 

effects on butter, 171 
for pigs, 595 
wild, for lambs, 528 
Buckwheat bran, value of, 171 
Buckwheat hulls, feeding value, 171 
Buckwheat middlings, feeding value, 171 

for cows, 363 
Buffalo Exposition, tests of dairy cows at, 391 
Bull, beef, feed and care of, 486 
Bull, dairy, feed and care of, 428-9 
Butter, effects of buckwheat on, 171 

cocoanut meal on, 179 
cottonseed meal on, 174 
linseed meal on, 176 
potatoes on, 244 
soybeans on, 178 
yellow color, cause of, 356 
Buttermilk, 182 

for calves, 422 
pigs, 599 

Cabbage, 245 

marrow, 247 
Cacti, 249 

for cows, 250 

steers, 249-50 
spineless, 250 
Caecum, 18, 24 
Calcium, in blood, 63 

in skeleton, 64 

needed by pregnant animals, 82 

required for maintenance, 64—5 

growth, 81 
see Lime 
Calcium carbonate utilized by animals, 66 
Calcium phosphate, for farm animals, 66 

pigs, 81-2, 573 
Calorie, 44 
Calorimeter, 44 

respiration, 46 
Calves, beef, feed and care of, 487-9 

wide and narrow ration for, 91 
wintering, 489 
Calves, dairy, 412-26 

(For the value of the various feeds for 
calves, see the different feeds; i.e., 
Corn, Oats, etc.) 
advantage of fall-dropped, 425 
birth weight, 424 
calf meals for, 423-4 
chalk for, 417 

compared with lambs and pigs, 425 
concentrates for, 413-4, 419 
cost of rearing, 427 
fall vs. spring, 425 
feed and gain by, 425, 427 
feeding concentrates only, 72 
gains made by, 421 
grinding grain for, 415 
ground bone for, 417 
ground rock phosphate for, 417 
hay for, 420 
hay tea for, 423 
mineral matter for, 416 
percentage of food nutrients stored by, 

75-6 
raising on minimum amount of milk, 
422 
slrim milk, 412-21 
skim milk substitutes, 421-4 
returns from, compared with other farm 

animals, 90, 425 
rich and poor milk for, 7S 
salt for, 417 
scours, 426 



676 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Calves, dairy, continued 

substitutes for milk for, 423 
succulent feeds for, 420 
variety of feeds, effect of, 416 
water for, 417 
Canada field pea, see Pea, field 
Cane molasses, see Molasses, cane 
Cane sugar, 4 
Capillaries, 32 
Carbohydrates, 3 

absorption of, 32 
a source of muscular energy, 102 
compared with other nutrients for pro- 
ducing work, 102 
determination in feeding stuffs, 10 
digestion of, 25 
effect on digestibility of other nutrients, 

51 
effects of feeding only, 59 
energy lost in digesting, 46—8 
fat formed from, 86 
feeding in excess to pigs, 92 
in ripening clover, 231 
corn, 11-2 
grasses, 206 
what the term embraces, 40 
Carbonaceous feed, 41 
Carbon dioxid, amount in air, 2 

amount produced by horse 

during work, 101 
danger from, in silo filling, 262 
how taken up by plants, 2 
the great food of plants, 2 
Carbonic acid gas, see Carbon dioxid 
Carnivora, ability to withstand hunger, 56 
Carotin causes color of butter, 356 
Carpet grass, 213 
Carrots, 243 

for horses, 317 
Casein in milk, 181, 344, 346 
Cassava, 245 

for pigs, 621 
steers, 482 
Castor bean, 252 
Catabolism, 31 

Cattle, see Steers, Beef production, Cows 
Cellulose, 4 

decomposition of, 28 
digestion of, 26 
nutritive value of, 26 
Cereal by-products for dairy cows, 369 
Cereal hay, 209 

for horses, 309 
Cereal pasture, 209 
for cows, 210 
pigs, 615 
sheep, 545 
Cereal silage, 210 
Cereal soilage, 209 
Cereals, 149-71 
Chaff from the cereals, 216 
Chaffing hay and straw, 268 
for horses, 293 
sheep, 515 
Chalk for calves, 79, 417 
Charcoal for pigs, 580 
Cherry leaves, prussic acid in wild, 251 
Christmas lambs, see Hot-house lambs 
Chufas, 245 

for pigs, 621 
Chyle, 32 

Clipping horses, 296 
Clover, alsike, 232 

for sheep, 534 
bloat from, how prevented, 232 
bur, 234 

combined with timothy, 206, 231 
crimson, 234 
for soilage, 232 
Japan, see Lespedeza 
mammoth, 232 
Mexican, 248 
red, 230-2 

development of nutrients in, 
230 



Clover, red, continued 

losses in curing. 2 1 8 

methods of making hay from 

218-21 
pasture, 232 
silage, 232 

for cows, 382 
soilage, 232 
time to cut, 231 
sweet, 233 

pasture, for pigs, 612 
white, 233 
Clover hay, crimson, dangerous to horses, 
234 
for cows, 374 
Japan, see Lespedeza hay 
red, for calves, 420 
cows, 374 
ewes, 551 
horses, 313 
pigs, 623 
sheep, 534 
sows, 621, 625 
steers, 468-9, 491 
rich in lime, 65, 82, 232 
sweet, for sheep, 535 
steers, 471 
Clover pasture, for pigs, 611 
Coarse forage, see Roughage 
Cocoanut meal or cake, 179 
for cows, 367 
horses, 30S 
Cocoa shells, 189 
Cocoa-shell milk for calves, 423 
Cod liver oil for calves, 414 
Coefficients of digestibility, 36-9, Appendix 

Table II 
Colic in horses, due to changes in feed, 297 

corn meal, 301 
Colostrum, 77, 417 
Colts, daily gains of, .323, 328 
education of, 326 
see Foals 
Columbian Exposition, tests of dairy cows, 

391 
Comfrey, prickly, 248 
Common salt, see Salt 

Composition of feeding stuffs, 8—10, Appen- 
dix Table I 
factors influencing, 48-50 
Concentrates, 10 

adapting amount fed to local conditions, 

146 
feeding animals exclusively on, 71-3 
proper amount for dairy cows, 399 
horses, 292, 330 
pigs, 573, 631 
sheep, 561 
steers, 438, 479, 494 
Condimental stock foods, see Stock foods 
Cooked feed, 269-71 
digestibility of, 51 
digestion trials with, 269 
for pigs, 269, 576 
horses, 294 
stock, 269-71 
Corn, Indian, 149-53 

by-products of, 153-5 
characteristics of, 149 
composition of, 152 
dent, characteristics of, 150 
ear, for cows, 359 
horses, 301 
pigs, 574-6 
sheep, 523 
steers, 451-3 
shrinkage in drying, 151 
effects of thick planting on, 194 
Federal grades, 151 
feeding exclusively to pigs, 92 
field feeding to pigs, 588 
flint, characteristics of, 150 
for cows, 35S 
horses, 300-3 
pigs, 587-90 



INDEX 



677 



Corn, Indian, continued 
for sheep, •">- 1-5 
it eers, 1 10-54 
grinding, sec Corn, preparation of 
heavy vs. light feeding to sheep, 5G1 
steers, 451 
lacks protein and mineral matter, 150 
loses palatability after grinding, 153 
preparation of, for cows, 359 
horses, 301 
pigs, 573-. 
sheep, 523 
steers, 451-3 
races of, 150 
shelled, for pigs, 574 

sheep, 521-4 
-1 eers, 451-3 
weight of 1 bu., 150 
soaked, for pigs. 576, 577 

steers, 452 
soft, 151 

Tor pigs, 5SS 
steers, 454 
source of starch and glucose, 150 
sweet, characteristics, 150 
water in green and dry, 151 
weight of 1 bushel, 150 
yellow compared with white, 150 
see Corn crop and Corn plant 
Corn-and-cob meal, 153 
for cows, 359 
horses, 301 
pigs, 588 
sheep. 523 
steers, 452 
Corn bran, 155 
Corn chop, see Corn meal 
Corn cobs, weight and composition of, 150 
Corn crop, changes in carbohydrates during 
ripening, 12 
changes in crude protein during 

ripening, 12 
composition of, at different 

stages, 11 
distribution of nutrients in ears 

and stover, 194 
increase in, during ripening, 13 
losses in field curing, 195, 198 
proportion of ears and stover, 

194-5 
yield of nutrients iu 1 acre, 11, 13 
Corn feed-meal, 153 
Corn fodder, 193, 196 

for cows, 376-7, 380 
horses, 311 
sheep, 536 
silage, 19S, 200 
steers, 471 
green, 193 

for soilage, 201 
preserving, 195 
pulling, 197 
saltpeter in, 253 
shocking or stooking, 195-6 
shredding, 197 
vs. corn silage for cows, 380 
Corn fodder silage, 200 
Corn forage, see Corn fodder and Corn 

stover 
Corn gluten feed, see Gluten feed 
Corn kernel, parfcs and composition, 152 
Corn meal, 153 

as sole feed for cows, 72 
for calves, 414 
cows, 359 
horses. 301 
pigs, 588 
sheep, 523-5 
steers, 451-3 
Corn plant, 11, 193 

changes in maturing, 11 

crude protein at different stages, 12 

distribution of nutrients, 195 

lor silage, 19S-201 

losses by ensiling and field curing, 198 



Corn plant, continued 

nitrogen-free extract at different stages, 

12 
number of stalks per acre, 194 
nutrients at different stages, 11 
removing ears before ensiling, 201 
requirements for growth, 149 
southern for silage, 199 
Corn oil, 154 

for calves, 414 
Corn product, new. 198 
Corn silage, see Silage, corn 
Corn smut, feeding experiments with, 252 
Corn soilage, 201 
Corn stalk disease, 251 
Corn stover, 193, 197 
ensiled, 200 

for cows, 377 

horses, 311, 312 
sheep, 536 
steers, 471, 491 
percentage of nutrients of crop iu, 105 
shredded, 197 

for cows, 197 
steers, 491 
vs. mixed hay for cows, 377 
vs. timothy hay for horses, 311 
Corn stover silage, 200 
Correctives for pigs, 579 
Cost of feeds, considering in formulating 

rations, 114, 139-48 
Cotton seed, 171 
as a feed, 172 
for cows, 365 
steers, 462 
poison in, 173 
products from 1 ton, 171 
roasted, 172 
Cottonseed cake, 172, 174 
cold-pressed, 173 
see Cottonseed meal 
Cottonseed hulls, 175 
for cows, 379 

steers, 472-4, 492 
Cottonseed meal, 172, 174 

effects on animal fats, 174 
for beef cows, 485 
calves, 415 
dairy cows, 364-5 
horses, 307—8 
pigs, 173, 605 
sheep, 531 

steers, 460-2, 46S, 472-4, 476-7, 492, 
503 
makes hard butter, 174 
poison in, 173 
Cottonseed oil for calves, 414 
Cowpea, 180, 235 
for pigs, 606 
horses, 305 
steers, 464 
Cowpea hay, 235 
for cows, 375 
horses, 316 
sheep, 534 
steers, 471, 491 
Cowpea pasture, 236 
for pigs, 613 
steers, 471 
Cowpea silage, 235, 258 
for cows, 374, 382 
steers, 481 
Cowpea vine, 235 
Cows, beef, feed and care of, 484-6 

vs. dairy cows for butter fat, 340 
■wintering, 4S4-6 
Cows, dairy, 338-429 

(For the value of various feeds for 
cows, see the different feeds; i.e., 
Corn, Clover hay, etc.) 
advanced registry, 388 
amount of heat given off daily, 68 
annual feed requirements, 395 
as producers of human food, 33S-43 
basis of profitable dairying, 343 



678 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Cows, dairy, continued 
breed bests, 391-3 
burden of dairying, 409 
calculating rations for, 112-6, 130, 

111) 5, 110 
care before and alter calving, 407-0 
censuses, 390 
changing milkers, 354 
comfort, importance of, 405 
compared with heifers, 346 
composition of milk of various breeds, 

:; i i 
concentrate allowance for, 300 
concentrates for, 358-86 
cooking feed for, 405 
cost, of keep, 306 

milk, by months, 305 
dairy vs. beef type, 340 
dehorning, 353 
disposition of feed by, 340 
dry IVed lor, 105 
drying off, 407-8 
economy of, 338-40 
effects of advancing lactation on milk 

yield, 347 
age on milk yield, 346 
cattle licks on milk yield, 355 
dehorning on milk yield, 353 
drought on milk yield, 352 
exercise on milk yield, 353 
milking machines on milk 

yield, 354 
spaying on milk yield, 353 
temperature on milk yield, 352 
tuberculin testing on milk 

yield, 353 

turning to pasture on milk 

yield, 352 
work on quality of milk, 35:? 
excessive and low feeding, 348, 349 
exercise for, 353 
feed and care of, 308-411 

yield of great, 303-5 
feeding as individuals, 400 

concentrates on pasture, 401-3 
exclusively on concentrates, 72 
fat, 350 
feeds for, 358-86 

required by, for 1 year, 305 
when dry, 408 
forced feeding, 303 
frequency of feeding, 355, 406 
milking, 3 16, 355 
freshening in fall vs. spring, 400 
generous feed and care for, 308 
gestation period, 408 
good and poor producers, 341 
great, feed and yield of, 303-5 
grinding grain for, 268, 405 
grooming, 3,53 

Hegelund method of milking, 355 
herd records, 388 9 
Inefficient, causes of, 342 
kindness in viu-u of, 354, 400 
liberal and meager feeding, 3 18, 310 
lime withheld from, 64, 351 
loss in weight, 349 
milk, see Milk, cow's 
milk and Tat records, 387-96 
milking machines, 351 

I In-ee I imes daily, 355 
official tests, 388 
order of feeding, 406 
palatable feed, importance of, 403 
pasture, supplementing short, 403 
pasturage vs. soilage for, 385 
preparal Ion of feed for, 405 
profitable and unprofitable, 342 
ration for, should bo well balanced, 400 
rations for, examples of economical, 
140-5, 400-11 
when on test, 303-5 
records, keeping on farm, 388 
of great cows, 303-5 
regularil y in care of, 351, 406 



Cows, dairy, continued 

resi , importance of, 407 
ici urns from, compared with other farm 
animals, 
00, 33.S lo 
steers. 
338 40 
in Swedish test associa- 
tions, 129 

good and poor producers, 
341-3 
roughages for, 370-80 
salt for, 405 
shelter for, 405 

shredding corn fodder for, 268 
spaying, 353 

substituting legume hay for concen- 
trates, 372 6 
succulent feed, importance of, 403 
succulent feeds for, 379-86 
tests of, at expositions, 391, 392 

unreliability of short, 389 
tuberculin testing, 353 
turning to pasture, 352 
use of feed by, 340 
variations in fat in milk, 345-53 
water for, 404 
wet and dry feed for, 355 
see Heifer 
Cow-testing associations, 3S7-8 
Crab grass, 213 
Creep for foals, 324 

lambs, 558 
Crimson clover, see Clover, crimson 
Crops for the silo, 257 
Crudo protein, see Protein, crude 
Cud, chewing the, 19 
Cull beans, 180 

Cutting hay and straw, see Chaffing 
Cylindrical silo, 256 

capacity of different sizes, 262 

Dairy and beef breeds, internal fat from, 443 
Dairy by-products, 181-3 
for pigs, 596 

spreading disease thru, 182 
Dairy calves, soo Calves, dairy 
Dairy cows, see Cows, dairy 
Dairying, the burden of, 409 

based on maternity of cow, 338 
the individual cow, 343 
Darkness, see Light 
Dehorning, effects on cows, 353 
Depression of digestibility, 51-2 
Diastase, 162 
Digestibility, 36-41 

coefficients of, 36-9, Appendix Table 1 1 

depression of, 51, 291 

effect of acid on, 52 

effects of work on, 284 

factors influencing, 50-3 

general discussion of, 37—9, 50-3 

influence of ago on, 53 

amount of feed eaten on, 50 
breed on, 52 

frequency of feeding on, 51 
kind or class of animal on, 

52 
palatability of feed on, 30 
preparation of feed on, 51, 

267-71, 575 
proportion of different nu- 
trients on, 51 
starvation on, 50 
water on, 51 
work on, 51 
method of determining, 37 
of coarse forage, 39 
of cooked food, 51, 269-70 
of I'at, 38 
of teeds, 36-41 
of feeds high in fiber, 39 
ot rood by horse, 52, 283 
pig, 52 
ruminants, 52 



INDKX 



(579 



Digestibilil y, continued 

of grasses directed by maturity, 50 
of ground grain, 51 
of nitrogenous feeds, 52 
of silage, 51 
Digestible nutrient, 17 
Digestible nutrients In feeding stuffs, 30, 

Appendix Tablo III 
Digestion, 17 

beat evolved in, 45, 47 
in stomach, 20-2 

of liber involves much work, 47, 55 
studies of Pawlow on, 29-30 
trials with cooked feed, 61, 269-70 
horsos, 283 
sheep, 36 
work involved in, 45, 47, 55, 285 
Digestion coefficients, 37-9, Appendix 

Table II 
Digestive glands, work of, 29 
Digestive tract of farm animals, 17 
Dipping sheep, 561 
Distillers' grains, dried, 188 
for cows, 368 
horses, 308 
pigs, 607 
sheep, 532 
steers, 465 
Distillery slop, 188 
for steers, 465 
Draft, energy expended by horses in, 290 

required on different road beds, 283 
Dressed carcass, composition of, from farm 
animals, 15 
yielded by pigs, 584 
sheep, 518 
steers, 440, 442 
Dried beet pulp, see Beet pulp, dried 
Dried blood, see Blood meal 
Dried brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, 

dried 
Dried distillers' grains, see Distillers' grains, 

dried 
Dried fish, see Fish meal 
Drought, effects of, on milk, 352 
Durra, 168 
Dynamometer, 282 

Earth nut, see Peanut 

Economy in feeding live stock, 139-48 

Egyptian corn, see Milo 

Emmer, 164 

for cows, 360 
pigs, 592 
sheep, 529 
steers, 456 
Energy, 45-8 

available and net, 45 

expended by dairy cows, 340 

factors influencing amount appearing as 

useful work, 103, 288-90 
for animals derived from sun, 7 
for work furnished by carbohydrates, 102 
fat, 102 
protein, 102 
in common feeds, 44, 46 
in pure nutrients, 44 
in urea, 45, 46 

losses of, depend on body surface, 58 
muscular, may come from protein, 56, 
100, 102 
produced by oxidation of car- 
bohydrates and fat, 101-2 
production of, 101 
source of, 102 
net. 46 

in feeding stuffs, 46 

in feeds determines amount of work pro- 
duced, 102, 284 
lost in chewing feeds, 48 
part expended which is utilized in work, 

103 
required for maintenance, 57 
required for work, decreases with prac- 
tice, 103 



Energy required for work, continued 

factors influencing, 

103, 288-9, 292 
increases with fa- 
tigue, 103 
increases with speed, 
103, 288 
of animal machino compared with steam 

engine, 104 
of feeds, loss of, in assimilation, 45-8 
digestion, 45-8, 

284-5 
feces, 45, 47 
mastication, 45, 47, 

284-5 
production processes, 

46-8 
urine, 45-7 
see Work 
Energy values of feods, Armsby's, 121 
Engine compared with animals, 44, 45, 104 
English system of allowing for manurial 

value of feeds, 277 
Ensilage, see Silage 
Ensiling, manner in which green forage is 

preserved by, 254 
Enzymes, 20 
Erepsin, 24 
Ergot, 251 

Ether extract, see Fat 
Ewes, breeding, feed and care of, 548-59 

care of, at lambing time, 553 

after lambing, 554 
when raising winter lambs, 
565 
concentrates for, 551 
date of lambing, 548 
feed required for 100 lbs. milk, 556 
flushing, 549 

milking qualities of, 555-6 
roughages for, 551-3 
succulent feeds for, 551-3 
turning to pasture, 558 
wintering, 550-3 
Ewe's milk, composition of, 77, 555 

value for lambs, 556 
Excrement, see Manure 
Exercise for brood sows, 582, 625 

carriage horses, 295, 335 
colts, 296 
dairy cows, 353 
fattening animals, 74 
horses, 295 
lambs, 514, 564 
pigs, 582, 625 
stallions, 329 
Exposure for lambs, 513 
steers, 445 

Farm animals, calculating rations for, 112-8, 
124, 136-45 
comparative fattening qual- 
ities of, 89-91 
composition of bodies of, 

14-6 
importance of, to agriculture, 

vii-x 
manure voided by, 278 
nitrogen and ash retained 

and voided by, 273 
relative economy of, 90, 

338-9, 425, 568 
see Live stock 
Farming, adapt type of, to local conditions, 

147 
Farm manure, see Manure 
Fat, 4 

absorption of, 32 

amount formed from various nutrients, 

88 
a source of muscular energy, 102 
compared with other nutrients for pro 

ducing work, 102 
digestion of, 25 
effect of cottonseed meal on, 174 



680 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Fat, continued 

feeding, effect on digestibility, 52 
feeding to dairy cows, 350 
formed by ox in 1 day, 43 

from carbohydrates, 86 
pentosans, 87 
protein, 87 
in animal may resemble that in veget- 
able, 86 
in milk, factors influencing composition 
and yield, 344-57 
globules in, 345 
origin in body, 85 
possible amount produced in body by 

nutrients, 88 
source of, in milk, 105 
vegetable, 4-5 

Yielded bv great dairy cows, 393 
wool, 107 
Fatten animals to meet demands of market, 

147 
Fattening, 83-91 

composition of increase during, 83-5 
factors influencing, 89 
influence of age on, 89 

ample food on, 89, 97-8 
breed on, 89 
exercise on, 89 
palatability on, 89 
temperament on, 89 
object of, 83 
ration for, 88 
Fattening period, cost of gain increases with 
length, 436, 56S, 630 
length for pigs, 630 

sheep, 561, 562 
steers, 437-9 
Fattening process, what it is, 83 
Fattening qualities of ox, sheep, and pig 

compared, 90 
Fattening the horse, 332-4 
Fatty tissues, storage of, see Fattening 
Feces, 28 

heat lost in, 45, 47, 57 
Feed, administration to cows, 405-7 
horses, 297-8 
lambs, 560 
pigs, 624-5 
steers, 500-1 
Feed, consumed daily by pigs of various 
weights, 568-9 
from birth to maturity by 

steers, 432 
vearly by calves, 427 
cows, 395-6 
horses, 318 
cooking, for farm animals, 269-71 
horses, 294 
pigs, 269, 576 
effects on butter fat, 351 
influence on body of pig, 81, 92-6 

milk fat, 349-51 
long and short for steers, 437 
preparation for farm animals, 267-71 
calves, 415 
cows, 405 
horses, 293-5 
pigs, 573-7 
sheep, 515 
steers, 451-3 
relation to work of horse, 282 
regulation of sale, 190 
returns from by various farm animals, 

90 
soaking, 51, 271 

for horses, 294 
swine, 577 
see Feeds, also Feeding stuffs 
waste, utilized by livestock, viii 
Feed adulteration, 190 
Feeding standards, 109-38 
lirst, 109 

for dairv cows, comparison of, 133 
Eckles, 132, 133 
Haecker's, 130 



Feeding standards, continued 

for dairy cows, Savage's, 132 

Scandinavian, 126 
Woll-Humphrey, 131 
for farm animals, 109-38 
Armsby's, 120-6 
Kellner's, 118-20 
Modified Wolff-Lehmann, 134-8, 

Appendix Table V 
Wolff, 110 

Wolff-Lehmann, 110-2, 116-8, Ap- 
pendix Table IV 
for lambs, Bull-Emmett, 123 
history of, 109-10 
only approximate guides, 115 
Feeding stuffs, 149-271 
adulteration, 190 

coefficients of digestibility, 39, Appen- 
dix Table II 
composition, 8, Appendix Table I 
control, 190-1 
digestible nutrients in, 40, Appendix 

Table III 
fertilizing constituents in, 274-6, Ap- 
pendix Table III 
guide in purchasing, 191 
mineral matter in, 8-9, Appendix Table 

VI 
value of, to animal, 44 
Feed lot, counsel in, 493-506 

paved, 44S 
Feed racks for sheep, 516 
Feeds, Armsby's energy value of, 121 

cost of, considering in formulating 

rations, 140-5 
fertilizing value of, 274-5 

how allowed for in England, 277 
for beef bulls, 486 
beef calves, 487-9 
beef cows, 484-6 
breeding ewes, 549-55 
brood mares, 320-2 
brood sows, 624-6 
carriage horses, 335 
dairy bulls, 429 
dairy calves, 412-24 
dairy cows, 358-86 
dairy heifers, 426 
foals, 323-8 
horses, 299-319 
lambs, 558-9 
pigs, 587-623 
rams, 549 
sheep, 521-47 
stallions, 329 
steers, 449-83, 489-92 
trotting horses, 335 
work horses, 330 
Kellner's starch values, 119 
low in fiber, digestibility of, 39 
in lime, 65 
in phosphorus, 65 
market prices not guide to value of, 139 
mixed or proprietary, 189 
rich in lime, 65, Appendix Table VI 

in phosphorus, 65 
selecting, for economical rations, 

139-45 
suitability of, considering in formulat- 
ing rations, 112 
true value of, for work horses, 285 
see Feed, also Feeding stuffs 
Feed units, 126-8 

measuring economy of cow by using, 

128 
use in Swedish test associations, 129 
Fertilitv, buying, in purchased feeds, 276 

selling, in crops, 276 
Fertilizers, composition and value of, 272 
essential elements in, 272 
see Manure 
Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs, 274, 

Appendix Table III . 

Fertilizing value of feeds, retained and voided 
by animals, 273 



INDEX 



681 



Ferment at Ion in stomach, 22 
Feterita, 168, L69 

for pigs, 594 
Fcterita fodder, 202 
Feterita silago for sheep, 543 
Fiber, 10 

changed to marsh gas, 26 
digestion of, 26 
how determined in feeds, 10 
loss of energy in digesting, 48 
Fi( Id bean, see Bean, field 
Field pea, see Pea, field 
Filly, weight of ai birth, :;•-"-' 

time to breed, 321 
Fish meal. 1 8 i 

for dairy cows, 3('>n 
Flat turnips, see Turnips 
Flavor of milk affected by feed. 355 
Flax i'vvd, 177 
Flax oil-feed, 177 
Flax plant b_y-product, 177 
Flax seed, 175 

for calves, 414, 416 
Flax straw, 217 
Flesh formation, 75 
Flesh meal for dairy cows, 369 

sheep, 532 
Flock, see Sheep 
Flour, manufacture of, 156 

red dog. 158 
Foaling time, care of mare at. 821-2 
Foals, care of, 322-S 

cost of raising, 328 

cow's milk for, 325 

creep for, 324 

feed for, after weaning, 326-7 

fall, 322 

forcing draft, 328 

mineral matter for, 326 

raising orphan, 325 

weaning, 325 

weight of, at birth, 322 

yearly gain of, 322, 328 

see Colt 
Fodder, ensilage of, 254 
Fodder corn, see Corn fodder and Corn 

Food, cooked? digestibility of, 51, 269 

coarse, energy lost in digesting, 48 
disposition of, in respiration study, 42 
of horse, loss of energy in digest ion, 

4S 
taken by ox in 1 clay, 42-3 
unappreciated factors in, 70 
see Feeds, also Feeding stuffs 
Forage, coarse, see Roughage 

green, digestibility of, 50 
Forage poisoning, 251 
Force, see Work 
Foot-ton and foot-pound, 2s2 
Fowl meadow grass, 211 
Frosted corn for silage, 200 
Fruit, 247 

for horses, 318 
sugar, 3 
Fuel value of feed, sec Energy 

Gain, by calves, 421 
foals. 322 
lambs, 556, 559 
pigs, 568—70 
sheep, 512 
steers, 432-6 
comparative, by ox. sheep, and pig, 90 
of growing animals, 75-6 
Garbage for pigs, 596 
Gasoline and steam engines compared with 

animals, 44. 45. HU 
tlastrie juice, 20 
Germ oil meal, 154 

for cows, 362 
Gestation period of cow, 408 
ewe, 548 
mare, 321 
sow, 626 



Glucose, 3- I 

disappears from muscles during work, 

102 
manufactured from corn, 153 
stored in tho muscles, 102 
Gluten feed, 154 
for cows, 362 
pigs, 608 
sheep, 532 
steers, 465, 503 
Gluten meal, 154 
for cows, 362 
horses, 308 
pigs, 608 
Gluten of wheat, 156 
Glycogen, 32, 102 

disappears from muscles during work, 

33, 102 
produced continuously in body tissues, 

102 
stored in the muscles, 33, 102 
Goat, Angora, 567 

milch, 567 
Goober, see Peanut 
Grade, influence on energy expended in 

work, 289 
Grain, grinding, see Grinding grain 
ground, digestibility of, 51 
hogging down ripe, 615 
soaking, for horses, 294 

pigs, 574-6, 577 
Grass, 204-15 

changes in ripening, 50, 204 

curing into hay, 217 

dried compared with fresh, 217 

effects of frequent cutting on yield, 204 

weather in curing, 217-8 
for silage, 258 
gains of steers on, 501-2 
influence of ripeness on digestibility, 50 
pasture for pigs, 615 
quality of young, 204 
time to cut for hay, 205, 206 
Grasses, mixed, 214 

the smaller, 204-15 
see Hay, also Pasture 
Greasewood, 249 

Great Britain, fattening sheep in, 538 
steers in, 482 
Green forage, digestibility of, 50 
Grinding grain for cows, 405 

farm animals, 268 
horses, 294 
pigs, 573-6 
sheep, 515, 523 
steers, 451-3 
oats for horses, 268, 294 
Grooming, effects on cows, 353 
Grooming horses, 297 
Ground bone for calves, 417 
colts, 326 
pigs, 573, 580 
Ground rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock 
Growing animals, 75—83 

effect of checking growth of, 99 
milk natural food for young, 77 
roughing thru the winter, 147 
Growth of animals, 75-83 

increase in protein and mineral matter 

during, 75 
relation between composition of milk 

and rate of, 78 
mineral matter requirements for, 81-2 
protein requirements for. 79-80 
Guinea grass, 213 

Haecker feeding standard for dairy cows, 130 
Hairy vetch, see Vetch, hairy 
Harness, influence of, on work of horse, 297 
Hay, aids in curing, 220 

aroma of, 21S 

brown, 221 

digestibility of, 50 

chaffing or cutting, see Chaffing hay 

changes while curing, 218-9 



082 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Hay, continued 

from second growth grass, 219 
lime for curing, 219 
losses by stacking, 222 
making, 218-22 

under favorable conditions, 220 
measurement, 222 
mixing straw with, for curing, 219 
new made, laxative, 219 
salt for curing, 219 
shrinkage, 222 

spontaneous combustion, 221 
time to cut clover for, 231 

grass for, 205, 206 
vs. corn silage for dairy cows, 38 1 
see Grasses, also Legumes 
Hay, alfalfa, effects of rain on, 218 
losses by stacking, 220 
Hay equivalents, 109 
Hay tea, for calves, 423 
Heat, amount given off by cow daily, 68 

in coal, pure nutrients, and 
various feeds, 44 
controlling loss of, from body, 56 
energy expended in body takes form 

of, 48, 55 
how it is produced in body, 55 
loss from body, 56-9 

depends on body surface, 58 

covering of body, 57 
temperament, 58 
lost in digestion, 47 

warming water drunk, 69 
manner of escape from body, 57 
manner of equalization in body, 56 
of body increased by work, 55 
produced by all the work of body, 55 
production in body, 55-6 

influenced by standing and lying, 58 
regulation in body, 56 
requirements for maintenance, 57 
see Energy 
Heating water for cows, 404 

farm animals, 69 
Heifers, beef, vs. steers, 448 
Heifers, dairy, advantage of home-reared, 
412 
age to breed, 427 
cost of rearing, 427—8 
feed and care of, 426-8 
yield of, compared with cow, 
346 
Hemp seed cake, 367 

Herbivora, feeding concentrates only to, 72 
Herd records of cows, 387-91 
Herd's grass, see Timothy 
Hogs, see Pigs 
Hogging down corn, 588 
Hominy feed, 155 

for cows, 359 
pigs, 590 
steers, 459 
Honeycomb, or second stomach, 18 
Hordein, 5 
Horse bean, 180 

for horses, 305 
Horse feeding, a skilled art, 320 
Horse power, definition, 282 
Horses, 281-337 

(For value of various feeds for horses, 
see the different feeds; i. e., Corn, 
Oats, etc.) 
air breathed by, 67 
army, feed and care of, 292, 336 
blanketing, 296 
body temperature of, 54 
care of, hints on, 297, 320-37 
carriage, feed, and care of, 335 
chaffing hay for, 293 
clipping, 296 
concentrates for, 299-309 
cooked feed for, 294 
cost of feed, 318 

raising, 328 
digestibility of food by, 52, 283 



Horses, continued 

effects of exercise and work on, 284 
energy expended in carrying load, 289 
draft, 290 
lifting body, 289 
locomotion, 289 
excess of roughage injurious, 309 
exercise for, 295 
fattening, 332-4 
feed and care of, 320-37 

work, relation of, 282-93 
feed consumed yearly, 318 

preparation of, for, 268-70, 293-4 
required for maintenance, 285 
feeding, supervision of, 29S 
feeds for, 299-319 
fitting for shows, 335 
grade, effect on energy expended in 

work, 289 
grinding grain for, 268, 294 
grooming, 297 
hints on feeding, 297 
locomotion of, 289 
magnitude of horse industry, 281 
maintenance requirements, 285 
measuring work performed by, 282 
nutrients, net, needed in work, 287 
nutritive ratio for, 290 
power exerted by, of varying weights. 

282 
preparing feed for, 293-4 
protein requirements of, 286, 290 
rations for, 331 
relation of feed to work, 282 

speed to feed and work, 288 
roughage, amount for, at hard work, 292 
excess of, injurious, 309 
necessity of, 73 
roughages for, 309-18 
saddle horse, care and feed of, 335 
salt for, 295 
severe work by, 292 
soaking grain for, 294 
speed influences energy required for 

work, 288 
stables for, 296 
succulent feeds for, 316-8 
sudden changes in feed dangerous, 297 
supervision of feeding, 298 
teeth, care of, 297 
temperature of, 55 
trotting, feed and care of, 335 
unusual feeds for, 299 
water drunk by, 295, 318 
evaporated by, 292 
watering, time of, 294 
weight, variations in, 292 
wintering, 332 

work, factors influencing, 281-98 
feed and care of, 330 
value of feeds for, 284 
wide and narrow rations for, 291 
work performed by, 282 

influence of speed on, 288, 292 

grade on, 289 
in relation to feed, 282 
types of, 287 
Hothouse lambs, see Lambs, hot-house 
Hungarian grass, see Millet 
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 20 
in stomach, 21, 63 
influence on pancreatic 
secretion, 23 

Increase during fattening, composition of, 
83-5 

Indian corn plant, see Corn 

Inorganic phosphorus, see Calcium phos- 
phate 

Intestinal secretion, 24 

Intestine, large, digestion in, 24 

small, digestion in, 22-4 

Intestines, length and capacity of, IS 
of pigs, length, 584 

Invertases, 24 



INDEX 



683 



Iron In blood. 63 
plants, 2 

Japan closer, Bee Lespedeza 
Japanese millet, see Millet, Japanese 
Japanese cane, 213 
for pigs, 6 1 6 
steers, 482 
Jerusalem artichoke, see Artichoke 
Johnson grass, 212 
Johnson grass hay for cows, 37'.) 

horses, 310 
Johnson grass and cowpea silage for steers, 

481 
June grass, see Bluegrass 

Kafir, 168, 169 

for calves, 414 
cows, 360 
horses, 303 
pigs, 593-4 
steers, 455-6 
rnav contain poison, 251 
Kafir fodder. 201-2 

for beef cows, 486 
Kafir silage, 203 

for beef cows, 486 
dairy cows, 382 
steers, 480 
Kafir stover, 202 

for beef cows, 486 
steers, 472 
Kale, 247 
Kaoliang, 168, 169 

for pigs, 594 
Kaoliang fodder and stover, 202 
Kellner's starch values and feeding standard, 

118-20 
Kentucky bluegrass, see Bluegrass 
Kidneys, elimination of waste thru, 34 
Kidneys of pigs, influence of corn feeding on, 

93-4 
Kindness, effect of, on digestion, 51, 354 
Kohlrabi, 246 
Kudzu vine, 239 

Labor, see Work 

Labor, distribution of in livestock farming, iv 

Lactase, 24 

Lactation, effects of advancing, 347 

Lacteals, 32 

Lambing, date of, 548 

Lambs, see Sheep 

assimilate calcium phosphate, 66 
compared with calves, 425 

pigs, 425, 557 
economy of, compared with pigs, 557 
fattening, 560-4 

feed and care of, 553, 554, 558-60 
feeding grain before and after weaning, 

510 
gains by, 512, 556 
gain from ewe's milk, 556 
hot-house, 564-6 
returns from, compared with other farm 

animals, 90-1, 557 
rich and poor milk for, 78 
spring, 566 

teaching young, to eat, 558 
weaning, 559 
weight of, at birth, 554 
winter, 564-6 
Lamb's-quarter seed for pigs, 596 
Leaves and twigs, 24S 
Legumes for forage, 223-39 
for silage, 258, 382 
importance in feeding, 64, 223 
in place of concentrates for cows, 

371-6 
rich in lime, 223 
Legume hay, importance of, for cows, 370 

horses, 313 
pigs, 621 
sheep, 533-4 
steers, 466-S 



Legume roughages for pigs, 559 

Legumin, 5 

Leguminous seeds, 177-9, 179-80 

for horses, 305 
Leguminous plants for green forage and hay, 

223-39 
Leguminous roughage contains lime in 

excess of phosphorus, 65 
Lespedeza, 237 
Lespedeza hay, 237 
for horses, 310 
Light, importance of, for farm animals, 74 

absence of, favors fattening, 74 
Lime, 64-5 

effect of deficiency in ration, 64 

feeds low in, and rich in, 65, Appendix 

Table VI 
in legumes, 65, 223 
required for growth, 81 

maintenance, 64-5 
withholding from cows, 64, 351 

pigs, 81-3 
see Calcium 
Lime phosphate, see Calcium phosphate 
Linseed cake, see Linseed meal 
Linseed meal or cake, 176 
for calves, 414, 415 
cows, 366 
horses, 307 
pigs, 602, 604 
sheep, 531 

steers, 463, 476-7, 503 
new process, 176 
old process, 176 
Linseed oil meal, see Linseed meal 
Lipase, 23 
Liver, 23 

influence of corn feeding on, 94 
Live stock and profitable farming, vii 

consume feed otherwise wasted, 

viii 
employ labor thruout year, ix 
promote intelligent and pro- 
gressive agriculture, ix 
utilize land unsuited for tillage, 
viii 
Load, energy expended by horse carrying, 

289 
Locomotion of horse, 289 
Loco poisoning, 252 
Lucerne, see Alfalfa 
Lymph, 32, 33 
Lymphatics, 31 

Machine, the animal as a, 103 
Maintenance of farm animals, 54-74 
Maintenance ration, see Ration, main- 
tenance 
Maintenance requirements, 54-74 

greater when animal is standing, 58 

of horse, 285-7 

vary with body surface, 58 
Maize, see Corn 
Malt, 162 

manufacture of, 162 
Maltase, 24 
Malt sugar, 4, 24, 162 
Malt sprouts, 163 

for cows, 363 
Mammoth clover, see Clover, mammoth 
Mangels, 242 

dangerous to rams or wethers, 242, 538 

for cows, 384 
pigs, 618 
sheep, 538 
steers, 481, 483 
Manure, 272-80 

barnyard, benefits the soil, 272 

calculating amount of, 278 

care of, to prevent loss, 280 

fertilizing constituents recovered in, 
273 

influence of feed on, 274 

losses in, 279 

value of 1 ton from farm animals, 277 



084 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Manure, continued 

voided by steer from birth to maturity, 

432 
see Fertilizers 
Manurial value of feeds, 274 
Manyplies, 18 

Mare, brood, feed and care of, 320-2 
gestation period of, 321 
see Horse 
Mare's milk, composition and yield of, 324 
Margin in fattening live stock, 431 
Marsh gas, or methane, 28, 38, 43, 47 
Marsh hay, 214 

for sheep, 536 
Mastication, 19 

energy lost in, 48 
Meadow fescue, 211 
Meat, marbling of, 83 
Meat meal and meat scrap, see Tankage 
Melons, 247 
Metabolism, 31 
Metabolizable energy, 45 
Middlings, see Wheat middlings, Oat 

middlings, etc. 
Milch cows, see Cows 
Milk, cow's, 181, 344-57 
ash in, 77 
bitter, 356 

color of, affected by feed, 356 
colostrum, 77 
composition of, 77, 344 

factors influencing, 344-57 
influence of advancing lactation on, 
347 
age of cow, 346 
condition at calving, 

348 
drought, 352 
exercise, 353 
feed, 349-51 
period between niilk- 

ings, 346 
turning to pasture, 352 
work, 353 
effects of rich, on infants, 79 

young animals, 78 
fat globules in, 345 
fat, source of, in, 105 
feed-cost of producing, 395-6 
first and last drawn, composition of, 

346 
flavor, affected by feed, 355 

rape pasture, 246 
rye pasture, 210 
for calves, 412, 417 
foals, 325 
lambs, 557 
pigs, 599 
nitrogen and ash in, 16, 77 
odors in, due to feed, 355 
of different breeds, 344 
yield, effects of advancing lactation on, 
347 
of great dairy cows, 393-5 
period of greatest, 348 
Milk, ewe's, 77, 555 
mare's, 324 
sow's, 77, 629 
Milk, production of, 104 

nutrients required for, 106 
secretion of, 104 
source of fat in, 105 
the natural food for young animals, i 7 
Milking cows 3 times daily, 355 
Milking, Hegelund method, 355 
Milking machines, 354 
Millet seed, 170 
for pigs, 595. 
sheep, 531 
steers, 457 
foxtail, 170 
German, 209 
hog, or broom-corn, 170 
Hungarian, 209 
Japanese, 1_»0!J 



Millet hay, 209 

dangerous to horses, 311 
for horses, 311 
lames, 536 
steers, 491 
Milo, 16S, 169 

for horses, 303 
pigs, 594 
sheep, 530 
stGGi*s 456 
Milo fodder and stover, 202 
Mineral matter, 2, 62-7, 81 
controls life processes, 63 
digestion of, 28 

effects on animals of lack of, 63, 81 
bones of pigs, 81, 94, 573 
for calves, 416 
colts, 326 
cows, 64, 351 
pigs, 66, 81, 94, 572-3 
importance of, in food, 63 
increase in, during growth, 75-6 
in feeding stuffs, 8, 9, 65, Appendix Table 

VI 
in plants, 2, 7 
required for growth, 81-2 

maintenance, 65 
stored in body of ox in 1 day, 43 
see Calcium and Phosphorus 
M'ixed feeds, 189 
Modified Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard 

134-8, Appendix Table V 
Molasses, beet, 186 
for horses, 304 
pigs, 618 
sheep, 530 
steers, 459 
Molasses, cane, 186 
for calves, 416 
cows, 187 
horses, 304 
steers, 458 
Molasses-beet pulp, see Beet pulp, molasses- 
Molasses feeds, 187 
for horses, 304 
Molassine meal, 187 
Mules, 281, 332 

Muscles, cause of contraction unknown, 101 
increase thru exercise, 75 
of pigs, influence of corn feeding 

on, 94-5 
see Protein, 
Muscular contraction* 56, 57, 101 
Muscular energy, may come from protein, 
56, 60, 101 
produced by burning car- 
bohydrates and fat, 100 
production of, 101 

Natal grass, 214 
Net energy, see Energy, net 
Net nutrients, see Nutrients, net 
New corn product, 19S 
Nitrogen, in feeds, as a fertilizer, 273 
in fresh excrement, 278 
produced yearly by farm animals, 

279 
voided by farm animals, 278 
Xitrogen-free extract in feeds, how deter- 
mined, 10 
Nitrogenous compounds in plants, 5 
Nitrogenous feed, 41 
Nitrogenous waste in urine, 47, 59, 100 
Nutrients, defined, 17 
Nutrients, 17 

digestible, 17, 39 
distribution of absorbed, 33 
final uses of, 34 
in feeding stuffs, explained, 8 
required by dairy cows, 106, 398-405 
horses, 285-92 
pigs, 572-3 
sheep, 107, 561-2 
steers, 493-4 
total digestible, 41 



TNDKX 



685 



Xui i-iii\ e rat io, 41 

for work horses, 200 

how calculated and expressed, 41 

may be wide for maintenance, 61 

narrow and wide, 41 

narrow favors rapid growth, 91 

wide may depress digestibility, 51-2 

Oat dust, 161 
I tal feed, 161 
r>ai hay, - 

Oa1 hulls. 160 

Oal meal Cor calves. 1 14, 423 

Oat middlings, 161 

thlls. I.V.I 

bleached, 160 
by-products of, 160 
clipped, 159 
for calves, 419 

cows, 359 
foals, 323 
horses, 299-300 
pigs, 591 
sheep, 528 
steers, 455 
no stimulating principle in, 160 
weight, of, 159 
see Cereals 
Oat straw, 216 

for horses, 312 
sheep, 536 
steers, 478 
Oat substitutes for horses, 300 
Odors in milk, due to feed, 355 
Oil cake, see Linseed meal or cake 
Oils, see Fats 
Olein, 5, 585 

Oleomargarine for calves, 414 
Omasum, 18 

Order and quiet, importance of, for cows, 406 

sheep, 548 
steers, 500 
Orchard grass, 208 
Ox, body temperature of, 55 
composition of body, 15 
increase by, in 1 day, 43 
see Steer 
Oxygen, breathed by ox in 1 day, 42 
Oxygen intake increased during work, 101 

Palatability, 30, 113 
Palmitin, 5 
Palm nut cake, 367 
Pancreas, 23 
Pancreatic juice, 23 
Para grass, 213 
Parsnips, 243 

for horses, 31 • 
Pasturage vs. soilage for cows, 265 
Pasture, abuse of. 214 

annual, for sheep, 545 
effects of feeding concentrates to 
cows on, 401-3 
on milk yield and composi- 
tion, 352 
fattening cattle on, 501-4 
for beef cattle, 501-4 
horses, 316 
pigs, 608-15 
sheep, 544—7 
gains by steers from, 501-4 
midsummer shortage of. 214 
milk from 1 acre, 265 
Paunch, 18, 22 

see Stomach 
Pea-cannery refuse, 235. 258 
Pea meal, see Pea, field 
Peanut, 178, 238 
Peanut cake or meal. 178 
Peanut hulls, 179 
Peanuts for pigs, 607. 620 
Peanut vine haw 238 
Pea, field. 179, 235 
for horses, 305 

sheep, 532. 535 
pigs, 605. 612 



hay, 235 

for sheep, 535 
Pea, Tangier, 238 
Peavine silage, 235 

fattening sheep on, 543 
Peavine waste, from canneries, 235 
Pentosans, 3-4 

a source of body fat, 87 

muscular energy, 102 
in dried brewers' grains, 162 
in flax seed, 175 
Pentose, 3-4 
Pepsin, 20, 21 
Peptones, 20, 26 

Phosphate, calcium, for farm animals, 66, 94 
Phosphate, ground rock, for farm animals, 66 
foals, 326 
pigs, 81-2 
Phosphoric acid in feeds as a fertilizer, 273, 
275 
in fresh manure, 277 
produced yearly by farm 

animals, 279 
voided and retained by farm 
animals, 273 
Phosphorus, effect of low supply, 64, 81 

feeds low in, and rich in, 64-5, 

Appendix Table VI 
in bran, 157 
in nerve cells, 63 
inorganic, for pigs, SI 
required for maintenance, 64 

growth, 81 
stored by calf, 76 
withholding from pigs, 81 
Pigeon-grass seed for lambs, 528 

pigs, 595 
Pigs, 568-632 

(For value of various feeds for pigs see 
different feeds; i.e., Corn, Clover hay, 
etc.) 
air breathed by, 67 

bacon production, requirements for, 584 
barrows vs. sows, 583 
birth weight of, 628 
body of, composition, 15 
body temperature of, 55 
bone for, ground, 573 
breed tests, 582 

calves and lambs compared, 425 
composition of increase during fatten- 
ing, 83 
concentrates for, 587-60S 
cooking feed for, 269, 576 
correctives of mineral nature for, 579 
digestibility of food by, 52 
dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 

584 
droppings of corn-fed steers for, 434, 

452, 495 
economy of meat production bv. 90, 
568-70 

compared with lambs, 557 
exercise for, 581 
fattening, 630 
fattening period, effect of lengthening, 

568-70, 630 
feed eaten daily, 568-9 

eaten for 100 lbs. of gain, 568-9 
utilization of, by, 571 
feeds for, 587-623 
feeding corn exclusively, 92-5 
grain on pasture, 609 
inorganic phosphorus to, 81-2 
thru the dam, 56S-70 
following steers, 495 
forage crops, for 608-21 
gains from birth to maturity, 56S-70 

droppings of steers, 434, 495 
grain, amount to feed on pasture, 609 
grinding grain for, 268, 573-6 
ground bone for, 573 
ground rock phosphate for, 81-2 
hogging down corn, 588 

ripe grain, 615 
home markets for pork products, 631 



686 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Pigs, continued 

influence of feed on body, 92-6 

length of fattening period 
on gains, 568-70, 630 
intestines, length of, 584 
light vs. heavy feeding, 577 
maintenance requirements of, 571 
milk only for, 73 
milk, rich and poor, for, 78 
mineral matter for, 81-2, 573, 579 
number in Utter, 627 
nutrient requirements of, 572 
phosphorus-poor rations, effect of. .si 
pork from, see Pork 
preparation of feed for, 573-7 
quarters for, 581 
razorback, 583 
returns from, compared with other farm 

animals, 90, 568 
rich and poor milk for, 78 
roughage for, 608-23 
salt required by, 579 
self feeders for, 578 
shelter for, 581 

soaking feed for, 51, 271, 576-7 
soft pork from, see Pork, soft 
sow, see Sows 
stock foods for, 5S0 
strength of bones affected by feed, 81-2, 

92-4 
stubble fields, gleaning, 616 
succulent feeds for, 608-21 
summer care and feed of, 624 
summer vs. winter feeding of, 581 
tuberculosis, from tuberculous steers, 
597 
thru feeding infected milk, 
182 
types of, 582 
tin weaned, gains by, 569 
water required by, 579 
weight at birth, 628 
wetting feed for, 577 
winter care and feed of, 625 
see Swine, and Sows 
Plants and animals compared, 16 
Plants, carbon dioxid, food material for, 1 
composition, at different stages of 
maturity, 49 
factors influencing, 48- 
50 
elements present in, 1 
food of, 1-2 
how they grow, 1—7 
poisonous, 250-3 
support animal life, 7 
the source of animal life, 7 
use of mineral matter in, 2 
water required by, 1 
Plant substances, how grouped, 8-10 
Poisonous plants, 250-3 
Pork, effects of acorns on, 18S 

barley on, 162, 586, 590 

beans on, 180, 585, 605 

buckwheat on, 171, 595 

corn on, 92-6, 585 

Unseed meal on, 604 

millet on, 170 

molasses on, 618 

oats on, 586 

peas on, 586, 605 

peanut feeding on, 178, 23S, 

586, 621 
roots on, 586 
rye shorts on, 593 
skim milk, on 586 
soybeans on, 586, 606 
squashes on, 620 
velvet beans on, 237 
Pork, soft, causes of, 585 
Potash, as a fertilizer in feeds, 273, 275, 
Appendix Table III 
in fresh manure, 278 
produced yearly by farm animals, 279 
voided by farm animals, 278 



Potassium chlorid, feeding in place of salt, 

67 
Potassium in blood, 63 
Potatoes, 243 
dried, 244 
for cows, 385 
horses, 318 
pigs, 619 
Poultry, returns of, compared with other 

farm animals, 90 
Prairie hay for cows, 378 
horses, 310 
sheep, 536 
steers, 467, 490 
Pregnant animals, food requirements of, 82 
Preparation of feeds, 267-71 
Preparing feed, general conclusions on, 271 
Prickly comfrey, 248 
Prickly pear, 249-50 
for silage, 258 
see Cacti 
Products, edible, returned by various farm 

animals, 90 
Profitable farming, ix-x 
Proprietary feeds, 189 
Protein, 5-7 

absorption of, 33 

amount in rations, adapting to local 

conditions, 146 
a cell stimulant, 61 

body, a source of muscular energy, 102 
building of body, 27 

compared with other nutrients for pro- 
ducing work, 102 
complete and incomplete, 79 
crude, 5 

digestibility of, 38 
how determined in feeds, 9 
in ripening clover, 231 
corn, 11-2 
timothy, 206 
in young and mature grass, 204 
digestion of, 26 

effects of carbohydrates in sparing, 56, 
59-61 
excessive feeding of, 60 
fats in sparing, 59-61 
feeding only, 60 
fat formed from, 87 

feeding carbohydrates and fats with, 60 
gain in, by growing ox, 76 
increase of, during growth, 75-6 
liberal supply essential to normal 

growth, 79 
minimum requirement, 60-2 
by cows, 61 
horses, 286 
steers, 61 
percentage stored in body during 

growth, 76 
replaced by amids, 62 
required for growth, 79 

maintenance, 59-62 
source of muscular energy, 102 
stored by calf, 76 
waste of, from body, 59 
Protein metabolism, 34, 59-62, 79-81 
Protein-rich rations, effect on fat in milk. 

350 
Protein supply must be ample, 61 
Protein tissue, storage of, 75-6 

waste of, during work, 100 
Proteoses, 20, 27 
Protoplasm, plant, 3, 5 
Prussic acid, plants carrying, 250 
Ptyalin, 20, 21 

Public tests of dairy cows, 391-3 
Pumpkins, 247 
for cows, 247 
pigs, 620 
Pumpkin seeds, 247 
Purslane, 248 

Quarters for farm animals, see Shelter 
Quiet, importance of, for farm animals, 74 



INDEX 



687 



Ram, feed and care of, 549 

see Sheep 
Rape, dwarf E.ssex, 240 
for cattle, 24(i 
pigs, 014 
sheep, 546-7 
Rapeseed cake, 308, 367 
Rations, 17 

balanced, 17 

limitations of, 115 
bulkiness of, importance of, 113 
calculating, for dairy cows, 131, 140-5 
fattening steers, 136-8 
steers at rest, 116-8, 
124-5 
complete and incomplete, 71 
compounding, for dairy cows, 410-11 
digestibility of, affected by acid, 52 

ago of an- 
imal, 53 
breed of an- 
imal, 53 
carbohy- 
drates, 51, 
291 
cooking, 51 
drying green 
forage, 50 
fat, 52 
kind of an- 
imal, 52 
salt, 52 
steaming, 51 
economical, for farm animals, 139-48, 

410 
fed cows on test, 393 
feeding wide and narrow to steers, 91 
for dairy cows, standards for computing, 

see Feeding standards 
for various farm animals, see Feeds 
general hints on computing, 112-5 
general requirements of, 112-6 
hints on calculating, 116 
influence of scanty, on growth, 90-8 
maintenance, 17, 54-74 
economical, 48, 58 
for mature animals, 54-74 

growing steers, 90—8 
for various farm animals. Appendix 
Tables IV and V, see also 
Horse, Pig, etc. 
heat requirements in, 58 
influence of quiet on, 58 

restlessness on, 58 
temperature on, 59 
protein required in, 60-2 
should vary according to body sur- 
face, 59 
see Maintenance ration 
meager, effect of, on growing steers, 90-8 
poor, fair, and good, for dairy cows, 410 
practical considerations concerning, 

112-6 
practical, for steers, 494 
standard, see Feeding standards 
Rations and feeding standards, general con- 
clusions, 115 
Red clover, see Clover, red 
Red dog flour, 158 

for pigs, 003 
Red top grass, 208 
Regularity, importance of, for farm animals, 

74 
Rennet, 21 
Rennin, 21 
Rescue grass, 213 

Respiration apparatus, description, 41 
Respiration studies with ox, 41 
Reticulum, 18 
Rice, 106 

damaged, value, 167 
red, feeding value, 167 
returns from sack of, 160 
rough, for horses, 305 
Rice bran, 166 



Rice by-products and rough rice for steers, 

457 
Rice by-products for pigs, 607 
Rice hulls, dangerous to animals, 166 
Rico meal for calves, 415 
Rice polish, feeding value, 167 
Rice straw, 217 

Roads, draft required on various, 283 
Rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock 
Roots and silage, dry matter in, 241 
relative cost of, 242 
yield of, 241 
Roots and tubers, 240-5 
costly, 241, 242 
for cows, 383-5 
horses, 317 
pigs, 617-9 
sheep, 241, 538-40 
steers, 481, 482-3 
how fed in Canada and Great Britain,' 

241 
influence of feeding on bacon, 580 
use in steer feeding in Great Britain, 241 

stock feeding, 240 
vs. concentrates for dairy cows, 240, 383 
vs. corn silage, 241, 384 
for lambs, 539 
steers, 481 
value of dry matter in, 240 
yield of, and dry matter in, 241, 242 
Roughages, 10 

adapting proportion of roughages and 
concentrates to local conditions, 
140 
carbonaceous, need supplement, 313 
digestibility of, affected by carbohy- 
drates, 51 
affected by nitrogenous matter, 52 
effect of storage on digestibility of, 50 
excess injurious to horses, 292, 309 
for various farm animals, see Feeds 
losses of energy in digestion of, 48 
necessity of, for calves, 72 
cows, 72 
herbivora, 71-2 
horses, 73 
sheep, 72 
steers, 72 
swine, 630 
steaming for cattle, 269 
Rumen, 18 
Ruminants, 18 

digestibility of food by, 52 
digestion of, 21 
Russian thistle, 249 
Rutabagas, 243 

for horses, 317 
lambs, 539 
steers, 483 
Rye, 164 

effect on dairy products, 104, 300 
for cows, 300 
hay, 210 
horses, 303 
pasture, 209-10 
pigs, 593 
silage, 210, 383 
see Cereals 
Rye grass, English, 211 
Italian, 211 
Rye pasture injures flavor of milk, 210 
Rye straw, 216 

Sagebrush, 248 

Saliva, action on food, 20 

amount secreted, 19 
Salt, common, 66 

effect of excessive consumption of, 66 

on digestibility, 52 
for calves, 417 
cows, 405 
horses, 295 
pigs, 579 
sheep, 517 
steers, 496 



688 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Salt, continued 
in blood, 63 

influence on digestibility, 52 
need of, by farm animals, 66 
withholding, from cows, 67 
Saltbush, 249 

Salt-marsh hay for cows, 214, 379 
Saltpeter in corn forage, 253 
Scandinavian feed unit system, 126 
Scarlet clover, see Crimson clover 
Scours in calves, 426 
Screenings, see Wheat screenings 
Self feeders for pigs, 57S 
sheep, 515 
steers, 44/ 
Separator skim milk, see Skim milk 
Serradella, 238 
Serum albumin, 33 
Serum globulin, 33 
Sesame oil cake, 308 
Shallu, 168 

Shallu fodder and stover, 202 
Shearing, effect of frequent, 520 
Sheep, 507-67 

(For the value of different feeds for 
sheep, see the various feeds; i.e., corn, 
clover hay, etc.) 
age, influence of, on gains, 512 
air required by, 67 
body temperature of, 55 
breeding studies of, 554 
breed tests of, 509-10 
care and management of, 548—67 
composition of body, 15 
concentrates for, 521-33 
cost of gains by, 561 
daily gain of, 517, 561 
danger from feeding mangels, 242, 538 
dipping, 561 

dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 518 
exercise for, 514 
fattening, 560-4 

different ages, 512 
in Great Britain, 538 
in small bands, 564 
in the corn belt, 564 
in the East, 564 
in the fall, 562 
in the West, 563 
length of feeding period, 561 
proportion of concentrates for, 561 
rations for, 521-47, 561 
feeding, hints on, 560-4 
feed racks for, 515 
feeds for, 521-47 
flock, proper size of, 50S 
general problems in sheep husbandry, 

507-20 
gestation period, 548 
grinding grain for, 268, 515 
increase during fattening, 83 
legume hay for, importance of, 533-5 
mutton and Merino, compared, 508 
regularity and quiet for, 548 
returns compared with other farm 

animals, 90 
roughages for, 533-7 
salt consumed by, 517 
self feeders for, 515 
shearing before fattening, 511 
shelter for, 513 
shrinkage in shipping, 51!) 
slaughter tests, 518 
soilage for ewes and lambs, 511 
stomach worms, 559 
succulent feeds for, 538-47 
I Liming to pasture, 558 
unusual feeds for, 507 
water required by, 516 
weight of dressed carcass, 51S 

fattened, 517-8 
winter care of, 550 
winter quarters for, 513, 550 
wool production, sec Wool 
sec Ewes and Lambs 



Shelter, for cows, 405 

farm animals, 59 
horses, 296 
pigs, 581 
sheep, 513, 550 
steers,, 445-7 
Shipstuff, see Wheat feed 
Shock corn, for steers, 471 

value in feeding, 196 
see Corn fodder 
Shocking corn, 196 
Shorts, see Middlings, wheat 
Shotes, care and feed of, 630 

see Pigs 
Shredding corn forage, 197 

see Corn forage 
Shrinkage in shipping sheep, 519 
steers, 498 
Silage, 254-64 

advantages of, 257 
alfalfa, 228, 258 
apple pomace, 258 
as a feeding stuff, 259 
beet leaves for, 243, 258 
clover, 232, 258 
Silage, corn, 198-201, 257 
for beef cows, 484-5 

dairy cows, 200, 379-82 
ewes, 551-3 
horses, 317 
pigs, 621 
sheep, 539-43 
steers, 474-80 
removing ears from corn before ensiling, 

201 
vs. apples, 247 
vs. corn fodder, 199, 3S0 
vs. hay for cows, 381 
vs. roots, 240 

for cows, 384 
lambs, 539 
steers, 481 
vs. shock corn for steers, 480 
vs. sugar beets for cows, 384 
Silage, cost of producing, 258 
cowpea, 236, 258 

for dairy cows, 374 
crops suitable for, 257 
cured corn forage for, 200 
digestibility of, 51 
effects on milk, 3S0 
for beef cattle, 474-82 
frosted corn for, 200 
losses in silo, 255 
mixed, for cows, 382 
mouldy, dangerous, 317 
peavine, 235 

preservation, manner of, 254 
position of, on stock farm, 259 
prickly pear, 25S 
size of, proper, 263 
sorghums for, 203 

southern vs. northern corn for, 199 
space occupied by, 257, 264 
steaming, 255 
summer, 260 

for cows, 403 
thistles for, 258 
vs. soilage for cows, 260, 385 
waste in airtight silo, 256 
weight of, 262 
Silage and roots, dry matter in, 241 

relative cost of, 240, 242 
Silo, 255-7 

capacity of, 262 
cylindrical, 256 

danger from carbon dioxid in filling, 262 
economy of various sizes, 256, 264 
filling, 261 
proper size of, 263 
rate of filling, 259 
requisites of a good, 255 
types of, 256 
Skim milk, 181 

for cows, 360 



JXDEX 



089 



Skim milk, conlx 
for colts, 

calves, 1 12-5, I i v - -9 
horses, ^_- 

pigs, 596-9 
momy value, for pigs. 598 
urized for calves, ! 19 
proper proportion for pig feeding, 598 
substitutes for, in calf rearing, 421 i 
Man. heat carried oir by water escaping 
from. 57 
lost from, by radiation and con- 
duction, 57 
Slaughter-house waste, 183-4 
Slop, amount of water in, for swine. 577 

feeding grain in form of, to cows, 405 
Smut, corn, 252 
Soaked feed, 271 
for horses, 294 

pigs, 51, 271, 576-7 
s "ll pork, see Pork, soft 
Soilage, 204-7 

advantages of partial, 266 

alfalfa for, 227 

cereals for, 209 

clover for, 232 

crops for, 200 

defined, 204 

disadvantages of, 200, 204 
for cows, 385 
pigs, 010 
sheep, 511 
labor involved in, 204 
sorghums for. 203 
vs. pasturage, 265 
vs. silage, 200, 385 
Soiling chart, 260 
Sorgho, see Sorghum, sweet 
hum, sweet, 107, 170 
for cows, 300 
pigs. 593 
Sorghum fodder or hay, sweet, 201-2 
for horses, 311 
sheep, 530 
steers, 407. 490, 491 
Sorghum hay, see Sorghum fodder 
Sorghum pasture, 203 

for pigs, 010 
Sorghum silage, sweet, 203 
for cows, 382 
sheep, 543 
steers, 480-1 
Sorghum soilage, 203 
Sorghum stover, sweet, 202 

for steers, 472 
Sorghums, grain, see Kafir, Milo, Feterita 

Kaoliang, Durra, Shall u 
Southern grasses, 211-4 
s..w and litter, care of, 62S 
Sows, age to breed, 626 

care at farrowing, 627 
composition of milk, 629 
feeding exclusively on skim milk, 73 
gestation period, 626 
maintenance requirements, 572 
milk, yield of. 628-9 
number of litters, 626 
spayed vs. unspayed, 5S3 
vs. barrows, 583 
wintering, 025 
see Pigs 
Soybean, 177, 236 
for calves, 415 
cows, 360 
horses, 305 
pigs, 605 
sheep, 532 

steers, 463-4 
Soj bean cake for cows, 367 
Soybean hay, 236 

for cows, 375 
Soybean meal or cake, 177 17S 

for cows, 307 
Soybean pasture and corn for pigs 612 
Soybean silage for cows. 370, 3S2 



Soybean straw for sheep, 535 
spayed vs. unspayed sows, 583 
Spaying, effects of, on cows, 353 
j Speed in relation to feed, 288 
„ , work, 288, 292 

Spelt, see Emmer 
, Spread or margin in selling steers, 431 
Spurrey, 248 
Squashes. 247 

for pigs, 620 
Stables for beef cattle, 445 
dairy cattle, 405 
horses, 296 
pigs, 581 
sheep, 513 
Stallions, feed and care of, 329-30 

exercise for. 329 
St. Louis Exposition, tests of dairy cows at. 

Standard rations, see Feeding standards 
Starch, 4 

absent in flax seed, 175 

action of saliva on, 20 

digested by ptyalin, 20 

in corn kernel, 152 

production of, from corn, 153 

saccharified, for calves, 410 
Starch values, Kellner's, 119 
Starvation, effects of, 56, 97-9 
Steam engine .and animal compared, 44, 45, 

Steaming roughage for cattle, 209 

silage, 255 
Steapsin, 23 
Stearin, 5 
Steer.feeding, counsel in feed lot, 493-506 

importance of order and quiet 

in, 500 
requires business judgment, 499 
see Steers 
Steers, 430-506 

(For the value of the different feeds for 
steers, see the various feeds; i.e corn 
corn silage, etc.) 
age, influence of on gains, 76, 432-0 
breeds compared, 439-45 
calcium phosphate beneficial to, 66 
calculating rations for, 116-8,124-5 136-S 
compared with heifers for beef, 448 
composition of, at different ages, 123 
composition of increase during fattening, 

83—5 
concentrates for, 449-66 
confinement vs. open shed for, 445-7 
cost of fattening, 497 

increases with age, 76, 432-6 
increases with degree of finish, 436 
counsel in the feed lot, 493-506 
dressed carcass, per cent yielded by 

440, 442 
early maturity of beef breeds, 442 
effects of feeding wide and narrow- 
rations, 91 
fat of, effects of cotton seed on, 174 
fattened animal, indications of, 493 
fattening, methods of, 501-6 
on pasture, 501-4 
on roughage alone, 470 
on small allowance of concen- 
trates, 478-9 
ration for, 494 

requires business judgment, 
499 
feed consumed by various breeds, 440 
from birth to maturity, 
432 
feeds for, 449-83 

feeding exclusively on concentrates, 72 
chiefly on roughage during first 
of fattening, 43S, 478 
finished, cost of, 432 
frequency of feeding, 496 
gains on grass, 501-5 

from droppings, by hogs, 495 
influenced by age, 76, 432-6 



690 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Steers, continued 

getting on feed, 494 

grain feeding on pasture, 502-4 

grazing on cowpeas and corn, 471 

grinding grain for, 268, 451—3 

growth under adverse conditions, 96-9 

heavy and light feeding of corn, 451 

increase during fattening, S3-5 

long vs. short feeding, 437 

loose vs. tied, 447 

manure voided from birth to maturity, 

432 
margin required in fattening. 431 
market grades compared, 439-44 
order, importance of, for, 500 
pasture for fattening, 501-4 

vs. summer feeding, 502 
paved feed lots for, 448 
pigs following, 495 
preparation of feed for, 268, 451-3 
preparing for shipment, 498 
profitable type of, 444 
proportion of valuable parts in carcass, 

443 
pure-bred, amount of feed consumed by, 
440 
early maturity of, 442 
feed consumed by for given 
gain, 440 
quality, value of, 443 
quarters for, 445-7 
quiet, importance of, for, 500 
rations fed by British feeders, 482 
rations for fattening, 449-83, 493-4 
returns from, compared with dairy cow, 

338-40 
other farm 
animals, 
90 
roughage, feeding none to, 72 
roughages, for, 466-83 
salt for, 496 
self feeder for, 447 
shelter for, 445-7 
shipment, preparing for, 498 
short vs. long feeding, 437 
shrinkage in shipping, 498 
soaking corn for, 451-2 
succulent feeds for, 474-83 
summer vs. winter feeding, 502 
tied vs. loose, 447 
valuable parts in carcasses of various 

breeds, 443 
vs. heifers for beef production, 448 
water drunk from birth to maturity, 432 

required by, 496 
weight of fat, at Smithfleld Show, 444 

variations in, 497 
wide and narrow ration for, 91 
wintering growing, 489-91 
with grain, 491-2 
without grain, 491 
Steers and pigs, gain of, in feed lot, 434 
Stock, cooked feed for, 269 

preparing feed for, 267-71 
Stock foods, 191 
for pigs, 580 
formulae for, 192 
Stomach, capacity of, 18 

digestion in, 20-2 
simple, 20 
Stomachs of ruminants, 18, 21 
Stomach worms in sheep, 559 
Stooking corn, see Shocking corn 
Stover, see Corn stover 
Straw, 216-7 

for horses, 312 
sheep, 536 
steers, 472, 478, 492 
from cereals, 216 

legumes and other plants, 216 
Succulent feed, value of, 73 
for cows, 403 
horses, 310 
pigs. 60S 



Succulent feed, continued 
for sheep, 538 
steers, 474 
Sucrase, 24 
Sudan grass, 212 
Sudan grass hay for steers, 472 
Sugar beet pulp, see Beet pulp 
Sugar beets, 243 
for cows, 384 
pigs, 618 
sheep, 53S 
steers, 481 
vs. corn silage for cows, 384 
Sugar cane, 213 
Suint in wool, 107 
Summer silage, 260 
Sunflower seed, 179 
Sunflower seed cake, 179, 308, 367 
Sun, the source of life, 7, 35 
Swedes, see Rutabagas 
Swedish clover, see Clover, alsike 
Sweet clover, see Clover, sweet 
Sweet potato, 244 
Sweet potatoes for pigs, 620 

steers, 482 
Swine, management and feed of, 624-32 

see Pigs 
Systems of feeding, adapting to local con- 
ditions, 146-8 

Tallow, fed to cows, 350 

rough, yielded by steers of various 
breeds, 443 
Tankage, 183 

for horses, 309 
pigs 95, 600-2 
sheep, 533 
see Flesh waste 
Teeth, care of, in horses, 297 
Temperature, body, of farm animals, 55 

effects of too high, in stable, 

59, 296 
see Heat 
Teosinte, 209 
Testing association, for dairy cows, 128, 

387-8 
Therm, 44 
Thistles, Russian, 249 

silage from, 258 
Timothy, 205-8 

effect of manuring on, 206 
yield at different stages, 206 
Timothy hay, 205-8 

early and late cut, 206 
for cows, 378 
horses, 309 
sheep, 535 
steers, 468, 491 
vs. upland prairie hay for cows, 378 
Tissue building, 27, 34 
Tree leaves and twigs, 248 
Trotter, feed for the, 335 
Trypsin, 23, 27 

Tuberculosis, pigs infected thru following 
steers, 597 
spread by feeding infected 
milk, 182 
Tubers, see Roots and tubers 
Tunis grass, 212 
Turnips, 243 
Twigs, see Tree twigs 

Urea, 34 

energy in, 45, 47 
Urine, 34 

fertilizing constituents voided in, 279 

heat carried off by, 47 

nitrogenous waste in, by ox in 1 day, 43 

voided by farm animals, 278 

waste of nitrogen in, 47 

Variety of feeds, importance of, 114 
Veal, feeding for, 488 

Dutch, 488 

Scotch, 489 



INDEX 



691 



Velvet bean, 2.57 
for cows, 368 
pigs, 237 
steers, 238, 46G 
Velvet bean pasture for pigs, 613 
Ventilation, air required by farm animals, 67 

see Air 
Vetch, hairy, 2 (6 

common, 23G 
Vetch hay for cows, 370 
Villi, 32 

\\ aste land and waste focd utilized by live 

slock, viii 
Waste of body, disposal of, 34 
Water, amount required by animals, 6S 
calves, 417 
cows, 68, 404 
horses, 68, 295 
lambs, 516 
pigs, 68, 579 
sheep, 68, 516 
steers, 496 
danger from drinking when overheat- 
ed, 295 
drunk by steers from birth to matur- 
ity, 432 
effects of depriving animals of, 68 
evaporated by horses, 292 
evaporation of, carries heat from 

body, 69 
formed from breaking down food, 69 
free drinking does not cause body 

waste, 69 
frequency of drinking, 69, 404 
influence on digestibility of feeds, 51 
in feeds,' how determined, 8 
in plants, 1 

must be warmed in body, 69 
stored in body of ox in 1 day, 43 
taken by ox in 1 day, 42-3 
vapor of lungs, heat carried off by, 57 
warming for cows, 69, 404 

farm animals, 69 
Watering, time for horses, 294 
Weaning colts, 325 
calves, 419 
lambs, 559 
pigs, 630 
Weeds, silage from, 258 
Weight, body, variations in, of horse, 292 

steer, 497 
Wet beet pulp, see Beet pulp, wet 
Wet ftrewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, wet 
Wetting feed, for cows, 355 

pigs, 577 
Wethers, see Sheep and Lambs 
Wheat, 155 

■by-products of, 156-9 
for cows, 359 
hay, 210 
horses, 303 
pigs, 590 
sheep, 526 
steers, 454 
frosted, for lambs, 527 
stock, 156 
low grade, for steers, 455 
shrunken and damaged, for stock, 156 
see Cereals 
Wheat bran, 157 

cause of laxative effect, 157 
for calves, 414 
colts, 326 

cows, 361, 365, 371-4 
horses, 305, 333 
lambs, 558 



Wheat bran, continued 
for pigs 604 

sheep 532, 551 
stallions, 294, 329 
steers, 465 
trotting horses, 336 
phosphorus in, 157 
poor in lime, 157 
uses for stock, 158 
Wheat bread, feeding to animals, 157 
Wheat feed, 159 

for cows, 362 
Wheat grass, 211 
Wheat middlings, 158 
for cows, 362 
horses, 306 
pigs, 602-3 
Wheat pasture favorably affects milk, 210 
Wheat screenings, 159 

for sheep, 527 
Wheat shorts, see Wheat middlings 
Wheat straw, 1 216 
Whey, 182 

for calves, 422 
cows, 361 
pigs, 600 
Whole milk, see Milk, cow's 
Wild grass, 214 

see Prairie hay 
Wild hogs set Pigs, razorback 
Winter lambs 564-6 
AVintering bee cows, 484—6 

growing cattle, 489-92 
horses, 332 
Wolff- Lehmann feeding standards, 110-2, 

116-8, Appendix Table IV 
Wood ashes for farm animals, 66 
Woll-Humphrey standard, 131 
Wool, composition of, 107 

influenced by shearing, 520 

feed, 107 
production, 107, 520 
Work, 100-4 

carbon dioxid produced during, 101 
effect on digestibility of feeds, 51, 284 
on milk production, 353 
of practice on, 103 
energy requirements for, 103 
factors influencing efficiency of, 103 
heat produced thru, 104 
internal, produces heat, 45, 47, 104 
measurement of, 2S2 
ne' nutrients needed by horses for, 287 
nutritive ratio for, 290 
of the horse, 282 

miscellaneous factors influencing, 
297 
performed by the horse, 282 
possible from 1 lb. of feed, 284 
protein waste during, 100 
relation of speed to, 288 
relative value of nutrients for producing, 

102 
requirements by horse for light, medium, 

and heavy, 292 
severe, by the horse, 292 
source of energy for, 102 
types of, performed by the horse, 287 
value of feeds for, 284 
see Energy 
Work animals, nutrient requirements of, 
100-4, 290-2 
see Horses 
Work horse, see Horses 
Worms in pigs, 631 

Yolk in wool, 107 



